WEEK 1

BIG BANG TO ATOMS OF ELEMENTS

OBJECTIVES:
1. give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big Bang theory (S11/12PS-IIIa-1)

Important Terms:
Atom: The smallest particle of an element that still has the characteristics of that
element
Element: A material consisting of all the same atoms
Molecule: Two or more atoms of the same or different elements that are
chemically bound together
Compound: A material consisting of atoms of two or more different elements that
are chemically bound together

Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, how it continues to exist, and
how it will end. Science brings forth a cosmological theory, not from belief, but from
scientific evidence that the universe once began to expand and continues to expand until
today. This theory was eventually called the Big Bang theory or Big Bang model.
Astronomers George Lemaître and Edwin Hubble were some of its first proponents.

Stages of Big Bang Theory Initial singularity surrounded by

nothing, containing all time, energy Commented [cct1]: a. The universe may have begun as an
1. Hot dense initial singularity
and matter, suddenly expanded
faster than speed of light.
infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a point with all of
2. The singularity expanded in the process known as space, time, matter and energy. This means that there was no
Inflation where, when or what. There is no space around the
3. Matter and anti-matter cancelled each other in the singularity – just nothingness.
process known as Annihilation
4. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis b. All of it then began to rapidly expand in a process known
5. Electrons started to bind to ionized protons and as inflation. Space itself expanded faster than the speed of
nuclei forming neutral atoms in a process called
light. In this still hot and dense mass of the universe, pairs of
Recombination
6. Light separated from matter in the Decoupling matter and antimatter (quarks and antiquarks) were formed
Process. from energy, but these pairs cancelled each other back into
7. Star, planet, and galaxy Formation energy (annihilation).

Evidences for the formation of the light c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of
elements in the Big Bang theory matter (electrons, protons, neutrons and other particles)
somehow came to be in a highly energetic “plasma soup.”
1. cosmic microwave background Photons (light particles) were being scattered everywhere in
- or the energy (thermal radiation) that was left this “soup”. Protons and neutrons came together to form
as a result of recombination. Atoms became different types of nuclei by nucleosynthesis or nuclear
neutral due to the binding of nuclei and
fusion.
electrons. The remaining radiation then began
to scatter. This is seen by scientists as a faint microwave glow not emitted by any object in space
d. Much later on, electrons started to bind to ionized protons
2. Redshift
and nuclei forming neutral atoms in a process called
- is the first piece of evidence for the Big Bang model. From this “redshift” we learn how fast the universe is expanding.
recombination. The bound particles no longer scattered
3. The relative abundance of He and H
photons so light and energy moved freely across space. The
- due to the rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis ground to a halt about three minutes after the Big Bang occurred. This left us with mostly H
period was hence known as the “dark ages”.
isotopes (p, D and T), He isotopes and a very tiny bit of other elements like Li. The relative abundance of He and H did not change much until today.
Through measurements, we find that around 24% of the universe’s ordinary matter is currently comprised of helium, about 74% hydrogen, and 2% of
other elements. These figures only make sense if nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang model actually occurred since no chemical process significantly changes
e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another
these percentages to form stars and galaxies and eventually, other matter. This
still happens until today. Space also continues to expand at
an accelerating rate, thus increasing the distance between the
matters inside it.

Given the composition of each nucleus, complete the nucleosynthesis reactions below:

D = 1p+,1n T = 1p+,2n

a. p+ + n = _______+ γ b. 3He + D = _______+ p+ c. 7Li +_______ = 2 4He

d. ______+ D=T + p+ e. _____ +_____= 7Be + γ

Commented [cct2]: ANSWERS: a. D b. 4He c. p+ d. n
e. 3He, 4He
OBJECTIVES:
1. describe how elements heavier than iron are formed S11/12PS-IIIa-b-4
2. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution S11/12PS-IIIa-2
3. write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the formation of new elements S11/12PS-IIIa-3

Nucleosynthesis

Let's talk about nucleosynthesis which is the formation of elements. There
are three main types of nucleosynthesis. These are Big Bang
nucleosynthesis, stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.
All three of these are related to the formation and evolution of the
universe.
Let's start with Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Early after the Big Bang, as the
universe continued to expand and cool the first elements were formed.
These were just the nuclei of elements. They were not full atoms, meaning
they were ions or they were missing their electron. The formation of the
nuclei of hydrogen helium happened about three minutes after the Big
Bang. Now the first elements to form were hydrogen helium and a few
other trace elements. Eventually after more cooling and expansion the
hydrogen and helium nuclei were able to attract and hold onto electrons.
This allowed them to form full neutral atoms as we have on our periodic
table today. Whereas the formation of neutral atoms took until about
300,000 years after the Big Bang. As this matter formed both three
minutes after and 300,000 years after the Big Bang, there was a key ratio
that happened, there was 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. And this same
ratio of hydrogen to helium is seen today in our universe and serves as a
key evidence of the Big Bang. It is also a key point where elements were
formed in our universe. This formation of hydrogen and helium no longer
take place in large events in our universe, so basically all of the hydrogen
and helium we have originated from the Big Bang.
The next major point where elements are formed is in stellar
nucleosynthesis. This takes place in the process of fusion in the center of
star and is responsible for the formation of all of the elements from helium
all the way up to iron on the periodic table. The formation of these
elements takes place in the center of stars in the process called fusion
where it is extremely hot and where there is an extreme amount of
pressure. This process smashes the nuclei of smaller elements together to
form larger ones
Let's go through the general process that takes place in the stars to form
these heavier elements. Young stars use the elements hydrogen and helium
to fuel fusion in their cores. Now these smaller nuclei such as hydrogen and
helium are smashed together in the center of stars at such high
temperatures that there is enough force to stick them together. Extreme
temperatures are required to complete this fusion process in a star. For
example, our Sun has a core temperature of up to 15 million degrees
Celsius. Temperatures like this are required to complete this fusion
process and this is how stars through the process of fusion can form
heavier and heavier elements. As a young star uses up all of the available
hydrogen and helium in its core, it will eventually collapse on itself. This
causes an increase in the amount of temperature and the amount of
pressure found in its core, which then allows the star to fuse heavier and
heavier elements. Now this process continues over and over again until a
star with enough mass can fuse smaller nuclei into iron. Now, no star can
fuse elements heavier than iron. This is the limit and if there were not
another process of nucleosynthesis or another way to form heavier
elements, we would not have any elements heavier than iron.
Regular stars cannot form atoms heavier than iron because there are not
enough neutrons in their cores. The rest of the heavier elements that we
have are formed in the process of supernova nucleosynthesis. Now these
elements are formed during the very violent explosions that happen in
supernova. As the star runs out of all the other fuels available to it, from
which it can make heavier elements and from which you can complete the
process of fusion, it will eventually collapse in on itself. This creates a
heavy bounce back or shockwave, which pushes all of the elements that are
inside the core of the star out into the space surrounding. During a
supernova explosion there are two key characteristics and these two
characteristics don't exist anywhere else. These two characteristics are:
extremely hot temperatures/tremendous amount of energy and an
abundant number of neutrons supernova stars can reach temperatures of
a hundred billion degrees Celsius. This is six thousand times hotter than
the core of our Sun. Also supernova explosions have extreme numbers of
neutrons which allow for elements heavier than iron to be created. Now
these supernova explosions or supernova nucleosynthesis account form
all of the other heavier and natural elements that we find on a periodic
table. This is done through the r-process that involves rapid capture of
neutrons by the atom. Other heavy elements are also synthesized through
s-process involving slow neutron capture in red giants. These processes
change the atom’s atomic weight, after which the atom undergoes various
decay processes to change its identity.

-Supernova Nucleosynthesis
1. What is nucleosynthesis? 3. Describe the different types of > elements are synthesized by its extreme
-formation of the elements nucleosynthesis. temperatures and abundant neutrons
2. What are the different types of -Big Bang Nucleosynthesis 4. Where did hydrogen and helium came
nucleosynthesis? > Hydrogen and Helium formed at about 3 from?
-Big Bang Nucleosynthesis minutes after the Big Bang - Big bang
-Stellar Nucleosynthesis -Stellar Nucleosynthesis 5. How are elements from helium to iron
-Supernova Nucleosynthesis >formation of Elements through fusion at the created?
center of stars where it is extremely hot and - through stellar nucleosynthesis
high in pressure (elements until Iron) 6. How are elements heavier than iron
created?
-through supernova nucleosynthesis
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We are made of star stuff! Note that the 8Be
intermediate is unstable,
The lightest elements (hydrogen, helium, and some lithium) were created so either it decays or
in the Big Bang. Then, as the Universe cooled, matter clumped together to forms 12C.
form stars. Stars are big balls of hot gas, mostly hydrogen. They generate
energy by converting lighter elements to heavier elements by a process
called “nuclear fusion” in their cores. Elements are made of atoms, and
atoms are composed of a central “nugget” called the nucleus that is
composed of protons and neutrons. One or more electrons surrounds this
nucleus. An element is characterized by the number of protons in its
nucleus, that is, different elements have different numbers of protons in
their nuclei. For example, hydrogen has one proton, helium has two
protons, oxygen has eight protons, and so on. The star can keep growing into a
supergiant as it accumulates mass.
Nuclear fusion is the process by which the nuclei of two atoms come
Apha fusion processes continue in the
together and merge, forming a new nucleus. Since an element is defined
core via the alpha ladder. More and
by the number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms, nuclear
more alpha particles are fused to
fusion invariably converts one or more elements into a totally different
create heavier elements all the way to
element when the protons of the two original nuclei are combined in the
iron, making the core and star itself
new nucleus. During most of a star’s life, energy is generated by the
more massive.
fusion of hydrogen nuclei (consisting of just one proton and no neutrons)
into helium nuclei (consisting of two protons and two neutrons). It takes More massive stars can do this because their higher temperatures and
four hydrogen nuclei to produce one helium nucleus (and, in the process, pressure in their cores allow them to fuse more and heavier elements
two of the protons undergo a conversion into neutrons). The energy than their less-massive counterparts. In stars like our Sun, the fusion
generated by the fusion flows outward and counterbalances the inward process ends after fusing helium, but in massive stars the process
pull of gravity on the star. Stars spend the majority of their lives with continues to fuse more elements. Depending on its mass, the star may go
these two forces in balance. through successive periods in which carbon is fused into neon, neon into
silicon, and silicon is fused into iron. The sequence of nuclear fusion stops
Stars go through a cycle of
with iron, even in the most massive of stars, because fusing iron into the
“birth” and “death,” but the
next element requires an input of energy rather than resulting in a
timescales involved are much
release of energy. At this point, the star has developed an “onion-shell”
longer than what we associate
structure in which an iron (Fe) core is surrounded by a ring of silicon (Si),
with living things (millions or
then a ring of oxygen (O), a ring of neon (Ne), a ring of carbon (C), a ring
billions of years). Young stars
of helium (He), and finally a ring of hydrogen (H), as illustrated.
are born in a cloud of gas and
dust called a nebula. Particles Though the formation of
inside these nebulae collide elements heavier than iron
and clump together to form requires more energy than a
stars. When enough material star has, the explosion of a
has accumulated, the pressure star at the end of its life (a
and temperature in the core supernova) provides the
exceeds a critical threshold and energy necessary to make
fusion begins. A star is born! the much heavier elements.
The lifecycle of a star depends on how massive it is. All stars start by A supernova explosion also
fusing hydrogen into helium in their cores, but eventually this fusion throws all of the elements
ends. Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from created in that star out into
hydrogen fusion. The first is the triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer space where new star
to 4He. This reaction involves the fusion of three 4He atoms in the systems can use them in
following steps: their own formation
processes. So the elements
4He + 4He → 8Be 8Be + 4He → 12C + γ in our bodies - like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace
amounts of many others - came from the explosion of earlier stars
OBJECTIVES:
1. describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the atom S11/12PS-IIIa-b-5
2. describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the elements S11/12PS-IIIa-b-6
3. describe the contributions of the alchemists to the science of chemistry S11/12PS-IIIb-7
Atomism, Non-Atomistic Views of the Greeks, the Growth of Alchemy across Different Civilizations, Western Alchemy
Greek philosophers who began considering the nature of what things were
made of. They were preoccupied with how the universe seemed to be both
changing and constant. Leucippus and Democritus were two of the most
important theorists about the natural and physical world. They were called
physicists in Ancient Greece. They considered the idea of atomism, or the
idea that things are made up of much smaller things that cannot be changed
nor divided. Among the features of their theory were the following:
• Atoms make up most of the things in the universe; where there are
no atoms, there is a void.
• Atoms are incredibly small and cannot be divided, hence atomos
(uncuttable).
• Atoms themselves are solid, homogeneous and cannot change.
• Atoms moving about and colliding in the void cause the changes we
see in our universe.
• The shapes, sizes and weights of individual atoms influence the
characteristics of the thing they make up; e.g. sharp atoms cause our
tongues to tear and make bitter or sour tastes, and atoms that compose
clay are joined by flexible joints which harden when the clay is baked.
Compare the atomists’ ideas to our current scientific knowledge of the atom
using a Venn diagram.
Atomism, although more a philosophical idea than a scientific one was
closest to our current thinking about matter. Despite having advocates,
atomism was set aside because more prominent philosophers opposed it.
Religious groups later declared it as heretical or blasphemous because they
deemed atomistic thinking denied the existence of God.
Ideas that served as arguments against atomism and what this revealed
about how the Greeks thought about matter and the world:
• The philosopher Anaxagoras argued that there was an infinite
number of elementary natural substances in the form of infinitesimally
small particles that combined to comprise the different things in the
universe.
• Another theory by a philosopher named Empedocles stated that
everything is made up of four eternal and unchanging kinds of matter,
fire, air (all gases), water (all liquids and metals) and earth (all solids).
• The well-known philosopher Plato further expanded Empedocles’
theory by saying each of the four kinds of matter is composed of
geometrical solids (the “Platonic solids”) further divisible into
triangles. When rearranged, these triangles could cause the apparent
transformations between the four basic kinds of matter.
• Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that the four elements could be
balanced in substances in an infinite number of ways, and that when
combined gave proportions of “essential qualities,” hot, dry, cold and
wet. Transformations between the four elements (or changes in their
balance in a substance) caused changes in the universe.
The concepts of Greek philosophers and atomists on the world were simply
a result of reasoning and thought. They were not necessarily scientific or
empirical.
It was an obsession with Aristotle’s ideas (and his arguments against
atomists) that prevented atomism from gaining ground.
While our concept of matter didn’t advance much during this time, the
practical aspect of dealing with substances, matter and materials
flourished in different civilizations before and after the Greeks:
• The Mesopotamians had techniques to utilize metals like gold and
copper. They even assigned certain symbols to match metals with the
heavenly bodies such as the Sun and Moon. They also made use of other
materials such as dyes, glass, paints, and perfumes.
• The Egyptians adapted techniques from the Mesopotamians and
perfected the use of bronze, dye and glass that the Greeks later copied.
• The Chinese also had their own processes for metalwork and ceramic
materials, but they especially focused on finding minerals, plants and
substances that could prolong life. Some of the substances discovered
in Chinese medicine have been found to have actual positive effects
while others were found useless or even harmful, like mercury.
• The Indians, like the Chinese, had a kind of alchemy (rasayana) that
looked at different substances and practices for Vedic medicine. This is
tied closely to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. They also perfected the use
of iron and steel and were well-known manufacturers of dyes, glass,
cement, solutions for textiles, and soap.
• The Arabs and Muslims enriched not only the practice but also the
literature of chemistry. In particular, the scholar Jabir Ibn-Hayyan, also
known as Geber, translated the practices and Aristotelian thinking of
the Greeks and wrote extensively on how metals can be purified. He
came up with the preparation of acids such as nitric, hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids, as well as aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid).
Science at this time was enriched mostly by people outside of Europe and
the West.
Despite many of the progress being practical, much of it was shrouded in
mysticism or cultural beliefs, and was often a result of trial and error.
These advances in materials, metallurgy and medicine would often be
collectively referred to in history as alchemy, from the Arabic/Greek
alkīmiyā or “the art of transmuting.”
The field of alchemy became popular in the Western world because of
Aristotle’s ideas on the elements and the techniques developed by other
civilizations. Alchemists tried to play with the balance of the four elements
(fire, water, air, earth) and three principles (salt, sulfur and mercury) to
transform or transmute substances. Among their aims was to try and
transform “impure” or “base” metals like lead or iron into the “purer”
metals of silver or gold, discover a magical “Philosopher’s Stone,” and
produce the so-called “Elixir of Life.”
In the pre-modern era, the understanding of chemistry was distinct from
the practice of chemistry. While alchemists had the wrong understanding
of matter, much of what they did set the stage for much of modern
chemistry. For this reason, alchemy is considered a protoscience, a
precursor that allowed the field of chemistry to be what it is today.
* Protoscience - An unscientific field of study which later developed into
real science (e.g. astrology toward astronomy and alchemy toward
chemistry).
With a T-chart, distinguish how alchemy both contributed to and hampered
scientific thought.
Alchemy in popular culture, such as in the fantasy novel, Harry Potter and
the Philosopher’s Stone and the Japanese anime, Fullmetal Alchemist tend
to focus on the fantastical or esoteric aspect of alchemy and not so much
the scientific.