Fundamentals of Microwave

Communication
By

Jessie Jaye R. Balbin, MEP-ECE

 Fundamentals of
Microwave
Line-Of-Sight Communication
 what is MICROWAVE?
• Microwave communications is simply a high
radio frequency link specifically designed to
provide signal connection between 2 specific
points.
• Microwave Communications have been coined
LOS (Line-of- sight) communications, Radio
Link, Point-to-point communications.
• Many innovations and changes in microwave
technology have vastly improved the system
performance on current day microwave
communications links.
• Furthermore, its flexibility in applications
has been expanded beyond the traditional
common carrier service providers.
• Today, microwave users include many
non-traditional institutions that need a
quick and reliable means of transferring
voice, data and video between offices,
factories, warehouses and stations.
• Many commercial microwave communications
may provide a reliable means of duplex
connectivity between distances of up to 60 miles
and up to capacities of STM-1.
• Many techniques have been integrated into
modern digital microwave equipment which
improves signal quality even over long distances
and large capacities under the severest of
weather conditions.
• For the most part, a microwave link should
be transparent.
• Thus, from the point of view of the signal
that it carries, it should not introduce any
noise or errors.
 MICROWAVE
FUNDAMENTALS
• NATURE
• - Analog
• - Digital
• DISTANCE/FREQUENCY
• - Short Haul
• - Medium Haul
• - Long Haul
• CAPACITY/BANDWIDTH
• - Light (Narrow Band)
• - Medium (Narrow Band)
• - Large (Wide Band)
• NATURE – A microwave system is said to be
Analog or Digital depending on the nature of the
signal it carries.
– The Radio Frequency Part of any microwave system
is always analog as radio frequency transmission is,
by nature, analog.
– For microwave systems used to carry digital signals,
a MODEM (modulator-demodulator) is used during
the signal processing stage to convert bit streams into
sinusoidal waves. This then can be used to modulate
the microwave frequency carrier.
• DISTANCE/FREQUENCY – The effective
distance of a microwave system depends on the
carrier frequency which it utilizes.
– In reverse, planning for an effective microwave
system for a path of known distance requires
selecting the most appropriate frequency.
– When the frequency selected is too high, fading may
occur more often than predicted.
– Using a frequency that is too low is not only a waste
of the spectrum usage, but also, the system may
experience interference and distortion.
• CAPACITY/BANDWIDTH – The bandwidth of
any telecommunications transmission device
depends on the capacity of information it carries.
– Simply put, capacity is directly proportional to
bandwidth.
– Sometime called a transmission system’s “payload”,
the capacity may consist of several narrow bandwidth
channels or one large bandwidth channel.
– Digital voice is narrow band, since it carries simply a
4Khz channel, while digitized commercial TV signal is
wideband, since it is a composite of a large 6Mhz
video signal and high quality stereophonic audio.
 MICROWAVE
FUNDAMENTALS
Channel Carrier

Carrier Modulator
1

Channel Carrier Microwave Carrier

Carrier Modulator E Modulator Modulator

2

Channel Carrier

Carrier Modulator
3
• Analog Microwave systems differ from digital
microwave system basically with the nature of
the signal sent.

• While analog systems use filters to enhance the

quality of the analog signal and remove noise,
digital systems used binary algorithms to insure
that the information carried does not occur with
errors during the transmission stage.
• Multi-channel microwave systems also differ in the
method which channels are combined and
separated. In the figure, we have an analog form of
sharing/subdividing a frequency band into the
component channels, each having a sub carrier
which, later on, filters are used to separate each
channel at the receiving end. This method is also
call FDM or Frequency Division Multiplexing. The
larger the number of transmission channels, the
wider the microwave channel would be.
• Furthermore, it should be noted that the analog
modulated microwave carrier also behaves differently
when compared to a digital system.

• This, however, does not mean that in absolutely all

points, digital systems come out to be better than analog
systems. There are advantages in analog systems which
do not exist in digital systems. But despite this, overall,
many would agree that digital microwave systems
outperform analog microwave systems. Majority of major
communication facilities have digital systems and thus,
require digital transmission equipment.
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• High Fade Margin
• Not affected by low level interference
• Soft Fading
• Additive noise in cascaded links
• Additive Echo Delay Distortion
• Not generally affected by delayed Multipath fade
• High Powered
• Uses Combiners
• Warm-up/break-in set-up
• Off line performance Testing
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• High Fade Margin – Fade margins of most
analog systems are within the range of 35 dB to
50 dB. This is due to the higher power used in
analog microwave transmission.

• Not affected by low level interference – Since

the power received by analog systems is
considerably high, low level interferences does
not impact on the signal and can easily be
filtered out.
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• Soft Fading – Should analog systems
experience fading, its signal degradation is
gradual and the signal can be made to be barely
intelligible.

• Additive noise in cascaded links – Any noise

that is either generated within or enters the
system is carried from link to link in cascaded
networks unless properly filtered out.
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• Additive Echo Delay Distortion – Signal
delays are also additive in cascaded links.
Signal delays can be caused by phase
distortions on the carrier wave.

• Not generally affected by delayed Multipath

fade – Unless the multipath signal comes almost
the same time as the primary signal, any late
signals can be filtered out by using parametric
equalizers.
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• High Powered – Analog microwave systems
have generally higher power capacities when
compared to their digital equivalent in frequency,
path length and capacity.

• Uses Combiners – Since analog systems use

FDM, multiple channels are combined into a
wide band composite signal. Digital systems use
multiplexers.
 ANALOG PARAMETERS
• Warm-up/break-in set-up – Early analog microwave
systems use microwave “tubes” that required a warm-up
period before the system could be considered stable.
These “tubes” where necessary to generate the high
transmit power output as early microwave
semiconductors easily overheated and degenerated the
signal at high power.

• Off line performance Testing – System and equipment

testing on analog systems requires that the whole
bandwidth be available for a test signal. In digital
systems, a small amount of test bits can be inserted into
the system without disrupting the service of the any of
the channels.
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• Low Fade Margin
• Susceptible to decrease in T/I ratio
• Hard Fade
• Additive errors in cascaded links
• No feeder echoes or VSWR
• Susceptible to Multipath Fading
• Low transmit power
• Hitless Switching
• 1 day installation
• In-Service performance Testing
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• Low Fade Margin – Since the transmitted signal
in digital systems in lower, fade margins can
range only from 15 to 30 dB on a working
microwave link.

• Susceptible to decrease in T/I ratio – For

systems with a low temperature to interference
ration, signal fading occurs more frequently and
for longer periods. This is due to that fact that
change in atmospheric temperature does not
occur rapidly.
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• Hard Fade – Unlike analog systems where
intelligibility can be still maintained even when
signal is degraded, once the amount of errors in
a digital system reaches a unbearable level
(usually set at 10-3 BER), the information signal
is totally lost.

• Additive errors in cascaded links – Errors in

the bit stream, if not corrected, are carried over
from one link to another. Thus, the overall
network BER may be unacceptable even if each
individual link may only contribute a small
amount of error.
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• No feeder echoes or VSWR – Digital microwave
equipment do not depend on a specifically tuned
systems when carrying baseband or baseband IF signal.
It does depend on whether or not the cable may carry
the capacity which it requires. Tuning on digital systems
is solely based on the RF stage alone. Cables carrying
baseband or baseband IF signals may be cut to any
length necessary to interconnect them with the RF stage.

• Susceptible to Multipath Fading – Since most digital

microwave equipment rely on modems which employ
any type of phase modulation, out of phase multipath
signals have a tendency to affect digital links and thus
have to be avoided during the planning stage.
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• Low transmit power – Semiconductor microwave
technology has allowed transmission of up to 2 or more
watts of power. Above 2 watts of power for digital links of
2 Ghz and below may be considered to be long haul in
nature.

• Hitless Switching – In protected configurations, where

2 links operate over the same path (one on active and
another on hot standby), the switch over from a faulty
link to a good link may be done “hitless” or without the
introduction of switch-over errors. This is done by means
of using logic gates. Thus, from the point of view of the
equipment connected to the link, no switch-over
occurred.
 DIGITAL PARAMETERS
• 1 day installation – Modular designs in current day
microwave equipment allows for the simplicity in
installation. Assuming the tower and equipment housing
is in place, installation may take only 2 to 3 hours while
industry accepted testing before the certification of a
useable link, 24 hours.

• In-Service performance Testing – Test “bits” of

information may be inserted in a overhead channel or
service channel outside of the regular user channels of
microwave system. In addition, most modern microwave
equipment has self diagnostic features which allow
system testing even when in operation.
Wave Propagation
 Wave Propagation
• Sky Wave transmission – Used in Satellite communications. Uses
a relative high microwave frequency in order to penetrate the
atmosphere. The minimum of which is called the MUF – or
Maximum Usable Frequency.

• Sky Reflected Transmission – Also known as beyond Line-Of-

Sight microwave transmission or Troposcatter. Using a frequency
below MUF will cause the microwave radio signal to bounce back to
earth.

• Direct Wave transmission – Traditional Line-Of-Sight microwave

transmission. Here the path distance is less that the radio horizon.

• Ground Reflected Wave transmission – Because microwave

signals have a tendency of reflection, the signal may be reflected off
natural or manmade structures in order to go around obstructions.
 Wave Propagation
• It should be noted that the higher the
frequency, the higher the capacity for
reflection. The lower the frequency, the
higher the capacity for absorption.

• Therefore, for ground based transmission

such as Surface and Ground Wave
transmission, frequencies used are
below the microwave range.
Classification on General Usage
Classification on General Usage
Classification on General Usage
ITU-R Band Classifications
ITU-R RECC V.431-6
 WAVELENGTH
CLASSIFICATIONS
millimetric and centimetric
radio wave transmission
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
 ITU-R User Assignments
• Op. Fixed (Operational Fixed) - Microwave links for the
general public. Typically used by non-
telecommunications facilities. Frequency assignment is
not changeable.

• CC (Common Carrier) – Microwave links designated to

common carrier facilities. (Facilities which provide
telecommunications services to the public.)

• Govt. (Government) – Microwave links used by

government offices, although these frequencies may be
offered by the government to the public for use.

• DTS (Data Termination Services) – Digital Microwave

Links which connect data termination equipment to one
another.
• There are other classifications other than
the those mentioned. Such as
Experimental, Radio Navigation,
Telemetry and Amateur
Communications. However, for the
purpose of generalization, all mentioned
frequencies have been, and some still are,
being used by commercial microwave links
for common carrier telecommunication
facilities.
ITU-R BANDWIDTH
ASSIGNMENTS
 ITU-R Bandwidth Assignments
• NB (Narrow Band) – Digital Channels
having medium speed transmission.
Channel Bandwidths may be between 6 to
10 MHz.

• WB (Wide Band) – Digital Channels

having high speed transmission. The large
volume of information results in a large
bandwidth up to 220 MHz.
• There are also a numerous amount of
transmission bandwidths depending on the
user and the capacity of information being
carried.
• Again, for the purpose of explanation, only
those used in commercial microwave
systems have been cited here.
• As a general rule, the higher the capacity of the
microwave system (digital or analog), the larger
the bandwidth.
• Recently available are speeds for STM-1 (155
Mbps) which have made it possible to integrate
microwave technology with fiber optic
equipment.
• However, no modulation technique has been
developed yet which would allow transmission
rated higher than STM-1.
ITU-R CHANNEL PLANS
 ITU-R Channel Plans
• Each band assignment is further specified to that
channel capacity which the link would carry. These are
called “Channel Plans”. These plans give detailed
information on the specific frequency parameters of the
microwave link. Such parameters are:

• Tx/Rx Separation/Tx/Rx Spacing/Duplex Separation –

Since Microwave links are duplex (2 way
communications) systems, 2 carrier frequencies are
utilized. Each carrier being the transmit of one link and
the receive of the other. Duplex Separation gives the
difference between both carriers. The mid-frequency
being used as the reference frequency for single link
budget computations.
• Channel Bandwidth – This depends on the information
carried. Different bandwidths are allocated for different
channel capacities (transmission rates) and for different
standard. Typically used fundamental rate outside the
US is the CEPT E1 rate of 2.058 Mbps.

• Tx/Tx Spacing/Channel Separation – This is the

difference of frequencies between 2 adjacent channels.
This include the channel bandwidth and guardband.
• These figures can be sometimes confusing such that all
the values have units of Hertz.
DUPLEX TRANSMISSION
• Being bi-directional (duplex) means that 2
transmit frequencies are used in opposite
directions between the 2 terminals in a link.
• As previously discussed, their separation
depends on the capacity carried, band of
frequency used and allotted user of the
spectrum.
• Typical single (rough estimate) computed
microwave calculations use the center of these
pair of frequencies as the actual reliability of
calculating each frequency would only differ
slightly.
• The station whose transmit frequency is higher
than it’s receive frequency (transmit frequency of
the other end) is called the High Band Terminal.
• The station whose transmit frequency is lower
than it’s receive frequency is call the Low Band
Terminal.
• Given that 2 transmit frequencies are used, each
form its designated operating frequency.
Subsequently, each receiver should also be
properly tuned that it only the designated
transmission would be received.
• Furthermore, the selection on which site should
be the High Band station and which site should
be the Low Band stations should be carefully
considered during the planning stage.
• Interference in a microwave link due to other
links can result due to poor site selection but
also can sometimes be solved by simply
exchanging which station is High Band and
which station is Low Band.
FREQUENCY -VS- PATH LENGHT
• Microwave links are usually employed whenever
cable based transmission systems would prove
to be expensive, difficult or virtually impossible.
• Microwave installations used by
telecommunications common carriers are the
most frequent installations ever to be found.
• Hence, the traditional “rural” type microwave
installations are being quickly out-numbered by
“urban” rooftop type microwave links. These
links, which are used in interconnecting
switching equipment with one another, carry bi-
directional voice and data within a network.
• These “urban” type microwave installations
operate usually in a higher frequency as the
distances which they have to travel usually do
not extend more than a few blocks away.
• “Rural” type installations are typically designed
to carry information at a farther distance and
employ frequencies below 10 GHz.
• As a general rule, the lower the frequency, the
farther the link.
• Thus, based on rough estimates with standard
microwave links of various systems, a general
estimate can be made as to the approximate
range of frequencies which may be used for a
specific distance:
• 23 GHz max 10 miles
• 18 GHz max 18 miles
• 10.5 GHz max 25 miles
• 8 GHz max 30 miles
• These estimates were based on
equipment which had some form of signal
improving equalization and efficient data
forward error correction.
• These values can also be greatly reduced
when considering more stringent reliability
requirements, severe weather conditions
and terrain conditions along the path.
Earth Curvature on RF
Propagation
• Rural microwave links are usually Long Haul
(long distance) type.
– They are employed because it would be simpler to
install a microwave link than run a cable through
fields, farm land and mountainous regions.
– They are also the easiest to get affected by extrenous
conditions, and can suffer signal degradation simply
with the change in climate.
– They have to be planned based on the conditions of
possible obstructions, reflections, atmospheric
conditions and curvature of the earth.
Earth Bulge
Earth Bulge and K-Factors
• The earth, being spherical, limits the distance of
which line of sight is possible. However, this line
of sight is not necessarily visual sight as the
radio horizon (the maximum distance a radio
frequency signal can travel) is much farther than
the visual horizon.
• Furthermore, the earth itself is not a perfect
sphere as it bulges at the equator and flattens at
the poles. Considerations for this radio wave
bending are included in radio frequency links
that are above 100 MHz.
 K-Factor
• The parameter which considers wave
bending on the earth’s curvature is the K-
Factor. The K factor is a unit less value
which is the ratio of a hypothetical
effective earth radius a factor if surface
refractivity.
• Effective earth radius can be computed by
this formula:

where N, is Surface Refractivity

N, typically being 300 thus K typically being 4/3

Where No is mean sea level refractivity

s is elevation of link above sea level
• The most accurate value of surface
refractivity can be acquired from
atmospheric research institutions.
• However, in general, surface refractivity
can be computed as a function of
elevation above sea level.
Earth Curvature on RF
Propagation
Translation of various K factors:
• k = 5/3, k = 1/2, k = 2/3 : Low ground humidity,
advection fog over cold water, above normal low
level ground temperature.
• k = 2.75, k = infinity, k = -1/2, k = -1 : High
ground humidity, steam or fog over warm water,
rapid drop to below normal ground temperature.
• k = 1.25, k = 4/3, k = 1.6 : Dry, Mountainous
typical inland, humid and coastal.
• k = 1 : Uniform and homogenous
• Typical microwave links are based on a
k-factor of 4.3. Other k-factor values are
used with the conditions of the link are
known to be severe or difficult to
propagate over.
• Bending of rays towards the earth is
classified as sub refractive while bending
away from the earth are super refractive.
CONTOUR MAP READING
• After having established Earth Bulge, it is then
necessary to determine if the terrain between
the path offers physical obstructions to the line-
of-sight propagation.
• First, the path elevation above sea level is
plotted. This graphically represented set of
values called a Path Profile.
• The map used is a topographical map which
constant elevations on the earth’s surface
(above sea level) are drawn as curves on the
map.
• There are 2 ways which path elevation can be
measured:
– Depending on the amount of accuracy required, as
well as the availability of the appropriate map, the
elevation of points in the path may be taken at regular
intervals of Km (Metric) or Mi (English). Here, the
assumptions is made that the elevation between
contour curves is the lower value. In this way, there
are “flat surfaces” and minimal grades.
• Another method is by taking points of
intersection of the LOS path and the
contour curves on the map. In his method,
however, it is assumed that there is hardly
any “flat” region along the path other than
those involving bodies of water, peaks, or
2 curves beside each other having the
same value. This method is more
accurate.
PATH TERRAIN CONDITIONS
• Once the terrain elevation has been
plotted, conditions of the terrain are
available also on a topographical map.
This allows for the analysis of the effects
of reflection and diffraction to be
mathematically as well as graphically
evaluated.
• Water – Many teachers of microwave planning usually
make a big deal about “not propagating over bodies of
water”. Unfortunately, countries like the Philippines and
Indonesia are archipelagoes, water exits everywhere,
and cannot be avoided. Microwave propagation can be
done over water as long as reflection based on a mean
water elevation (between tides) is considered. Also,
there are other ways to improve system reliability in
over-water LOS links. Bodies of water include lakes,
rivers, marshlands, swamps and large rice farmland
(remember rice is always grown over a layer of water).
• Tree/Forests/Timberland – They provide
a certain amount of “shielding” for surface
reflection points. Trees along the path
which do not obstruct the LOS path diffuse
reflected signals directed towards the
ground. Tree growth for foliage which is
close to the microwave path should be
considered.
• Snow and Ice – Also highly reflective as
snow and ice is just the solid form of
water.
• Urban Areas – Unless the path is short
(between 2 buildings) reflection over flat urban
areas are considered also to be nominal.
However, for urban inter-building transmission
links, large buildings and other man made
constructs may cause either vertical or
horizontal reflection points. Also, since the space
between a link may not be already occupied, it
has been known to happen that a building is
erected right on the path of a microwave link.
• Sand and Desert – Amazingly enough,
not very reflective, although should be
considered when choosing antenna height
to avoid problems later
RF PROPAGATION
 Properties of light and high
frequency radio waves
• Rectilinear propagation – The ability of
E-M (Electro Magnetic) transmissions to
travel in a straight path.
• Reflection – The ability of E-M
transmissions to bounce off a relatively
smooth surface.
• Refraction – The ability of E-M
transmissions to bend when the density of
the path it travels on changes.
• Diffraction – The ability of E-M
transmissions to bend when partially
obstructed by an edge.
• Interference – The ability of 2 E-M
transmissions to intermix when they cross
each other’s path
PATH CALCULATIONS/LINK
BUDGET
• A link budget or path calculation is
basically the summary of all possible
losses and gains that a signal may
encounter along a microwave path.
• It also shows how reliable (what is the
probability of signal loss called “fading”)
the link is over a period of one year.
• Traditionally, microwave design calculations where done
manually, however, many commercial microwave path
calculation programs which utilize the power of
computers are currently available.
• This makes microwave design almost as simple as data
entry.
• Furthermore, many microwave radio suppliers have their
own path calculation programs (usually free) specifically
written to incorporate features of their trademark radio.
Some path calculation programs are freeware can be
downloaded from the internet.
• To begin with, let us consider the signal which goes into
and comes out of a microwave link. Although not part of
the link budget, this is important because even if the
microwave link is extremely reliable, if the system
inherently adds noise to an analog signal, or cause
errors to a digital signal, the overall link is useless.

• Remember that microwave links should basically be

transparent.

• They should not cause any change to the information or

signal that they carry.
• To determine the effect of a link to an
analog signal, Message Weighting is done
on each channel to measure the amount
of noise against a test signal.

• To determine the effect of a link to a digital

signal, a Bit Error Rate test is performed
also in each channel.
PATH CALCULATIONS/LINK
BUDGET
• The simplest method of calculating a link budget is to
only consider the fixed losses and gains. Fixed since
they do not change with climate or time of year, plotting
the loss or gain along a microwave path to a graph, we
see that these fixed values are the following:

• Transmitter Output – Taken from the date sheet

(specifications of the microwave radio equipment. This is
the amount of microwave carrier output power, usually
expressed in dBm (decibel reference 1 milliwatt). This is
the first value which begins the calculation.
• Waveguide Loss – Taken from the data sheet
(specifications) of the waveguide used. This is
the amount of loss, usually expressed in dB per
unit length (dB/foot or dB/meter) of signal as it
travels in the waveguide. The waveguide being
the connection between the radio equipment
and the antenna. After computing the actual loss
in the waveguide with respect to the length used,
also include losses due to couplings and
connectors.
• Tx Antenna Gain – Taken from the data
sheet (specifications) of the parabolic dish.
This amount of gain, usually expressed in
dB (over isotropic), is the amount of
increase the signal density undergoes
when focused into a pencil beam. [Note: It
is rare that the antenna sizes on each site
differs]
• Free Space Loss – (FSL) Computed from
a formula. This amount of loss, expressed
in dB, is how much the signal density
reduces as it travels in free space.
• Rx Antenna Gain – Taken from the data
sheet (specifications) of the parabolic dish.
This amount of gain, usually expressed in
dB (over isotropic), is the amount of
increase the signal density undergoes
when focused back into the waveguide.
FADE MARGINS
• Received Signal Level – Computed from
a formula. This is the amount of input
signal into the receiver from the
waveguide. Mathematically, it is the sum
of all losses and gains on the transmitter
output.

RSL = Transmitter Output – (Tx) Waveguide

Loss + Tx Antenna Gain – FSL + Rx
Antenna Gain – (Rx) Waveguide Loss
• Receiver Threshold – Taken from the
data sheet (specifications) of the
microwave radio equipment. This is the
minimum amount of microwave carrier
input power, usually expressed in dBm
(decibel reference 1 milliwatt) which the
receiver can still accurately detect and
discriminate information carried.
• Net Path Loss – Computed from formula.
This is the difference between the
Transmitter Output Power and the RSL.

Net Path Loss = Tx Output - RSL

• Flat Fade Margin – Computed from
formula. This is the difference between the
Received Signal Level and the Receiver
Threshold.

Flat Fade Margin = RSL – Receiver

Threshold
Other Types of Fade Margins:
• Interference Fade Margin – Based on
congestion of systems within the path
using the same band of frequencies.
Taken from graphs from a specific location
and varies over time.
• Dispersive Fade Margin – Taken from data
sheet (specifications). Dependent on the type of
equipment and modulation used. These are
gains in the equipment which are factored in
because of technical improvements on the
system and how they improve the information
signal itself (such as equalizers to filter out noise
or FECs to correct errors, thus making it appear
that the receiver threshold is lowered.
• Composite Fade Margin – Computed
from formula. This is the total effect of all
fade margins.
BASIC COMPONENTS
• The basic components in a microwave link
are the Signal Interface/Processing
module, the Radio Frequency Transmitter-
Receiver module and the waveguide-
antenna assembly.
• Signal Interface/Processing module – Also
known as the Baseband-IF section. The Input-
output port of the microwave link. This assembly
accepts the channel inputs to be sent to the
other site, as well as contains the output ports
sent from the other terminal. This may also have
LED displays to show the system performance,
interfaces for computer and service telephone
handsets and switches for the control of the
power and parametric settings of the link.
• Radio Frequency Transmitter-Receiver module
– This block is the actual microwave frequency
portion of the link. This section will up convert
the signal which contains all the information to
be sent. This section also down converts the
received microwave signal and convert it into a
lower frequency receive IF. This is connected to
the Signal Interface/Processing module either by
one or pair of coaxial cables.
 ANTENNA

• Waveguide-Antenna
assembly – The passive
part of a microwave link.
From the transmitter, this
will propagate the RF
signal down a waveguide
into an antenna which WAVEGUIDE
then focuses in into a
“pencil” beam. This signal
is then caught by the
other antenna and RF
focused back into a COAX
waveguide which is fed BASEBAND
into the receiver.
• Traditionally, all components in a microwave
link, except for the bulk of the waveguide and
the antenna, where located inside plant (inside
the radio room). However, this posed a problem
in losses from the long waveguide.
• Modern day equipment has the RF Tx-Rx
module installed at the back of the antenna or
on the tower itself, thus limiting the length of the
waveguide and losses. Some systems have the
RF module directly mounted behind antenna
thus eliminating the need for a wave guide.
SIGNAL INTERFACE AND
PROCESSING

MOD

F
I
MULDEM FEC
TX IF LO
DIPLEXER

RX IF LO

DEMOD

F
I
• This is the basic block diagram of a digital
microwave link’s Signal Interface/Processing
Module.
• MULDEM – Multiplexer-Demultiplexer. For the
input stage, the muldem combines all digital
signals and information into a composite data
stream. For the output stage, this would
separate the composite data stream sent from
the other terminal and sent them to their
respective port or destination.
• FEC – Forward Error Correction. For the
input stage, this circuit block adds error
correction information to the overhead of
the composite data stream which would
help the receiver/decoder stage on the
other end to determine if any errors have
occurred and automatically correct them.
• Modulator/Demodulator – For the input stage,
the modulator then converts the digital bit stream
into an analog wave form based on a modulation
technique (FSK, PSK, or QAM). Transmit IF is
usually 310 MHz while receive IF is 70 MHz.
This, however, may vary from system to system.
The demodulator reconverts the IF back into the
composite data bit stream. IN some equipment,
a baseband equalizer is placed before the
demodulator to improve IF signal quality.
• Diplexer – a passive component which
acts as a filter preventing the Tx IF from
being sent to the local receiver.
 SIGNAL INTERFACE AND
PROCESSING

FRONT PANEL INDICATORS AND CONTROLS

• The Signal Interface/Processing Module is a component block which

is usually not dependent on the carrier frequency.
• It has 2 main parameters: The amount of traffic (Tributary) which it
carries and the type of modulation for the IF.
• It’s construction may be as a enclosed chassis or plug-in units which
circuit blocks can be removed and replaced.
• The indicator lights on the Signal Interface/Processing Module can be
classified according to their function.

• Signal Monitoring – LEDs which indicate the presence and quality of the
traffic carried itself. Either as a summary or for each channel being
transmitted and received.
• System Monitoring – LEDs which are part of an internal performance
monitor for the radio link and indicate if any component within the system
should fail or operate outside the expected range.
• Internal Testing – LEDs and SWITCHES which initiate and terminate a self
test on components in the link.
• System Configuration – LEDs and SWITCHES which set the link
configuration and individuality.

• Some equipment may have dozens of LEDs to indicate specific problems or

alarms on individual component blocks. Other may have only one or two
LEDs which turn on or off if any abnormal operation is experienced.
SIGNAL INTERFACE AND
PROCESSING

INTERFACE AND CONNECTIONS

• In terms of the connectors into and from a
microwave link, these may be placed at
the rear (traditionally or when there is
hardly any space up front) or for
convenience to the installation, also at the
front.
• Connectors typically found in a microwave link are:

• Traffic/Tributary – This is the input and output of the

traffic into the link Power – Connection for the power
supply of the link (usually DC -48V)
• RF Module – Connection between the Signal Processor
and the RF module Auxiliary Channel – Optional
connection of auxiliary low data rate digital channels
• SCADA Channel – Optional connection to relays on the
other terminal which can be controlled from the local
terminal.
• NMS Channel – Network Monitoring Channel, used in
daisy chain (cascaded connection) to allow a single
computer to monitor several links in a network.
• Configuration Connection – Used when a computer is
needed to set the link configuration or parameters. A link
management program is utilized to set the different link
parameters, including frequency and power output.
• EOW Channel – Engineering Order Wire – a selective
dialing voice network within terminals in single or
multiple links. This utilizes a telephone handset with
DTMF keypad and has to be also daisy chained in
connection for multiple links to access the selective
calling.
• Not shown are connections for test points
sometime provided to measure voltages,
power or frequencies of the IF signal.
• Also not shown is the power switch and
the fuse terminal. However, surprisingly
enough, not all microwave equipment
have an “on-off” switch.
EQUIPMENT MOUNTING
• Although installation of equipment should follow a predetermined
plan, industry has established certain standard practices which can
be almost always be seen:
• The highest level of the rack or cabinet is a fuse panel. All DC power
supply wirings within the rack or cabinet are protected by this
common fuse panel.
• Grounding point (bus bar) on the top and bottom of the rack or
cabinet. The rack or cabinet itself is grounded.
• Spacing between equipment should be at least 1 rack unit (about 2
inches). This will allow air flow and prevent the equipment from
overheating each other.
• Cables neatly braided or tied. In the past, braiding cables with string
was the practice and even considered an artfull talent. Today
however, plastic cable ties are used. The size of the tie determined
by the amount of tied together. Two practices are maintained: first,
make sure that no sharp tip or excess of the tie used sticks out and
second, white ties are used inside plant while black ties are used
outside plant.
CABLE CONNECTIONS
• BCN Connector –
Unbalanced Cable
Connector / Used for
input and output of
channels, connection
between Signal
Processor and RF
processor, and ports
for test points.
• TNC Connector –
Unbalanced Cable
Connector / Used for
connection between
Signal Processor and
RF processor, and
ports for test points
• SMA Connector –
Unbalanced Cable
Connector / Used for
connection in higher
frequency IF and
inside the RF
processor with
microwave frequency
signals.
• DB9/DB25/DB37/SCS
I/Amphenol
Connector –
Balanced Cable
Connectors / Used for
input and output of
channels,
connections with
computers and other
DTE devices, and
ports for test points.
• F-Type Connector – Unbalanced Cable
Connector / Used for connection between
Signal Processor and RF processor.

• N-Type Connector – Unbalanced Cable

Connector / Used for connection between
Signal Processor and RF processor.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

NON-PROTECTED (1+0)

HOT STAND BY (1+1)

• To ensure that a link carrying vital
information does not fail (High reliability),
protection methods can be employed to
guarantee link integrity.
• The most common of these protection
methods is using a monitored hot stand-by
system which would immediately catch the
operation should components or path
problems cause the primary link to fail.
• Non-protected (1+0) means that one full
system is operating without back-up.

• MHSB (Monitored Hot Stan-By) or (1+ 1)

means that a duplicate system which is
powered operates alongside a primary
link.
WAVEGUIDE & ANTENNA
• What gives a microwave link it’s
characteristic look is the parabolic dish
antenna. This is part of the waveguide-
antenna assembly which the radio
frequency signal is focused into a thin
pencil beam and sent to a remote point.
This assembly begins with the antenna
duplexer on the RF module and ends with
the antenna.
• Duplexer – allows a transmit and receive signal of
different frequencies on a single antenna.
• Flanges – interconnect parts of a microwave antenna
system together.
• Waveguide – allows the antenna to be remotely installed
away from a transmitter and receiver.
• Dehydrator – pumps clean dry air into the waveguide
and/or RF module. Water droplets in the waveguide
cause losses in the signal.

• Conversion from an electrical (V&I) signal to a radio

wave is done in the duplexer.
ANTENNA ARCHITECTURE
• Waveguide Feed – Connects the antenna to the waveguide.
• Horn Feed – Directs the electromagnetic wave into the focus of the
parabolic reflector.
• Parabolic Reflector – The reflective surface of the parabolic dish.
This would send any incident wave into parallel waves forward of
the antenna.
• Radome – The front covering of the antenna. This protects the
inside surface of the parabolic dish.
• Shroud – The side covering of the antenna. This allows antennas
with long horn feed also to be protected. This also reduces any
interference to and from any other antennas mounted close by.
• Mounting Assembly – This clamps the antenna to the mast or the
tower. This also allows the antenna to be swung from left to right.
• Vertical tilt screw – This allows the antenna to be pointed upward
or downward, depending on the antenna orientation.
ANTENNA SIZES
• As shown, if gain was fixed, the size of the antenna is inversely
proportional to the frequency used. (Some seasoned engineers can
almost tell you the band of a link simply by looking at the antenna).
The gain of an antenna is given by the formula:

where η = Aperture Efficiency (between 0.5 and 0.6)

A = Aperture Area
Λ = Wavelength
• Aperture efficiency can be approximated as 0.55, thus
making Gain formula:

Where D = Antenna diameter in meters

F = Frequency in Gigahertz
• To identify the polarization of rectangular
feeds, look at the orientation of the port
itself.

Vertically Polarized Horizontally Polarized Dual Polarized

ANTENNA INSTALLATION
• When the antenna itself is installed,
certain conditions have to be considered
to ensure that the antenna’s location and
orientation is the optimum choice.
• Offsets – Left-handed and right-handed offsets indicate
how the antenna mount is connected to the tower itself.
– This is important since it determines the horizontal panning
angle of the antenna.
– This panning single has to be carefully planned that it faces the
opposite antenna on the other site.
– Horizontal pan angles are smallest if installing antennas on flat
walls or the face of a rectangular based tower.
– Pan angle for antenna installations on mono-pole masts are, of
course, 360°.
ANTENNA INSTALLATION
• Vertical inclination – A long bolt behind the
antenna determines how the antenna is
tilted vertically. As shown, if the antenna is
needed to look upward, the tilt screw is at
the bottom of the mounting assembly.
Since, antennas can be “inverted”, if an
angle greater than 15° is needed to be
looking down, the antenna is simply
flipped over.
PROPAGATION PATTERN
• There is no perfect antenna system. In any
antenna, a certain amount of radiated
power is either lost as heat or dissipated in
directions which are not useful to the
transmission as well. With parabolic
dishes, the loss is mostly due to spillage
outside of the main lobe. This spill-over, in
the form of side loves and back lobe, may
cause problems to the link later on.
• The main lobe itself does not have
consistent field strength. The conic regions
where the field strength is constant are
called Fresnel zones. Ideally, there
shouldn’t be any obstruction within the
main lobe itself, however, a clearance up
to 60% the first freznel zone is an industry
accepted standard.
• Calculation of the first Freznel depth (diameter) is given
by the formula:

Where d1 & d2 are the end-to-end distances to where the

zone is being measured.
F is the frequency in GHz
D is the total distance in Km
• The beamwidth (measured in degrees at
3dB points of the main lobe)

Where F is the frequency in GHz

D is antenna Diameter in meters
Distances of the near field and far field can also be computed.

Near Transition Field Far

Field (Fraunhofer region) Field

DNF

DFF

Where d is Antenna diameter in feet

λ is wavelength in feet
DNF is distance to end of Near Field from front of antenna in feet
DFF is distance to start of Far Field from the front of antenna in feet
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
MICROWAVE SIGNALS
• Interference
• Multipath Fading due to Reflection
• Multipath Fading due to Refraction
• Diffraction due to path Obstructions
• Multipath Fading due to Ducting
• Multipath Fading due to Rain
• Multipath Fading is when the same signal
is received by the microwave radio coming
from different modes or paths. This
condition has a tendency to affect the
carrier in a more destructive rather than
constructive way.
• There are 2 major effects of multipath
fading.
– First, there may be a 180° phase shift of 2
incoming signals which arrive at almost but
not exactly the same time. These out of phase
signals are then combined thus reducing the
amount of received signal strength and fade
margin.
Incident Ray

Combined Ray

Reflected Ray
Second is when the reflected signal arrives
considerably late and causes phase
distortion on the carrier signal. This form of
interference more severely affects digital
radio links whose carrier is modulated
either with PSK or QAM
Incident Ray

Combined Ray

Reflected Ray

t
Phase Error
INTERFERENCE
• Interference is when extraneous circumstances cause
the carrier waveform or information contained to
randomly change. Interference can be subdivided into 2
classes: Noise and Distortion.

• Noise is when unwanted signals of the same nature as

the carrier or baseband enter the system.
• Distortion is when the signal itself undergoes changes as
it passes through blocks in the system. Most susceptible
in the link is the path, as there are little measures which
can be taken to prevent other signals from entering the
system.
• The most common of path related
interference is Cross Polarization. This is
when the main lobes of 2 links having the
same band of frequencies intersect.
• This causes the information of one link to
jump to the other, resulting in phase and
amplitude distortions on both links.
• This phenomena of parabolic lobe
intersection linkages is used practically in
troposcatter. In this form of microwave
communication, the path is beyond link of
sight.
• This is the reason why troposcatter is also
called beyond the line of sight microwave
propagation and over the horizon radio
link.
• For links which share towers, interference can
occur under several conditions:

• Adjacent Channel Frequency – This occurs

when the carrier frequency of 2 adjacent links
belong to the same band. Since the waveguide
and antenna assemble operate at considerably
large bandwidths, selectivity of the system is
determined at the receiver. If, selectivity is poor,
the receiver may demodulate both signals which
results in baseband distortion.
• There are several methods which channel
isolation of the link can be improved
outside of changing the frequency band.
• Three of the most common practical
solutions to adjacent frequency
interference are: 1) careful planning on the
high band assignments. This would place
a high band and low band link on each
antenna, thus increasing the separation of
receive of each antenna;
• 2) coding the baseband before
transmission – The major advantage of
having some sort of scrambling code
added on the digital baseband is signal
isolation;
• 3) selection of a farther channel plan –
many modern microwave links allow
selecting a different channel plan without
changing any component in the system.
• For links which are Cascaded
• Front-to-Back Coupling – This is when
the backlobe from the antenna of one link
get radio coupled (just like cross
polarization) with either the main lobe, side
lobes or back lobe of another antenna on
the same tower of a different link.
• Solutions to this interference are:
• 1) careful planning of the high band
assignments;
• 2) moving one or both antenna on the
tower which the interference occurs;
• 3) placing a shroud on the antenna ore a
grounded mesh between antennas and;
• 4) changing channel plan of one link.
• Overshoot - This is when the power used
is high enough that it interferes with the far
end of another link.
• The practical solution to this is to lower the
power output of the interfering link.
Adjustable output power is one of those
features found in microwave links today.
• However, should the link already be in the
lowest power setting, or the power output
is not adjustable, a small fixed attenuator
should be place at the receiver of the
interfered link.
• Attenuators convert power into heat and
dissipate it on its body, thus to place the
attenuator on the transmitter is to risk the
RF assembly overheating internally.
REFLECTION
• Multipath Propagation has 2 major
sources. Reflection and Refraction.
• Although reflection is almost always
assumed as due to reflective points along
the terrain, reflection points may occur
after the link has been installed because of
development under the path. Bodies of
water along the path may not necessarily
cause multipath fading, as long as
conditions for reflection can be avoided.
• For accuracy and simplicity, all units
should be consistent. As shown, the
computation of is simply ration and
proportion of 2 similar triangles.

• Points to be considered as reflective are

bodies of water, marshlands, swamps, rice
fields, flat terrains, peaks, snow and ice.
REFLECTION
• For a link of K = 4/3, the earth curvature is
factored into the equation. The grazing
angle is the angle of the tangent to the
earth’s curvature at the point of reflection.
For long haul paths (Paths whose length
are in kilometers and height are in
meters), the angle may be considerably
small and its effects negligible.
REFRACTION
• Refraction fundamentally consists of 2
effects on an electromagnetic wave:

• First, the changing of the angle of

incidence when traveling between 2
bodies of different density and
• second, the reduction or increase of
velocity of propagation.
• Since air is matter, it has weight and therefore
not even distributed in the atmosphere. The
greatest density of air lies at sea level and slowly
thins out as elevation rises. Because of this, the
density, and therefore, the index of refraction or
air is not constant.
• As shown in the figure, the index of refraction at
MSL (mean sea level) is much higher than that
at mountain top. This is also known as an
atmospheric gradient.
• The factor K (earth bulge) is related to this mean
surface refractivity. However, climate does not
remain constant the whole year round.
• During hot and cold seasons, wet and dry
periods, irregular atmospheric conditions, and
even time of day, the refractivity would change
and cause the propagation to divert from its
expected path.
• For long paths, the index of refraction may not
even be constant along the path.
• To compensate for difficult terrain-
inconsistent refractivity-atmospheric
changes along the path, the K factor value
may be adjusted to consider more adverse
conditions.

The change of velocity of the radio wave

under various indices of refraction is so
negligible that it is not a serious factor in
propagation.
NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC
EFFECTS
• When the K-factor value is computed, it is
based on a homogenous surface
refractivity which assumes that the index
of refraction along the path is consistent.
• However, time of day, season of the year,
rain and for, abnormal weather conditions,
these factors have been known to
adversely change refractivity value for a
specific area.
• For long haul paths, and paths with
drastically changing terrain conditions, the
refractivity has known to vary slightly a
number of times between the terminals of
a link.
• This causes the RF propagation,
represented by a ray, to slightly twist,
bend, curve, and straighten as it is
propagated.
• Each particular location has its typical
climate factor and severe climatic
conditions.
• For the tropics, severe winds, heavy
monsoon rain, and the occurrence during
the year can be expected.
• For temperate climates, humidity factors,
snow and fog are considered to be
conditions which may be predictable in
microwave calculation.
• As mentioned earlier, in desert conditions,
ducting and sand storms are also factored
into a link budget.
• This is the reason why the K-factor value
for a link is selected based on the best
description of the conditions of the path.
• The presence of low level clouds, fog, snow,
hail, sand, smog and other atmospheric
conditions between the path, if not taken into
consideration during planning, may cause the
microwave signal to fade. For clouds, fog, snow
and hail, these are basically water along the
path. Sand storms and smog represent bodies of
debris which cover a large area. Although, it is
not heard of that a flock of birds may cause a
link to go down.
TIME OF DAY
• The time of day also creates variances in
the index of refraction of the atmosphere
in a given place. For example, during the
day, the sun heats up the ground like a
giant heat sink, heating the air closer to
the surface more than the air farther up.
Since warm air rises due to lower density,
the index of refraction during the day is
lower than during the night.
• At night, cold air sinks closer to the
surface, making the index of refraction
higher, during transition between night and
day, the slowly warming air rises pushing
aginst the colder air which is still sinking.
This interaction between warm and cold
air movement causes an area where the
temperature rises or drops immediately.
• This finite sheet of rapidly changing
temperature is called an atmospheric duct.
And this “duct” may trap radio waves in it,
bend the direction of the propagation, and
inject sources of multipath interference.
• This phenomenon occurs more often due
to conditions of the terrain. In cases like
sand (desert), the extremes of
temperature during the night and day
almost always cause atmospheric ducts to
be created.
ELEVATED DUCTS
 Multipath Propagation due to
Elevated Ducts
• Duct Reflected - This condition happens when an elevated duct, either
below or above the path, causes the side lobes or main lobe to bounce off
the surface of the duct and target the receiving antenna.

• Duct Refracted - This condition is when an elevated duct, either below or

above the path, accepts then bends, or propagates slightly the signal from a
side lobe or main lobe then sends the signal to the receiving antenna.

• Duct Trapped - A combination of both refraction and reflection. Rare but it

does occur, the spurious signal is trapped between a lower level duct then
exits the duct at the receiving antenna.

• Duct Propagated - That is which common referred to as ducting, is the

condition when the duct contains both the transmitting and receiving
antenna. This condition causes the radio wave to bounce off the interior
surface of the duct, much like an optical fiber
• For these conditions, having travelled a
longer distance, this signal is late and out
of phase with the incident signal, resulting
in fading.

• These atmospheric ducts are not

permanent and occur only for several
minutes at a time. However, that is good
enough to change the reliability of the link.
ELEVATED DUCTS
Where:
Fmin = Minimum Duct Entrapment Frequency
h = Duct Boundary Elevation above transmitting antenna
dn/dh = Refractive Index Gradient (Typically -190 N-
units/Km for ducting)
a = Earth Radius = 6378 Kms
• Notes:
• Frequencies below Fmin are less likely to be trapped
than frequencies above Fmin
• Refractive Index Gradient refers to the change of index
of refraction within the duct.
• There is no unit for atmospheric index of refraction but
changes of which with respect to elevation is N-units/Km
• Typical (K=4/3) gradient is -40 N-units/Km
RAIN FADING
• As previously mentioned, any form of
precipitation in the atmosphere, such what
occurs in clouds to form rain, causes
attenuation of the signal received due to
refraction.
• Two major factors to consider the amount
of attenuation is raindrop rate (which
essentially rain drop size) and frequency.
• Precipitation itself may be one of 3 several natures, depending on
the location and condition.

• 1. Orographic Precipitation is when moist air if force upward to

high ground until due point is reached. This is common in temperate
climates where the shoreline may immediately change into a snow
peaked mountain range.

• 2. Convectional Precipitation occurs during not summer days

when, in the afternoon, there is cloud build up due to the convection
of hot humid air.

• 3. Cyclonic Precipitation is due to synoptic features such as

depressions and fronts. These intense stratified rainfall may occur
for several hours a day and over a large surface area.
• The effects of rain on a microwave length can be related several
ways.

First, rain tends to shorten the effective path length.

where : Ψ - Effective path length, Kms

d - Actual Path Length, Kms
R - Rainfall Rate (Taken from tables)

The Rainfall rate is given by the units of mm/h. CCIR has specifically
charted all regions of the world and contoured areas with relatively
constant rainfall rate.

•
• R being related to the 2 major properties
of a rain drop: Its size and terminal
velocity.
• Secondly, the effects of rain may be
computed as a factor of attenuation
• Take note that the value for K and α depend on
the polarization.
• In recent years, there has been emphasis in
establishing predictive techniques for the
statistical estimation of the attenuation
probability distribution for a particular path.
• Typically used is a system developed by R. K.
Crane for modeling and determining the
attenuation due to rain based on several factors,
including path length, frequency, and point rain
rates.
EFFECTS OF RAIN DROPS ON RF
• Refraction: This is when the radio wave behaves like light and gets
refracted through an optical filter or prism. This is also the same
concept with regards to a rainbow. Each frequency refracts with a
different angle. So in the duplex nature of microwave transmission,
the fading may occur only one way.

• Scattering or Diffusion: In this condition, the sheet of rain acts like a

diffusion filter, causing the normally pencil beam (narrow main lobe)
to enlarge at the point where rain exists. This is also true only when
the wavelength of the frequency used is much larger than the rain
drop size.

• Repropagation: In cases when the wavelength is much smaller than

the raindrop, and gravitation causes the falling raindrop to distort
into an oval shape, each drop would then act like a tiny dipole,
receiving the radio wave and radiating it isotropically. This also
causes the drop to heat up.
CCIR (ITU-R) WORLDWIDE RAINFALL CHART
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
MULTIPATH PROPAGATION
• Frequency
• Path Length
• Humidity
• Temperature
• Wind Velocity
• Fog
• Rainfall Rate
• Frequency - The duplex nature of microwave
links mean that 2 carrier frequencies used may
behave differently, even when belonging to the
same band. It has not be uncommon that
multipath propagation occurs in a path only uni-
directionally, not affecting the duplex
transmission. However, more common enough
is that both directions of propagation are
affected.
• Path Length - For long haul paths,
variations in the atmospheric conditions in
certain parts of the path does cause
multipath propagation. And in long haul
paths, a slight deviation from the antenna
alignment and direction of propagation,
even by a few degrees, may cause a
misalignment of as high as a few tens of
meters.
• Humidity - The amount of water vapor in
the atmosphere. As discussed, the more
humid the location is, the higher the
refractive index of that location. Also, for
paths with water in the middle, the
humidity at that area is also considered to
be higher.
• Temperature - Wide temperature shifts
and extreme temperature values causes
variations in humidity and therefore
refractivity. Conditions temperature rises
and falls at great depths causes elevated
ducts, extreme hit temperature causes
water vaporization and extreme cold
causes condensation.
• Wind Velocity - For high wind velocities,
this may push rain, fog or low level clouds
between the path at erratic intervals, while
areas with low wind velocity cause rain,
fog and low level clouds to maintain an
almost stationary position, causing the
multipath propagation, and resulting fade
to last longer.
• Fog - Like low level clouds, can be
considered to be cold saturated water
vapor close to the point of condensation

• Rainfall Rate - As previously mentioned,

this covers rain drop size and terminal
velocity. Causing factors like diffusion,
refraction and absorption (repropagation)
to occur.
• Although severe conditions may exist in a path, they can
be compensated by means of diversity. Generally
speaking, diversity means offering another alternative
path to one which has a fade occurring. While MHSB
(Monitored Hot Stand By) protects the link from
equipment failure, Diversity protects the link from severe
but predictable path conditions.

• The 2 most commons (and most practical) forms of

diversity are Space Diversity and Frequency Diversity.