The Fool as a Social Type

Author(s): Orrin E. Klapp

Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Sep., 1949), pp. 157-162
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2770893
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 THE FOOL AS A SOCIAL TYPE

ORRIN E. KLAPP

ABSTRACT
The fool is a social type having certain definable roles and a special status and function in group life.
Fools represent departures from group norms of propriety which are subject to the sanction of ridicule.
Fool-making is a continuous social process and operates to enforce propriety and to adjust status.

Among the collective labels which have Our problem here is to define the fool as a
an unusual power of assigning status is the social type. What is the role of the fool,
epithet of "the fool." The fool represents a what situations make fools, and what are the
collective concept of a kind of person or con- status and function of the fool in social or-
duct peculiarly ridiculous and inferior. De- ganization? As a social type2 the fool has
spite his low status, however, the fool is a certain definable characteristics, as to both
symbol of fundamental importance, repre-personal traits and roles. The creation of a
senting a role especially valued by the fool is accomplished by ascribing character-
group. The fool is a social type found widely istics of the fool to a person through situa-
in folklore, literature, and drama. The role tions which "make a fool" of somebody or
of the fool is institutionalized in comedy and popular definitions which impute the char-
in the professions of the clown and jester.' acter of a fool, that is, jokes and epithets.
Everyone plays the fool at some time; fool- For purposes of investigation a fool is de-
making is a continual social process; it is fined here as a person, real or imaginary,
safe to say that every group must have a who is generally ridiculed and who occupies
fool. Moreover, there is a tendency to dram-a distinctive status because of this.
atize social forces as a conflict of heroes and
TYPES OF FOOLS
villains. In this human drama the fool also
plays a part. Whereas the hero represents The fool is distinguished from the normal
the victory of good over evil, the fool repre- group member by a deviation in person or
sents values which are rejected by the group: conduct which is regarded as ludicrous and
causes that are lost, incompetence, failure, improper. He is usually defined as a person
and fiasco. So that, in a sense, fool-making lacking in judgment, who behaves absurdly
might be called a process of history. Public or stupidly. The antics of the fool, his ugli-
figures who become classified as fools lose ness, gracelessness, senselessness, or possible
their chance oL leadership. The label of "the deformity of body represent departures from
fool" is, therefore, a propaganda device of corresponding group norms of propriety.
special significance. The fool is the antithesis of decorum, beau-
ty, grace, intelligence, strength, and other
,,See Stith Thompson, Motif-Index of Folk-
Literature (Helsinki: Suomaleinen Tiedeakatemia, virtues embodied in heroes; and, therefore,
Academia Scientiarum Fennica, I932-36), IV, as a type is antiheroic. The deviation of the
I49-249; and 0. M. Busby, Development of the Fool fool from the normal has three character-
in the Elizabethan Drama (London: Oxford Univer- istics: It is an extreme exaggeration or de-
sity Press, I923). For a survey of the historical and
institutional roles of the fool see Enid Welsford, 2 For discussion of the concept and method of
The Fool, His Social and Literary History (Lon- the social type, see Samuel M. Strong, "Social
don: Faber & Faber, Ltd., I935); and Barbara Types in a Minority Group: Formulation of a
Swain, Fools and Folly during the Middle Ages and Method," American Journal of Sociology, XLVIII,
the Renaissance (New York: Columbia University (1923), 563-73; and "Negro-White Relations as
Press, I932). Reflected in Social Types," ibid., LII (I946), 23-30.

I57

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 I58 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

ficiency; it is an evidence of weakness or ir- ciety in the roles of the daredevil, the flag-
responsibility; and it is an offense against pole-sitter, the stunt flyer, and the youth
propriety rather than against mores. With with the "hot-rod" racer. He is found also in
regard to the first of these, as the following the prodigal or wastrel,3 the person given to
examples will show, the role of the fool in- ruinous extremes in life or business. Finally,
volves a striking exhibition of some incon- the rash fool is seen in the leader who gets
gruity or shortcoming. With respect to the "too far ahead of his time."
second, the role of the fool inherently in- Other fool types depart from group norms
volves failure, weakness, or comic frustra- through a deficiency in person or conduct.
tion. Because of his ineffectuality, the fool is The clumsy fool shows a lack of grace or
regarded as incompetent and irresponsible. proficiency in situations requiring expert-
Despite his shortcomings, therefore, he is ness and decorum, e.g., one who slips or falls
distinguished from the villain by the fact into an awkward posture on a public occa-
that his pranks involve no evil intent or aresion. The person who hobbles, limps, or is
too stupid to be taken seriously. The fool isphysically awkward more easily acquires
thus tolerated and is regarded with amuse- this role. The deformed fool deviates in ap-
ment rather than being punished. The types pearance from group norms of beauty, stat-
of fools described below are distinguished byure, posture, health, etc. He may be ugly,
the particular way in which they depart dwarfed, crippled, gigantic, animal-like, or
from group norms, whether by an excess or subhuman in appearance. Deformity has.
by a deficiency in respect to some virtue: the symbolic capacity to suggest various in-
(i) the antic fool, (2) the comic rogue, (3) appropriate roles of the fool. Artificial dis-
the rash fool, (4) the clumsy fool, (5) thetortions through make-up are used to sug-
deformed fool, (6) the simple fool, (7) the gest the deformities of the fool, as, for in-
weak fool, (8) the comic butt, (9) the pom- stance, the large feet and bulbous nose of
pous fool, and (io) the mock hero. the clown. Any person who departs mark-
The first three types deviate through ex- edly from group norms of appearance is
cesses of conduct. The antic fool departs easily cast in the role of the fool. On the
from decorum through impulsive or playful other hand, a demonstration of deficiency of
behavior, e.g., pranks, leaps, undignified intelligence or wit places a person in the
postures, grimaces, mimicry, and other category of the simple fool. He is classed as
capers. He is the "cutup" or "life of the naive, senseless, backward, or rustic. Among
party." In the theatrical profession some of the roles which create the simple fool are
the epithets given to this role are "clown- ludicrous failure, comic frustration,4 unin-
ing" or "mugging." The comic rogue, or telligible behavior or utterances, and the
''scamp," is different from the antic foolquality
in of being easily taken advantage of.
that his conduct departs from propriety Another type of deficiency is found in the
weak fool, the person lacking in aggressive-
specifically in the direction of forbidden be-
havior: "mischief" or criminality, e.g., im- ness, strength, or courage, e.g., the "sissy."
pudent gestures, liberties, obscenities, or Oversubmissive and overprotected personal-
preposterous, burlesque villainies. His in- ity types are caught in this appellation. So
also is the person whose moral code, dress,
effectualness, lack of serious intent, or other
weakness, however, prevents the group from background, etc., render him "too nice" for
taking him seriously. The rash fool, on the 3 See David Malcomson, Ten Heroes (New York:
other hand, is characterized by immoderate Duell, Sloan & Pearce, I941), pp. II5-40.
extremes or lack of judgment in directions 4 E.g., American Indian folk fools dive for
ordinarily approved by the group. His en- reflected food, shoot at enemy's reflection in water,
eat medicines which physic them, etc.; see Stith
thusiasm, however, is "recklessness"; his
Thompson, Tales of North American Indians (Cam-
daring is "foolhardiness"; his bravery is bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I929),
"bravado." The rash fool is found in our so- pp. 364-65.

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 THE FOOL AS A SOCIAL TYPE I59

the world of practical affairs. The weak or making. Popular humor, derision, and be-
oversubmissive fool, when his conduct be- littlement are constantly assigning this role.
comes of serious consequence to the group, is Consequently, because fool-ascription is a
called a coward, a type marginal to the vil- status descent, social relations are con-
lain or traitor. tinually rendered unstable by fool-making.
The role of the comic butt is played par- These processes and situations are of inter-
ticularly by deformed, weak, and simple est to those desirous of stabilizing or con-
fools. This may be defined as the regular trolling political structure, e.g., through
recipience of group derision and abuse. The leadership or propaganda.
butt is persecuted because his appearance Fool-making situations are presented in
constantly draws derision or because he is the various institutions of comedy. These
too stupid, submissive, or cowardly to fight may be defined as those conditions which
back. In appearnace he may be bedraggled, render it most likely that a person will act or
drooping, forlorn, in patches, or he may pre- appear as a fool. The profession of the
sent a picture of battered dignity, e.g., the clown embodies the perfected art of making
comedy type of the hobo. As in the case of a fool of one's self or others for public enter-
the comic-strip character, "Sad Sack," tainment. To become a fool, one's appearance
"everything happens to him." Despite his or conduct must be distorted from expecta-
misfortunes, the comic butt is apparently in- tion in the direction of types such as those de-
destructible. He survives blows, falls, and scribed above. Among the important fool-
insults; and the onlookers laugh rather than making situations maybe itemized thefollow-
pity. ing: (i) involuntaryordeliberate distortion of
Two fool roles are distinguished which in- appearance or dress from group norms, e.g.,
volve pose or pretense to status. The great by a mustache or monocle; (2) antic or in-
or pompous fool deviates from group stand- decorous behavior in situations requiring
ards through an excess of pride or presump- proficiency and decorum, e.g., horseplay or a
tion and a lack of competence. Persons of badly timed joke by a political candidate.
rank, age, or great size are particularly vul- Socrates was made a fool in Aristophanes'
nerable to this role. They are deflated or play, "The Clouds," by being lowered in a
"shown up" by revelation of pretense, de- basket. The fool is also made by (3) absurd
feat by a lesser rival, or a mistake, and thus failures revealing weakness or frustration; (4)
made fools. Another pretender fool is found defeats by lesser rivals, e.g., being "shown
in the mock hero, a device commonly used up" in public debate; (5) unflattering com-
in satirical literature. A mock hero is made parisons with inferior persons, particularly
by casting an ineffective person in the role with fools; (6) situations in which one is
or pose of the hero, e.g., by epithets applied forced to make a bluff or to play an unfamil-
to an ordinary person, such as "Crusader," iar role, as, for instance, the youth who is
"Sir Galahad," "Superman." Various de- trying to smoke like a man, the nouveau riche
vices reveal that the supposed hero is really and his faux pas in "high society"; (7) lack
a fool: he performs the gestures of the hero, of timing or insight, which causes one to
but his weaknesses are apparent through his play an inappropriate role, e.g., the "hero"
armor. who rushes on the stage too soon or too late;
and (8) being made the butt of a joke which
FOOL-MAKING SITUATIONS AND PROCESSES
imputes any of the various roles of the fool.
As has been stated, certain collective Because fool-making is a collective impu-
processes and situations make fools. Fool- tation, it is not necessary, however, that a
making situations are so constantly pre-
5 "All people are exposed to situations in which
sented to the average person that he may be
they must act as fools" (Kenneth Burke, Attitudes
unable to avoid occasionally falling into toward History [New York: New Republic, I9371,
the role.5 Life is a continual process of fool- I, 52).

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 i6o THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

person actually have the traits or perform this role by actions or stories which allowed
the role of the fool. A person is a fool when them to be redefined in terms of more fa-
he is socially defined as a fool. All persons invored social types. In general, however, it
public positions are exposed to popular hu- may be said that the longer a person has
mor. Among the social defining processes been characterized as a fool, the harder it is
which assign the role of the fool are (i) jokes for him to redeem himself. The strategy of
and popular humor, (2) name-calling, escape is to do something which causes
(3) literary and artistic satire, and (4) people to take one seriously: aggressive ac-
prop-
aganda. No one, for instance, is so respected tions7 which cause one to be defined as a
that no jokes or rumors will circulate about hero or exhibition of "human" traits which
him. A ludicrous conception may be built arouse sympathy.
up; the anecdote may become one of the im- Among the major routes of escape from
perishable stories which are part of his repu- the fool role are the following: (i) Avoidance
tation.6 Nicknames are also applied to public of the imputation by "taking" a joke and
personages which help to characterize them "laughing it off" implies that there has been
and give the public a greater sense of famil- no injury, that the jibe is ineffectual or in-
iarity with them. These epithets are often applicable. (2) A counter-joke or effective
based upon some outstanding feature of the repartee "turns the tables" and makes the
personality in question; the slightest idio- other a fool; "having the last word" or get-
syncrasy may make him liable to jokes and ting the best of a contest of wits has, in fact,
epithets which assign the role of the fool. the effect of defining the winner as a clever
Satire may also distort his character through hero. (3) A similar strategy involves accept-
caricature, parody, burlesque, irony, etc. ance of the fool role and its use as a "ruse"
Finally, propaganda may exploit these spon- or "trap" for a clever victory. This is em-
taneous defining processes. bodied in the sage fool, the rustic wit, or
Despite the universality of fool-making pseudo-fool, who under a pose of simplicity
processes, it is obvious that all persons who hides unexpected sharpness. By defeating
become thus characterized do not remain more pretentious opponents, he passes the
fools, that fools are selected. What makes a fool role along. (4) Activity, aggressiveness,
fool role stick? Among the factors respon- or "fight" may transform a fool into a hero,
sible for permanent characterization as a particularly when he picks a larger opponent
fool we may particularly note (i) repeated or identifies himself with a social cause. By
performances or obvious personal traits choice of a larger opponent there is a double
which continually suggest the role of the chance of heroic status, since victory will
fool; (2) a striking, conclusive, or colorful make the person a "giant-killer," whereas
single exhibition which convinces the public defeat is no disgrace but may, on the con-
that the person is irremediably a fool; trary, cast him as a victim or martyr.
(3) a story or epithet so "good" that (5) it We
is must note also that the social pattern
continually repeated and remembered, mak- of the "Cinderella" operates as a powerful
ing up an imperishable legend; and (4) fail- expectancy in American life, causing people
ure to contradict a fool role by roles or to look hopefully at the "dark horse" or
stories of a different category. "underdog" for signs of a sudden rise to suc-
cess. The person who is derided, clumsy,
stupid, or made a fool, is a typical starting-
ESCAPE FROM THE FOOL ROLE

Instances may be found in which point of the Cinderella theme. Any revela-
persons
tion of potentiality or unexpected merit may
popularly defined as fools have escaped from

6 B. A. Botkin has defined folklore as the "stuff 7 See 0. E. Klapp, "Creation of Popular Heroes,"
that travels and the stuff that sticks" (A Treasury American Journal of Sociology, LIV (I948), I35-4I;
of American Folklore [New York: Crown Publishers, and "The Folk Hero," Journal of American Folk-
I944]), p. xxiv. lore, LXII (I949), I7-25.

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 THE FOOL AS A SOCIAL TYPE i6i

start this pattern of expectancy into opera-
tion. (6) Finally, by suffering or showing
"human" traits which arouse sympathy, a
person can escape from the fool role. Exces-
sive persecution, e.g., "carrying a joke too
far," tends to make a martyr out of the fool.
Undue cruelty on the part of opponents,
particularly if it is at the same time revealed
that he has been injured, that he is human,
has feelings, etc., will serve to evoke identi-
fication and shatter the definition of him as
subhuman. Depiction of human traits by
anecdotes of acts of kindness, showing his
family life, etc., will perform the same func-
tion. If persecution occurs under conditions
in which the fool can be identified with a
popular cause, so that his sufferings are seen
as sacrifices, conversion to the very powerful
role of the martyr is possible.
STATUS AND FUNCTION OF THE FOOL
Whether professionalized as clown and
jester or found in the butt of popular humor
and village idiot, the position of the fool is
distinctive. The various statuses of the fool
include the household fool or court jester,
the folk fool played by peasants, the folklore
fool, the comic or dramatic fool, the profes-
sional clown or buffoon, and the village idi-
ot. When established as part of social struc-
ture, the status of the fool has four charac-
teristics. It is low, ridiculed, tolerated, and
licensed. When not established as a formal
status, it still persists as a social type or folk-
lore conception in popular humor, particu-
larly as comic butt and antic player of
tricks. The status of the fool presents a para- higher clergy, to remain there and usurp their
dox in that it is both depreciated and val-
ued: It is at the same time despised and tol-
erated, ridiculed and enjoyed, degraded and
privileged. Regarding the low status of the
fool, we may note that he is at the nadir of
the value system of the group. He is most
lacking in honor and the recipient of all in-
8 The importance of status is usually symbolized
three times. . . and that the people shall respond
by honor; see Hans Speier, "Honor and Social
Structure," Social Research, II (1935), 74-97;
and 0. E. Klapp, "Hero worship in America,'"Church Universal" (Welsford, op. cit., pp. 70,
American Sociological Review, XIV (0949), 53-62.
dignities.8 The fool might be defined func-
tionally as a ridiculed status. Being made a
fool is a type of disgrace. Ascription of the
fool role to any status is a descent. The fool
is lacking in rights and responsibilities;
nothing serious is demanded of him; the
bauble of the fool symbolizes his incompe-
tence, and nobody wants to follow him. His
sole privilege is his "license." Despite his low
status, however, the role of the fool is valued
and appreciated. He enjoys a certain impor-
tance and popularity; he may have fame.
His pranks and jokes are to his reputation
what exploits are to the hero. He is, there-
fore, not a "nobody." He is appreciated
through collective representations of his
role, e.g., drama, fame, and folklore. The
fact that the role is thus institutionalized in
comedy and perpetuated in folklore sug-
gests that the fool has important social
functions.
These social functions are to be found
principally in certain contributions which
the fool makes to group organization and
discipline. Some of these may be noted: The
fool upsets decorum by antics and eases
routine by comic relief.9 He also acts as a
cathartic symbol for aggressions in the form
of wit. He takes liberties with rank; and as
9 Festivals are noted as "seasons of lawlessness
and buffoonery when all revellers behaved fool-
ishly." The "Feast of Fools" flourished in the ca-
thedral towns of France during the fifteenth
century: "It took the form of a complete reversal
of ordinary custom.... The baculus or staff of
office was delivered into the hands of one of the
despised subdeacons who as 'bishop or Pope or
King of Fools' led his fellows into the stalls of the
functions for the duration of the feast. This transfer-
ence of authority was the signal for the most aston-
ishing revels. As soon as the higher clergy shed their
authority the ecclesiastical ritual lost its sanctity.
Even the Mass was burlesqued. Censing was done
with pudding and sausages. Sometimes an ass was
introduced into church.... On these occasions
solemn Mass was punctuated with brays and howls,
and the rubrics of the 'office' direct that the cele-
brant instead of saying Ite missa est shall bray
in similar fashion. But . . . if local churches toler-
ated the Feast, it was ceaselessly combatted by the
200-20I).

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 i62 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

butt or scapegoat receives indignities which criticize. Group discipline is thus enhanced
in real life would be mortal insult or con- by the operation of ridicule as a sanction-
flict-creating. But chiefly the social type of as Bergson pointed out in his essay on laugh-
the fool functions as a device of status reduc- ter (i9i i)-the fool symbol functioning for
tion and social control. Reduction of persons propriety in a manner similar to that of the
through the fool role is a continuous collec- villain in the area of mores. Finally, the type
tive process of status adjustment. Fool as- of the fool functions in education, providing
cription acts as a purging device, eliminating a negative example in literature and folk-
upstarts, pretenders, and incompetents from lore, e.g., as an object-lesson for children in
positions of influence. The fool also enforces stories of Simple Simon, Humpty-Dumpty,
propriety in conduct and thus acts as a etc. Thus the fool defines certain varieties of
mechanism of social control. Everybody untrustworthy conduct. It operates as an
avoids the role of the fool. Fear of ridicule avoidance symbol, discrediting leaders,
may be as strong as fear of punishment or movements, or individuals which show
death. Social satire may be an effective con- weaknesses in terms of group norms.
trol on political figures otherwise difficult to SAN DIEGO STATE COLLEGE

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