micromachines

Article
Shape Programming Using Triangular and
Rectangular Soft Robot Primitives
Phone May Khin 1 , Jin Huat Low 2 , Marcelo H. Ang Jr. 3 and Chen-Hua Yeow 1, *
1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore;
biekpm@nus.edu.sg
2 Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117456, Singapore;
lsiljh@nus.edu.sg
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore;
mpeangh@nus.edu.sg
* Correspondence: rayeow@nus.edu.sg




Received: 13 March 2019; Accepted: 3 April 2019; Published: 7 April 2019


Abstract: This paper presents fabric-based soft robotic modules with primitive morphologies, which
are analogous to basic geometrical polygons—trilateral and quadrilateral. The two modules are
the inflatable beam (IB) and fabric-based rotary actuator (FRA). The FRA module is designed with
origami-inspired V-shaped pleats, which creates a trilateral outline. Upon pressurization, the pleats
unfold, which enables propagation of angular displacement of the FRA module. This allows the
FRA module to be implemented as a mobility unit in the larger assembly of pneumatic structures.
In the following, we examine various ways by which FRA modules can be connected to IB modules.
We studied how different ranges of motion can be achieved by varying the design of the rotary joint
of the assemblies. Using a state transition-based position control system, movement of the assembled
modules could be controlled by regulating the pneumatic pressurization of the FRA module at the
joint. These basic modules allow us to build different types of pneumatic structures. In this paper,
using IB and FRA modules of various dimensions, we constructed a soft robotic limb with an end
effector, which can be attached to wheelchairs to provide assistive grasping functions for users
with disabilities.

Keywords: flexible structures; soft pneumatic actuators; fabric-based soft actuator

1. Introduction
Geometry—the study of points, lines, and angles—is an extensive branch of mathematics that is
deeply ingrained in our daily lives and the objects that surround us. Shape is one of the most basic
ways by which we identify and characterize objects. According to the book of Euclid’s Elements by
Euclid of Alexandria, various types of polygons exist to describe shapes of different forms, and the
simplest one of them all would be trilateral polygon, an amalgamation of which can be used to derive
more complex polygons [1]. It is interesting to note that, throughout civilization, triangles have widely
been implemented in architecture. From the construction of bridges [2] to pyramids [3], the structures
were characterized by triangular supporting elements. Given such extensive application of this specific
geometry, it would be rather intriguing to explore how this particular figure could be further extended
in the development of soft robots. In the field of soft robots where actuators are designed to activate
into shapes of various form, it might be interesting to investigate how to develop a simple actuator
unit of basic polygonal morphology, which can be used as the rudimentary cell structure to build
larger assemblies of more complex shapes.

Micromachines 2019, 10, 236; doi:10.3390/mi10040236 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 2 of 15

Fluidic elastomeric actuators (FEAs) of soft robots are commonly designed to be expanded or
elongated in shape, with an internal pneumatic chamber [4]. Upon pressurization, the fluidic chambers
inflate and FEAs achieve various forms of actuation, such as twisting, curling, and elongation [5],
which intend to imitate the movement of natural beings, such as octopuses [6], snakes [7], and
caterpillars [8]. It has been widely reported in literature that FEAs are designed with pneu-nets,
which are inner channels that form actuation pathways for pressurized fluid, such as water and
air [9]. The common way of fabricating FEAs would be via molding of siloxane-based polymers
such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and silicone rubber. In order to ensure a correct form of
actuation, reinforcement materials such as stiffer elastomeric polymer or woven nonstretchable fibers
are included in the design as strain limiting layer [10,11]. The thickness of the fluidic chamber wall and
reinforcement materials regulate the variation in stiffness of the fluidic chamber wall of FEA, which
would in turn determine the actuation performance of the FEA. Lately, 3D printing has been used as a
new way of fabricating soft robots, whereby the actuator is designed with 3D computer-aided design
(CAD) software. The design is then fabricated using low-cost consumer-grade printers at varying fill
capacity to create fluidic pathways [12,13]. A top–down fabrication approach is generally adopted for
soft robots, whereby each actuator is custom-designed for target application and actuation form [14].
In addition, modular soft robots have also been developed for various applications and actuation
forms [14–17]. Modularity aims to simplify the fabrication process and troubleshooting process.
If damages were to occur to the module-based soft robot structure, the repair process would be
simpler by replacing the faulty module. In this paper, we further explored the modular concept for
developing soft pneumatic actuator modules, which exhibit shape morphology that is analogous to
basic geometrical polygons.

2. Related Works
Modular soft robots were previously discussed by Onal and Rus, who designed and fabricated
FEA modules, which can be arranged in serial, parallel, and hybrid configuration [15]. However,
elastomer-based modules are fabricated by molding of liquid silicone polymer, which solidifies into
the desired form upon curing. In order to attach the modules, a similar technique was applied
which made the process irreversible, as the cured modules cannot be detached from one another.
Furthermore, loss of mechanical energy, which would otherwise be used in force or torque generation,
would occur due to deformation of elastic material. There is a limitation on the compatibility of the
actuator, as the air chambers need to be designed and fabricated with minimum thickness to assure
a correct form of actuation [16]. Lee et al. explored an alternative way of designing modular soft
robots [14]. A comprehensive design collection of modules was presented, each of which have diverse
functions—motion generation, air distribution, and connection. By selecting and arranging modules
of different functions, the user is able to develop soft robots of any desired shapes or functions, such as
gripper or locomotion. The actuators modules were fabricated using either multimaterial 3D-printing
or molding. Each module is designed with a pneumatic chamber, and the wall thickness is varied
to permit different actuation modes. Three mechanical connection mechanisms, which are screw
thread, push fitting, and bi-stable junction, were presented and discussed. Each pneumatic module
is fabricated with hollow connectors at either end to allow the modules to be easily attached and
detached to each other by mechanical means and hence, upon connection, a central fluidic pathway
is formed within the assembled modules. However, addition of extruding mechanical connectors
compromises the intrinsic soft nature of the actuators and the maximum engagement pressure [17].
In this paper, a simple modular design concept is adopted, whereby triangular and rectangular
shape primitives are introduced—the inflatable beam (IB) module and fabric-based rotary actuator
(FRA) module. Fabric material is used to fabricate these soft pneumatic actuator modules. Fabric-based
soft actuators have begun to emerge lately for various applications, such as robotic grippers or wearable
rehabilitation devices [18]. The thin nature of fabric sheet allows us to create pneumatic actuators
with walls which are thinner than those of silicone-based actuators, and yet capable of generating
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 3 of 15

Micromachines 2019,
comparable 10, x
performance. In contrast to silicone actuators whose fluidic chambers are fabricated using 3 of 14

custom-shaped molds and liquid elastomeric polymers, the sheets of fabric-based actuators can be
actuators
folded andcan be into
sealed folded andwhich
pleats, sealedwould
into pleats,
serve aswhich would
pneumatic serve asThe
chambers. pneumatic
propagationchambers. The
of actuating
propagation of actuating motion is determined by the characteristics of the
motion is determined by the characteristics of the pleats—dimensions, location, and number of thepleats—dimensions,
location,
pleats. Inand number
addition, of the pleats.fabrication
a fabric-based In addition, a fabric-based
protocol fabrication
enables scaling up ofprotocol
actuatorenables scaling
designs, up
without
of actuator designs,
compromising on the without compromising
convenience on theprotocol
of fabrication convenience of fabrication
and required time protocol and required
[19–21]. Compared to
time [19–21]. Compared to 3D-printed actuators [13], fabric-based actuators
3D-printed actuators [13], fabric-based actuators require a lower range of pneumatic pressurerequire a lower range to
of
pneumatic pressure to function. The contributions of the paper as follows: (1) A
function. The contributions of the paper as follows: (1) A simple modular design concept using shape simple modular
design concept
primitives that areusing shapebyprimitives
inspired that arepolygons,
basic geometrical inspired byandbasic geometricalofpolygons,
(2) construction and (2)
larger pneumatic
construction of larger pneumatic structures using fabric-based modules which
structures using fabric-based modules which can be assembled and disassembled. In the following can be assembled and
disassembled.
sections, In thethe
we discuss following sections,ofwe
design concept thediscuss
modules,theidentify
design and
concept of the modules,
characterize identifyofand
configurations the
modules, implement a position control system for the assembled modules, and highlight assembled
characterize configurations of the modules, implement a position control system for the a possible
modules, and
application of highlight
the modules. a possible application of the modules.

3. Materials
3. Materials and
and Methods
Methods
Two actuator
Two actuator shape
shape primitives
primitives were
were designed—the
designed—the IB IB module
module and and the
the FRA
FRA module
module (Figure
(Figure 1).1).
The IB module was designed in a rectangular block form to provide structural
The IB module was designed in a rectangular block form to provide structural function in the assembly function in the
assembly
of of soft
soft robots, robots,
whereas thewhereas the FRA
FRA module module
provides provides
mobility mobility
function function
to the to theWhen
soft robots. soft robots. When
pressurized,
pressurized,
the IB module thewill
IB module willainflate
inflate into into awhich
rigid beam rigid beam
can bewhich
used can
as an beextension
used as anfor extension
the networkfor the
of
network of a modular-based pneumatic structure. FRAs are designed with
a modular-based pneumatic structure. FRAs are designed with origami-inspired V-shaped pleats origami-inspired V-
shapedremain
which pleats which
folded remain
when theyfolded
arewhen theyUpon
deflated. are deflated.
pneumatic Upon pneumatic pressurization,
pressurization, the inner pleatstheinflate,
inner
pleats inflate,
which which
causes the FRAscauses the up.
to open FRAs to to
Due open up. Due
pleated to pleated
design, design,aFRA
FRA assumes assumes
triangular a triangular
outline in both
outline in both pressurized and depressurized state. The dimensions of its triangular
pressurized and depressurized state. The dimensions of its triangular form, however, change based on form, however,
change
the based
internal on the internal
pneumatic pressure.pneumatic
Therefore,pressure. Therefore,
by regulating by regulating
the pneumatic the pneumatic
pressure, the FRA formpressure,
could
the FRA form could be controlled. The opening and closing motion of FRA enable
be controlled. The opening and closing motion of FRA enable the module to be implemented in larger the module to be
implemented in larger pneumatic structures
pneumatic structures as rotary joint modules. as rotary joint modules.

Figure
Figure 1. (a) Illustration
1. (a) of the
Illustration of the fabric-based
fabric-based rotary
rotary actuator
actuator (FRA)
(FRA) and
and inflatable
inflatable beam
beam (IB)
(IB) module
module
assembly, (b) Photo of end-effector to illustrate the connection of FRA and IB modules,
assembly, (b) Photo of end-effector to illustrate the connection of FRA and IB modules, (c) (c) FRA module
FRA
in inactive
module in state, (d) Ninjaflex
inactive state, (d) endoskeleton, and (e) enlarged
Ninjaflex endoskeleton, cross-sectional
and (e) view of FRA view
enlarged cross-sectional with internal
of FRA
Ninjaflex endoskeleton.
with internal Ninjaflex endoskeleton.

Fabric was used to fabricate the modules and it was coated with thermoplastic polyurethane
Fabric was used to fabricate the modules and it was coated with thermoplastic polyurethane
(Jiaxing Inch ECO Materials Co. LTD, Zhejiang, China). By inducing heat or ultrasonic acoustic
(Jiaxing Inch ECO Materials Co. LTD, Zhejiang, China). By inducing heat or ultrasonic acoustic
vibrations on multiple layers of stacked fabrics, the polyurethane coating on the layers will melt
vibrations on multiple layers of stacked fabrics, the polyurethane coating on the layers will melt and
and be welded together. In this way, airtight pneumatic structures can be formed. However, the
be welded together. In this way, airtight pneumatic structures can be formed. However, the fabric
fabric materials are not of hyperelastic nature, as compared to the rubber elastomers that are used to
materials are not of hyperelastic nature, as compared to the rubber elastomers that are used to
develop soft robotic structures in previous works. Hence, when deactivated, the fabric-based module
develop soft robotic structures in previous works. Hence, when deactivated, the fabric-based module
takes longer to return to its default state. Therefore, to solve this limitation, the FRA module was
takes longer to return to its default state. Therefore, to solve this limitation, the FRA module was
fitted with a C-shaped frame (Figure 1d), which was fabricated using Ninjaflex filament (NinjaTek,
Manheim, PA, USA) via fused deposition modeling on a LulzBot TAZ 6 at 100% fill capacity. The
inner C-shaped frame serves as the endoskeleton of the module, which improves the passive
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 4 of 15

Micromachines
fitted with a2019, 10, x
C-shaped frame (Figure 1d), which was fabricated using Ninjaflex filament (NinjaTek, 4 of 14
Manheim, PA, USA) via fused deposition modeling on a LulzBot TAZ 6 at 100% fill capacity. The inner
actuation
C-shapedprocess of the module
frame serves when it is deactivated.
as the endoskeleton This ensures
of the module, which consistent
improves the andpassive
fast return of the
actuation
module to its inactive state.
process of the module when it is deactivated. This ensures consistent and fast return of the module to
FRA modules
its inactive state. and IB modules can be assembled in various configurations. The basic assembly
would consist
FRA modules of a single
and IB FRA modulecan
modules andbetwo IB modules
assembled which would
in various be denoted
configurations. as basic
The SNG assembly
assembly
in subsequent sections (Figure 2b‒e). Intermediate assembly would
would consist of a single FRA module and two IB modules which would be denoted as SNG consist of two IB modules and
assembly
two FRA modules
in subsequent sectionsassembled in series
(Figure 2b–e). (Figure assembly
Intermediate 2f‒k) or in wouldparallel
consist(Figure
of two2l‒q) which and
IB modules willtwo
be
respectively denoted as SRS assembly and PLL assembly in subsequent sections.
FRA modules assembled in series (Figure 2f–k) or in parallel (Figure 2l–q) which will be respectively In the following, the
static
denotedresponse
as SRSofassembly
assemblies andto PLL
supplied pneumatic
assembly pressure was
in subsequent analyzed.
sections. In theThree assemblies
following, with
the static
different
response configuration
of assemblies to of supplied
FRA modules at thepressure
pneumatic rotary joint (SNG assembly,
was analyzed. SRS assembly
Three assemblies withand PLL
different
assembly) were fabricated. The FRA modules were fabricated to the size
configuration of FRA modules at the rotary joint (SNG assembly, SRS assembly and PLL assembly) of 50 mm by 25 mm. The
attached IB modules
were fabricated. The were fabricatedwere
FRA modules to befabricated
of 50 mmtoby the25size
mmofby 5050mm mm.by The
25 mm.formerThedimensions
attached IB
were chosen for the convenience of the fabrication protocol. IB modules
modules were fabricated to be of 50 mm by 25 mm by 50 mm. The former dimensions were chosen were fabricated to be of thefor
same dimensions as FRA modules to ensure uniform distribution of force. To
the convenience of the fabrication protocol. IB modules were fabricated to be of the same dimensions enable development of
reconfigurable
as FRA modules pneumatic
to ensurestructures, the ends of IB
uniform distribution ofmodules
force. Toand FRAdevelopment
enable modules were offabricated
reconfigurablewith
excess of fabric (5 mm), which was perforated with holes of 2 mm diameter
pneumatic structures, the ends of IB modules and FRA modules were fabricated with excess of fabric (Figure 1a,b). This allows
IB
(5 modules
mm), which and was
FRAperforated
modules towith be interlaced
holes of 2withmmeach other by
diameter weaving
(Figure cables
1a,b). Thisthrough
allows IB themodules
aligned
perforation
and FRA modulesof adjacent
to be modules.
interlaced This
with enables
each otherassembly and disassembly
by weaving cables through of the
IB modules and FRA
aligned perforation
modules. Unlike previously reported modular concepts, there would
of adjacent modules. This enables assembly and disassembly of IB modules and FRA modules. be no central fluidic pathways
within the structure
Unlike previously of connected
reported modular modules. Each would
concepts, there module be has its own
no central pneumatic
fluidic pathways inlet, andthe
within a
pneumatic network is formed by linking the inlet tubes of different modules
structure of connected modules. Each module has its own pneumatic inlet, and a pneumatic network using commercially
available
is formedconnectors.
by linking Hence,
the inlet it tubes
removes the need modules
of different to create fluid
usingdirecting
commerciallyunits, available
and there connectors.
could be a
selective
Hence, it activation
removes the ofneed
modules within
to create fluidthe pneumatic
directing units,structure
and thereby selectively
could forming
be a selective multiple
activation of
pneumatic networks.
modules within the pneumatic structure by selectively forming multiple pneumatic networks.

Figure 2. Cont.

Figure 2. (a) One FRA module in depressurized (inactive) state and pressurized (active) state. (b‒q)
show assemblies with different configurations of FRA modules with IB modules and the active and
inactive states of the assemblies. Active state refers to pneumatic pressurization of FRA module,
which rotates the assembly. (b‒e) One FRA module and two IB modules (SNG assembly), (f‒k) two
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 5 of 15

Figure 2.
Figure (a) One
2. (a) One FRA
FRA module
module in
in depressurized
depressurized (inactive)
(inactive) state
state and
and pressurized
pressurized (active)
(active)state.
state. (b‒q)
(b–q)
show assemblies
assemblies
Micromachines
show withdifferent
2019, 10, x with differentconfigurations
configurationsof
ofFRA
FRAmodules
moduleswith
with IB
IB modules
modules and
and the
the active
active and
and5 of 14
inactive states
inactive states of
ofthe
theassemblies.
assemblies.Active
Activestate refers
state to pneumatic
refers pressurization
to pneumatic of FRA
pressurization of module, which
FRA module,
FRA
which modules
rotatesrotates connected
the assembly. in series
(b–e) One
the assembly. (b‒e)FRAand two
One module IB
FRA module modules
and two
andIB (SRS assembly),
modules
two (SNG(SNG
IB modules (l‒q) two
assembly), FRA modules
(f–k)(f‒k)
assembly), two FRA
two
connected
modules in parallel
connected inand two
series IBtwo
and modules (PLL assembly).
IB modules (SRS assembly), (l–q) two FRA modules connected in
parallel and two IB modules (PLL assembly).
4. Experiments
4. Experiments
4.1. Deflection Behavior of IB Module
4.1. Deflection Behavior of IB Module
Wrinkling effect is a common phenomenon in textile-based pneumatic structures, which
Wrinkling effect is a common phenomenon in textile-based pneumatic structures, which
subsequently affects the stiffness of the structure and its load supporting capacity. Wrinkling occurs
subsequently affects the stiffness of the structure and its load supporting capacity. Wrinkling occurs
on the concave side of the inflated textile structure, where the textile is unable to resist compressive
on the concave side of the inflated textile structure, where the textile is unable to resist compressive
loads. In the wrinkled region, the bending stress due to the applied moment equilibrates axial stress
loads. In the wrinkled region, the bending stress due to the applied moment equilibrates axial stress in
in the textile layer [22]. In this paper, we focus on the load bearing capability of IB module in its initial
the textile layer [22]. In this paper, we focus on the load bearing capability of IB module in its initial
unwrinkled phase. Most of the applications require IB module to have minimal vertical deflection
unwrinkled phase. Most of the applications require IB module to have minimal vertical deflection
when the external load is applied on it. For instance, in the subsequent sections, we illustrate a
when the external load is applied on it. For instance, in the subsequent sections, we illustrate a portable
portable pneumatic limb structure that has an end-effector that enables it to grasp objects in its
pneumatic limb structure that has an end-effector that enables it to grasp objects in its surrounding
surrounding environment. In this case, minimal vertical deflection of the IB module is essential to
environment. In this case, minimal vertical deflection of the IB module is essential to allow the limb
allow the limb to efficiently transfer objects from one location to another. For this experiment, the IB
to efficiently transfer objects from one location to another. For this experiment, the IB module was
module was fabricated to be 200 mm in length and 25 mm in diameter when inflated. One end of the
fabricated to be 200 mm in length and 25 mm in diameter when inflated. One end of the beam was fixed
beam was fixed onto a rigid platform, while the other end of the beam was placed in contact with a
onto a rigid platform, while the other end of the beam was placed in contact with a load cell (1000 N)
load cell (1000 N) of Instron Universal Tester 3345 (Instron, Norwood, MA, USA) (Figure 3). When
of Instron Universal Tester 3345 (Instron, Norwood, MA, USA) (Figure 3). When the test begins, the
the test begins, the load cell moves in vertical displacement (Figure 3). Deflection of the beam and the
load cell moves in vertical displacement (Figure 3). Deflection of the beam and the corresponding
corresponding load exerted by the load cell is recorded by Instron machine. Two sets of deflection
load exerted by the load cell is recorded by Instron machine. Two sets of deflection behaviors were
behaviors were observed, when the IB module is pressurized at 10 kPa and 20 kPa.
observed, when the IB module is pressurized at 10 kPa and 20 kPa.

Figure 3. Photo (a) and illustration (b) of deflection–load test set-up for the IB module.
Figure 3. Photo (a) and illustration (b) of deflection–load test set-up for the IB module.

4.2. Angular Displacement Profile of Assembled Modules

The displacement characteristics of assembled modules due to pneumatic pressurization of the
FRA module would vary based on the number and configuration of FRA modules at the joint. Hence,
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 6 of 15

4.2. Angular Displacement Profile of Assembled Modules

The displacement characteristics of assembled modules due to pneumatic pressurization of
the FRA module would vary based on the number and configuration of FRA modules at the joint.
Hence, it is essential to understand the range of motion of assemblies of different configurations
(SNG assembly, SRS assembly, and PLL assembly) (Figure 2). Based on this information, appropriate
assemblies can be chosen and applied to form different pneumatic structures of variable functions and
uses. IB modules of the assembly are supplied with constant pneumatic pressure of 20 kPa. The IB
module at one end of the assembly is fixed and the second IB module at the other end is allowed to
move freely upon activation of the FRA module at the joint. Changes in angle displacement of the
Micromachines 2019, 10, x 6 of 14
assembly due to actuating the FRA module are recorded at different pressure levels. The FRA module
at
thethe rotary
FRA joint istopneumatically
module expand and actuated
deform. from 0 kPa to
However, 50 kPa.
upon Pneumatic
removal of thepressurization causes the
pneumatic source, the
FRA
modulemodule to expand
returns and deform.
to its original state. However, upon removal of the pneumatic source, the module
returns to its original state.
4.3. Stiffness of Assembled Modules
4.3. Stiffness of Assembled Modules
Joint stiffness of assembly is introduced by the intrinsic resistance of the FRA module to
Joint stiffness of assembly is introduced by the intrinsic resistance of the FRA module to rotational
rotational efforts caused by pneumatic pressurization. The joint stiffness is obtained by measuring
efforts caused by pneumatic pressurization. The joint stiffness is obtained by measuring the passive
the passive torque output of the assembled modules at different actuation angles. SNG assembly with
torque output of the assembled modules at different actuation angles. SNG assembly with a single FRA
a single FRA module is loaded onto the test platform, whereby the IB module at one end of the
module is loaded onto the test platform, whereby the IB module at one end of the assembly is fixed
assembly is fixed and the second IB module at the other end is moved to specific joint angles (Figure
and the second IB module at the other end is moved to specific joint angles (Figure 4), during which
4), during which the joint FRA module remains depressurized. A torque sensor (Forsentek, Shenzhen,
the joint FRA module remains depressurized. A torque sensor (Forsentek, Shenzhen, China) is used to
China) is used to record the passive torque output of the assembly, from which joint stiffness can be
record the passive torque output of the assembly, from which joint stiffness can be approximated as a
approximated as a function of joint angles.
function of joint angles.

Figure 4. Illustration of passive resistive torque measurement set up of the SNG assembly.
Figure 4. Illustration of passive resistive torque measurement set up of the SNG assembly.
5. Results and Discussion
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Deflection Behavior of IB Module
5.1. Deflection Behavior
Figure 5 shows theof deflection
IB Module behavior of the IB module in response to applied load, when it is
supplied with
Figure 10 kPathe
5 shows and 20 kPa ofbehavior
deflection pneumatic pressure.
of the Nylon
IB module in fabric
responseforms the external
to applied load,skin
when of itthe
is
IB modulewith
supplied and10 is isotropic
kPa and 20 in nature (Young’s Modulus
kPa of pneumatic = 34700
pressure. NylonN/m). Upon application
fabric forms the externalof load,
skin of the
the
beam deflects,
IB module andand this behavior
is isotropic is dependent
in nature (Young’son the elastic
Modulus modulus
= 34700 N/m).of Upon
the fabric and the dimensions
application of load, the
of the beam. Deflection of the beam would undergo three phases [22]. In
beam deflects, and this behavior is dependent on the elastic modulus of the fabric and thethe initial phase of beam
dimensions
deflection,
of the beam. the external fabric
Deflection of the layer
beam of the beam
would is unwrinkled.
undergo three phasesThe [22].beam
In thewould
initialexhibit a linear
phase of beam
relationship between deflection of the beam and applied load. This relationship can
deflection, the external fabric layer of the beam is unwrinkled. The beam would exhibit a linear be described using
conventional solid elastic
relationship between beam and
deflection of Euler beamand
the beam theory [22]. load.
applied In theThis
subsequent phase,can
relationship wrinkling of the
be described
external skin (nylonsolid
using conventional fabric) of the
elastic beambeamandwould occur,theory
Euler beam when [22].
the applied load reaches
In the subsequent the wrinkling
phase, wrinkling
of the external skin (nylon fabric) of the beam would occur, when the applied load reaches the
wrinkling point [22]. Increase in magnitude of applied load leads to propagation of wrinkling of the
nylon fabric until it reaches the collapse point, whereby the beam is no longer able to support the
applied load. This experiment measures the load bearing capacity of the inflatable beam before
wrinkling occurs. Based on Euler theory [22], deflection of the beam in the unwrinkled phase can be
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 7 of 15

point [22]. Increase in magnitude of applied load leads to propagation of wrinkling of the nylon
fabric until it reaches the collapse point, whereby the beam is no longer able to support the applied
load. This experiment measures the load bearing capacity of the inflatable beam before wrinkling
occurs. Based on Euler theory [22], deflection of the beam in the unwrinkled phase can be modeled as
a regression line with a gradient of 0.0799 N/mm, which is also indicated in Figure 5.
The load bearing capacity of the IB module is independent of inflation pressure during the initial
unwrinkled phase. Hence, the slope of the regression line, which relates deflection of the IB module
with respect to applied load, remains the same for different pneumatic pressures [23]. However, the
threshold of load, which is required for wrinkling to occur, is affected by input pneumatic pressure.
Micromachines 2019, 10, x 7 of 14
The wrinkling load threshold of beam increases, when the supplied pneumatic pressure to the beam
increases
is able tofrom 10 kPa to withstand
theoretically 20 kPa. Fora an inflated load
wrinkling beamofof0.307
25 mmN,in diameter
when and 200 mm
it is supplied within20length,
kPa of
it pressurized
is able to theoretically
air. When input pneumatic pressure is reduced to 10 kPa, the wrinkling load20threshold
withstand a wrinkling load of 0.307 N, when it is supplied with kPa of
pressurized
reduces to air. When
0.153 input pneumatic
N (Figure 5). At this pressure
point, theis experimental
reduced to 10data
kPa, also
the wrinkling load threshold
begin to deviate from the
reduces
expectedto linear
0.153 N (Figure 5).
regression At this
model point,
for load the experimental
bearing data
capacity in the also beginphase.
unwrinkled to deviate from the
expected linear regression model for load bearing capacity in the unwrinkled phase.

Figure 5. Load–deflection behavior of the IB module.

Figure 5. Load–deflection behavior of the IB module.
5.2. Angular Displacement Profile of Assembled Modules
5.2. Angular Displacement Profile of Assembled Modules
Angular displacement of assembled modules is generated by the unfolding action of the joint
Angular SNG
FRA module. displacement
assemblyofexhibits
assembled modules
higher angular is generated
displacementby the unfolding
compared action of the
to assemblies joint
with
FRA module.
double SNG assembly
FRA modules (SRS assemblyexhibits
andhigher angular displacement
PLL assembly). comparedmaximum
For the SNG assembly, to assemblies with
angular
double FRA (124.86
displacement modules 0.50◦ )assembly
± (SRS is reachedand PLL
at 30 assembly).
kPa, For thea SNG
beyond which assembly,
plateau maximum
is observed angular
upon further
displacement
increment (124.86 ±pressure
in pneumatic 0.50°) is(Figure
reached6).atThis
30 kPa, beyond
is because thewhich a plateau
unfolding of theisFRA
observed
moduleupon further
is limited
byincrement
the lengthinofpneumatic
inner folded pressure (Figure
fabric layer. The6).
SRSThis is because
assembly the maximum
exhibits unfolding angular
of the FRA module is
displacement
oflimited
56.14 ±by0.26 ◦ and
the length
64.39 1.66◦folded
of±inner fabric
in either layer. The
direction. The PLL
SRS assembly
assemblyexhibits
exhibitsmaximum
maximumangular
angular
displacementof of
displacement 56.14
48.98 ± 1.71 ◦
± 0.26°
andand
48.6764.39
± 0.74 ◦
± 1.66° in either
in either direction. The PLL assembly exhibits
direction.
maximum angular displacement of 48.98 ± 1.71° and 48.67 ± 0.74° in either direction.
 double FRA modules (SRS assembly and PLL assembly). For the SNG assembly, maximum angular
displacement (124.86 ± 0.50°) is reached at 30 kPa, beyond which a plateau is observed upon further
increment in pneumatic pressure (Figure 6). This is because the unfolding of the FRA module is
limited by the length of inner folded fabric layer. The SRS assembly exhibits maximum angular
displacement of 56.14 ± 0.26° and 64.39 ± 1.66° in either direction. The PLL assembly exhibits
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 8 of 15
maximum angular displacement of 48.98 ± 1.71° and 48.67 ± 0.74° in either direction.

Figure 6. Experimental
Figure 6. Experimental and predicted
and angular
predicted displacement
angular profiles
displacement of of
profiles assemblies—SNG
assemblies—SNG assembly,
assembly,
SRSSRS
assembly,
assembly, and PLL assembly. SRS and PLL assemblies have two FRA modules, each which
and PLL assembly. SRS and PLL assemblies have two FRA modules, each of is is
of which
pressurized selectively. Hence, two sets of angular displacement profiles are presented for the
pressurized selectively. Hence, two sets of angular displacement profiles are presented for the SRS SRS
(SRS_MD1
(SRS_MD1 andand
SRS_MD2)
SRS_MD2) andand
PLL assembly
PLL assembly(PLL_MD1
(PLL_MD1 andand
PLL_MD2).
PLL_MD2). MD1MD1refers to the
refers state
to the state
whereby the first FRA module is pressurized and the second FRA module depressurized. MD2 refers
to the state whereby the first FRA module is depressurized and the second FRA module pressurized.

The morphology of the actuated FRA module is assumed to adopt a simplified outline with
resemblance of a triangle. Upon pressurization, the unfolded section of the inner fabric layer forms a
triangular outline with the outer fabric layer. As the FRA module expands upon pressurization, the
outline of the module also increases with pneumatic pressure. The unfolding action of the activated
FRA module causes a respective change in the angulation. It is assumed that the external fabric
layer is inextensible and that during the initial unpressurized state, the external and internal layer
form rectilinear edges. Figure 7 shows a simplified illustration of changes in the FRA outline during
pressurization. When pressurization begins and the inner pleats of FRA begin to unfold, the external
and internal layers form an angle with respect to each other. Compression force, which is generated
along the inner fabric layer of FRA due to pressurized air, is translated into a pushing force due to the
way the inner layer is folded. Increasing pneumatic pressure within the FRA results in corresponding
increment in the pushing force. This causes FRA to unfold further, until force equilibrium is reached
along the inner fabric layer of the module. The inner fold of the FRA module is approximated as a
wide beam [24], and the corresponding change in unfolded length of inner fabric layer at respective
pneumatic pressure is expressed by the following relation:

∆P = P1 = P2 = PF , (1)

BP = ((PF ·B0 (B0 − BP-1 ))/α·tp ·E) + BP-1 . (2)

is approximated as a wide beam [24], and the corresponding change in unfolded length of inner fabric
layer at respective pneumatic pressure is expressed by the following relation:
∆P = P1 = P2 = PF, (1)

Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 9 of 15

BP = ((PF·B0(B0 − BP-1))/α·tp·E) + BP-1. (2)

Figure 7. (a–c) Simplified illustration of FRA module outline at different pneumatic pressure,
Figure 7. (a‒c)
(d) enclosed Simplified
view illustration
of the dotted section of
in FRA
(b). module outline at different pneumatic pressure, (d)
enclosed view of the dotted section in (b).
∆P is pneumatic pressure supplied to the FRA module. P1 and P2 refer to pressure along the
innerΔP is pneumatic
surface of FRA pressure
during thesupplied to thestate.
equilibrium FRA module. P1 andapplied
PF is pressure P2 referalong
to pressure
the inneralong the
folded
inner surface of FRA during the equilibrium state. P is pressure applied along
edge to generate pushing force, which causes the FRA module to unfold. B0 is the breadth of the
F the inner folded edge
to generate
inner fabric pushing
layer of theforce,
FRA which causes
module. BP isthe
theFRA module
length of theto unfold.
inner B0which
layer, is the isbreadth
unfoldedof at
thecurrent
inner
fabric layer of the FRA module. B is the length of the inner layer, which
pneumatic pressure (∆P), whereas BP-1 is the length of the inner layer, which has previously been
P is unfolded at current
pneumatic
unfolded atpressure (ΔP), whereas
lower pneumatic BP-1 isEthe
pressure. length
refers of the inner
to Young’s layer,ofwhich
Modulus fabrichas[25].previously
α refers tobeen
the
Micromachines
unfolded
stiffness 2019, 10,
at lower
coefficient ofx the jointpressure.
pneumatic E refers to
of the assembled Young’s The
modules. Modulus of fabriccoefficient
joint stiffness [25]. α refers to 9the
is derived of 14
stiffness coefficient
directly from of the joint
the experiment of the assembled
in Section 4.3, whereby modules.
resistiveThe joint
torque stiffness
output coefficient
of the is derived
SNG assembly with
directly from the experiment in Section 4.3, whereby resistive torque output of the SNG assembly
one FRA module at the joint is measured at different joint angles (Figure 8).
with one FRA module at the joint is measured at different joint angles (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Measurement of resistive torque generated by SNG assembly (one FRA module and two
IBFigure 8. Measurement of resistive torque generated by SNG assembly (one FRA module and two IB
modules).
modules).
tp is the length of the inner layer, upon which pushing force is concentrated to cause unfolding of
FRA. tptpisisassumed
the length
to of
be the inner layer,
of minimum upon
length ofwhich
0.4 mm,pushing
which force
is the is concentrated
thickness of the to causeThe
fabric. unfolding
range
ofofmotion
FRA. tof p is assumed
the to be ofisminimum
FRA module limited bylength of 0.4 mm,
the amount which
of fabric is thethe
within thickness
pleat andof the
the fabric. The
inherent
range of of
resistance motion of the FRA
the Ninjaflex module isThe
endoskeleton. limited
innerbyfolding
the amount of and
of fabric fabric within endoskeleton
Ninjaflex the pleat and ofthe
inherent resistance of the Ninjaflex endoskeleton. The inner folding of fabric and Ninjaflex
endoskeleton of the FRA module provides resistance to the unfolding motion of the module. This
enables the module to resume its initial angle at an unactuated state. In an assembled modular
structure, resistance to deformation may vary based on the number of FRA modules attached at the
rotary joint. As seen in Figure 6, the angular displacements of the SRS and PLL assemblies are smaller
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 10 of 15

the FRA module provides resistance to the unfolding motion of the module. This enables the module
to resume its initial angle at an unactuated state. In an assembled modular structure, resistance to
deformation may vary based on the number of FRA modules attached at the rotary joint. As seen in
Figure 6, the angular displacements of the SRS and PLL assemblies are smaller than that of the SNG
assembly. To explain this occurrence, a spring model is adopted based on the assumption that stiffness
of the assemblies varies with the number and orientation of the FRA modules. Due to variation in
stiffness of rotary joints, module assemblies with different configurations of FRA modules would have
different ranges of motion. Rotary joints that are designed with multiple FRA modules would exhibit
higher resistance. In the following, the multiple modular joint design is modeled using a parallel spring
model to reflect the increase in stiffness of the joint. Due to the increase in joint resistance to rotation,
the length of unfolded fabric would also decrease and, hence, the range of angular displacement.

θP = 2 sin−1 (BP /L0 ), (3)

F = κeq ·X, (4)

κeq = κ1 + κ2 , (5)

α = κ1 . (6)

L0 is the length of the inner fabric layer of the FRA module. θP refers to angular displacement of
the FRA module. κeq is the equilibrium stiffness of the rotary joint of the assembled modules, whereby
κ1 and κ2 refer to the stiffness of the FRA modules in the rotary joint. In intermediate rotary joint
assemblies, two identical FRA modules were fabricated, whereby κ1 = κ2 .
Figure 6 also shows the expected angular displacement profile of module assemblies based on the
mathematical assumption and model (SNG (model), SRS (model), and PLL (model)). For assembly
with one FRA joint module (SNG assembly), a similar angular displacement profile was observed
between the experimental and model-derived data. However, discrepancy was observed between
the expected and measured displacement profiles of assemblies with intermediate joint assemblies
(SRS and PLL assemblies). This discrepancy is due to the simplified assumptions of the spring model.
Additional parameters such as resistance to rotation due to stacking of multiple layers of fabric may
need to be considered. In order to more accurately predict the motion of intermediate assemblies,
a more complex spring model would be required. In general, the displacement profiles of all three
assemblies (SNG, SRS, and PLL assemblies) are comparable between the experimental results and
model. The SNG assembly showed a larger displacement, followed by an SRS assembly and then
PLL assembly.

6. Design of Control System

A state machine was developed as a position control system for the assembled modules, whereby
pneumatic pressure within the FRA modules at the rotary joint is regulated to control the position of
the linked IB modules. Zhao et al. developed state machine controllers for the elastomeric fingers
in the soft orthotic glove [26], whereby optical fiber sensors were used to provide feedback of the
curvature of the elastomeric actuators. Similarly, in this paper, a state machine controller was designed
for each FRA module in the joint of the assembled modules. For each state machine controller, an
integrated valve system was designed with two miniature normally-closed solenoid valves (X-Valve,
Parker Hannifin Corp., OH, USA), which have a nominal response time of 20 ms (Figure 9). One valve
was used as the inflating valve, which links the actuator to the pneumatic source, and the other valve
was used as the deflating valve, which links the actuator to the atmosphere. The integrated valve
system enables (1) air flow in to the actuator and (2) air flow out of the actuator and (3) contains air
within the actuator.
controller, an integrated valve system was designed with two miniature normally-closed solenoid
valves (X-Valve, Parker Hannifin Corp., OH, USA), which have a nominal response time of 20 ms
(Figure 9). One valve was used as the inflating valve, which links the actuator to the pneumatic
source, and the other valve was used as the deflating valve, which links the actuator to the
atmosphere. The integrated valve system enables (1) air flow in to the actuator and (2) air flow out of
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 11 of 15
the actuator and (3) contains air within the actuator.

Figure 9. Position control of the module assembly.

Figure 9. Position control of the module assembly.

The state machine controller was designed with five control states, each of which requires different
The state machine controller was designed with five control states, each of which requires
actions of the two valves in the integrated valve system (Figure 10). Transition between states is
different actions of the two valves in the integrated valve system (Figure 10). Transition between
determined by the percentage error of the measured angle with respect to the set angle (ε) and the
states is determined by the percentage error of the measured angle with respect to the set angle (ε)
location of ε in the preset error margin (Ka , Kb , and Kc ). Ka determines the acceptable margin of error
and the location of ε in the preset error margin (Ka, Kb, and Kc). Ka determines the acceptable margin
for ε. Kb and Kc determine the allowable threshold of the error margin. In the following test, the
of error for ε. Kb and Kc determine the allowable threshold of the error margin. In the following test,
control parameters were selected to be as follows: Ka = 0.05, Kb = 0.01, and Kc = −0.01. When the error
the control parameters were selected to be as follows: Ka = 0.05, Kb = 0.01, and Kc = −0.01. When the
thresholds are exceeded, the controller would switch to either an “in” or “out” state, and inflation and
error thresholds are exceeded, the controller would switch to either an “in” or “out” state, and
deflation of the actuator occur accordingly. At each control state, the opening and closing duration of
inflation and deflation of the actuator occur accordingly. At each control state, the opening and
respective valves are controlled using pulse width modulation, the duty cycle of which is varied based
closing duration of respective valves are controlled using pulse width modulation, the duty cycle of
on the preset time variables (X and Y).
which is varied based on the preset time variables (X and Y).
An inertial measurement unit (IMU) (Pololu Corp., Las Vegas, NV, USA) was used to provide
An inertial measurement unit (IMU) (Pololu Corp., Las Vegas, NV, USA) was used to provide
sensor feedback
Micromachines forx the measured angle of the IB module that is linked to the actuating FRA module.
2019, 10, 11 of 14
sensor feedback for the measured angle of the IB module that is linked to the actuating FRA module.
The IMU is placed at the distal end of the freely moving IB module along the central axis. By tracking
The IMU is placed at the distal end of the freely moving IB module along the central axis. By tracking
Assembly with
the orientation of IMU,FRAthe modules
angle ofinthe parallel configuration
actuating IB module (PLL
can assembly)
be tracked.was Duechosen
to thetoactuation
analyze
the orientation of IMU, the angle of the actuating IB module can be tracked. Due to the actuation form
the
formstep response
of FRA, the of the position
movement controller
of the attached (Figure 11). For
IB module the step
would position tracking
be assumed experiment,
to be a single plane and the
of FRA, the movement of the attached IB module would be assumed to be a single plane and that the
reference angle was set from 20° to 30°, with increments of 5°. For the step
that the movement of the assembled modules would be minimal in other planes. Hence, based on theresponse, the rise time was
movement of the assembled modules would be minimal in other planes. Hence, based on the
550 ms and of
orientation theIMU
settling
on thetime was 660
actuator, thems. The steady
estimated roll state
angleerror
of IMUwasoutput
1.30%.data
Despite theto
is used “hold”
providecontrol
joint
orientation of IMU on the actuator, the estimated roll angle of IMU output data is used to provide
state,
angularthedisplacement
assembly is observed
feedback to to oscillate
the statearound
machine. the target value.
joint angular displacement feedback to the state machine.
Amidst
Assembly steady
withstate
FRAoscillation,
modules ina parallel
higher magnitude
configuration of oscillation is observed
(PLL assembly) at lowertoreference
was chosen analyze
angles
the step(20°and
response25°)ofthan at 30°. This
the position is because
controller the pneumatic
(Figure 11). For the source is supplying
step position air atexperiment,
tracking 35 kPa. Hence,the
when the inflating valve opens, ◦ the ◦
inflow of air within the ◦
actuator is at 35 kPa,
reference angle was set from 20 to 30 , with increments of 5 . For the step response, the rise time was which would cause
the
550 actuator
ms and the to settling
displacetime at awas
higher
660 angle
ms. Thethan the expected
steady state errorvalue. An inner
was 1.30%. pressure
Despite control
the “hold” loop
control
would have
state, the to be included
assembly is observed to automatically adjustthe
to oscillate around thetarget
supplied pressure of the pneumatic source.
value.

Figure 10.
Figure State transition
10. State transition map
map for
for the
the position
position control
control algorithm.
algorithm.
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236
Figure 10. State transition map for the position control algorithm. 12 of 15

Figure 11. Position control step response.

Figure 11. Position control step response.
Amidst steady state oscillation, a higher magnitude of oscillation is observed at lower reference
7. (20◦ and 25◦ ) than at 30◦ . This is because the pneumatic source is supplying air at 35 kPa. Hence,
Implementation
angles
when the inflating valve opens, the inflow of air within the actuator is at 35 kPa, which would cause
Based on the characterization tests, a trade-off exists regarding the range of motion and joint
the actuator to displace at a higher angle than the expected value. An inner pressure control loop
stiffness for the different module assemblies. Hence, to construct larger pneumatic structures, the
would have to be included to automatically adjust the supplied pressure of the pneumatic source.
most suitable form of assembly would have to be chosen based on the requirement of the end
structure. The following demonstrates a possible application of pneumatic actuator modules in the
7. Implementation
construction of soft robotic limb—also known as textile-based robotic arm (TERA). Previously,
Based
Otherlab on the characterization
developed tests,
a soft robotic limb, a trade-off
which exists regarding
was designed with bellowtheshaped
range of motion
joint and joint
actuators. The
stiffness for the different module assemblies. Hence, to construct larger pneumatic
multiple folding of the bellow shaped actuator makes the actuator prone to wrinkling effect, structures, thewhich
most
suitable
can form
reduce theofstiffness
assembly ofwould have toand
the actuator be chosen based
its ability on the requirement
to support of theisend
load [27]. TERA structure.with
constructed The
following
FRA demonstrates
modules a possible
and IB modules, application
which of pneumatic
are arranged in variable actuator modulesand
configurations in the construction
orientations alongof
the structure (Figure 12). PLL assemblies are used to create limbs of TERA, which are able to performa
soft robotic limb—also known as textile-based robotic arm (TERA). Previously, Otherlab developed
soft robotic limb,
bidirectional which
rotation. It was designed
is designed with
with bellow
two rotaryshaped
joints,joint
eachactuators. The amultiple
of which has folding
pair of FRA of the
modules
bellow shaped actuator makes the actuator prone to wrinkling effect, which can reduce
in parallel configuration. The rotary joints of TERA are interconnected using IB modules (Figure 12). the stiffness
of the actuator and its ability to support load [27]. TERA is constructed with FRA modules and IB
modules, which are arranged in variable configurations and orientations along the structure (Figure 12).
PLL assemblies are used to create limbs of TERA, which are able to perform bidirectional rotation. It is
designed with two rotary joints, each of which has a pair of FRA modules in parallel configuration.
The rotary joints
Micromachines 2019, 10,ofx TERA are interconnected using IB modules (Figure 12). FRA modules of 12 rotary
of 14
joints are fabricated to 50% of the dimensions (50 mm by 25 mm) of linkage IB modules (50 mm by
FRA
50 mm modules
by 150 of rotary joints are fabricated to 50% of the dimensions (50 mm by 25 mm) of linkage
mm).
IB modules (50 mm by 50 mm by 150 mm).

Figure
Figure12.
12.(a)
(a)Illustration
Illustrationof
oftextile-based
textile-basedrobotic
roboticarm
arm(TERA).
(TERA). (b‒e)
(b–e) The
The limb
limb segment
segment of
of TERA.
TERA.

Hence, when
Hence, when paired
paired in
in parallel
parallel configuration,
configuration, the
the FRA
FRA modules
modules would
would be be fitted
fitted evenly
evenly to
to the
the
adjacent IB modules. This is to ensure uniform transmission of force by the actuating FRA
adjacent IB modules. This is to ensure uniform transmission of force by the actuating FRA module in module in
the rotary joint to the linked IB module, therefore maximizing the range of motion of
the rotary joint to the linked IB module, therefore maximizing the range of motion of the structure.the structure.
The two
The two pairs of FRA modules
modules in inthe
therotary
rotaryjoints
jointsare
arearranged
arrangedinindifferent
differentorientations.
orientations. Activation
Activation of
of FRA modules at different joints would enable movement of the robot along different orientation
planes, therefore increasing the degree of freedom. Reversible linkage is formed between FRA
modules and IB modules using cables. Each module is fabricated with excess fabric perimeter at
either end of the module, which is perforated to create paths for weaving of interconnecting cables
between adjacent modules. Should the design require alteration, the interlacing cables can be
 Figure 12. (a) Illustration of textile-based robotic arm (TERA). (b‒e) The limb segment of TERA.

Hence, when paired in parallel configuration, the FRA modules would be fitted evenly to the
adjacent IB modules. This is to ensure uniform transmission of force by the actuating FRA module in
the rotary joint
Micromachines 2019,to
10,the
236 linked IB module, therefore maximizing the range of motion of the structure.
13 of 15
The two pairs of FRA modules in the rotary joints are arranged in different orientations. Activation
of FRA modules at different joints would enable movement of the robot along different orientation
FRA modules at different joints would enable movement of the robot along different orientation
planes, therefore increasing the degree of freedom. Reversible linkage is formed between FRA
planes, therefore increasing the degree of freedom. Reversible linkage is formed between FRA modules
modules and IB modules using cables. Each module is fabricated with excess fabric perimeter at
and IB modules using cables. Each module is fabricated with excess fabric perimeter at either end
either end of the module, which is perforated to create paths for weaving of interconnecting cables
of the module, which is perforated to create paths for weaving of interconnecting cables between
between adjacent modules. Should the design require alteration, the interlacing cables can be
adjacent modules. Should the design require alteration, the interlacing cables can be removed, and
removed, and the affected modules can be rearranged to the desired conformation. As opposed to
the affected modules can be rearranged to the desired conformation. As opposed to the usage of
the usage of parallel configuration, the end effector of TERA is designed with two sets of FRA
parallel configuration, the end effector of TERA is designed with two sets of FRA modules in series
modules in series configuration (Figure 13), whereby FRA modules are selectively activated to initiate
configuration (Figure 13), whereby FRA modules are selectively activated to initiate grasping mode.
grasping mode. As a portable, mobile system, TERA can be used as a supernumerary limb or it can
As a portable, mobile system, TERA can be used as a supernumerary limb or it can also be attached to
also be attached to items such as wheelchairs for the disabled and be used to perform simple grasping
items such as wheelchairs for the disabled and be used to perform simple grasping tasks for household
tasks for household items, such as glassware and stationery (Figure 14). In the future,
items, such as glassware and stationery (Figure 14). In the future, electromyography control can be
electromyography control can be incorporated to detect the intention of the disabled user.
incorporated to detect the intention of the disabled user.
Compared to existing similar rigid robotic arms, a soft robotic arm can be made at lower cost
Compared to existing similar rigid robotic arms, a soft robotic arm can be made at lower cost
and greater ease of fabrication. As it is mainly made with nylon fabric and actuated with air, the soft
and greater ease of fabrication. As it is mainly made with nylon fabric and actuated with air, the soft
robotic arm is also much lower in weight. However, the payload of the soft robotic arm is smaller
robotic arm is also much lower in weight. However, the payload of the soft robotic arm is smaller
than that of a rigid robotic arm. Nevertheless, due to its lightweight and intrinsic soft nature, the soft
than that of a rigid robotic arm. Nevertheless, due to its lightweight and intrinsic soft nature, the soft
robotic limb can be integrated onto structures such as wheelchairs and be deployed in close proximity
robotic limb can be integrated onto structures such as wheelchairs and be deployed in close proximity
with human users.
with human users.

Figure 13. Photo of the end effector in (a) initial state, (b) intermediate state to prepare for the grasping
Figure 13. Photo
Micromachines 2019, 10, xof the end effector in (a) initial state, (b) intermediate state to prepare for the grasping
13 of 14
of objects,
of objects, (c)
(c) final
final state
state of
of grasping
grasping mode.
mode.

Figure 14. (a,b) Photo of TERA on a wheelchair for the disabled. Grasping and moving of a glass.
Figure 14. (a,b) Photo of TERA on a wheelchair for the disabled. Grasping and moving of a glass. The
The pneumatic pressure for IB modules is 20 kPa and the actuating FRA module of the respective joint
pneumatic pressure for IB modules is 20 kPa and the actuating FRA module of the respective joint is
is 50 kPa.
50 kPa.
8. Conclusions
8. Conclusion
To give a new perspective to the conventional design and way of fabrication, we opted to
Tosoft
design givepneumatic
a new perspective
modules to themorphological
with conventional design and way
resemblance of of fabrication,
basic polygonswe of opted to design
three-sided and
four-sided figures—triangle and rectangle. A simplistic modular approach was adopted wherebyfour-
soft pneumatic modules with morphological resemblance of basic polygons of three-sided and two
sided figures—triangle
shape and rectangle. AIBsimplistic
primitives were introduced—the module and modular approach
the FRA module,was adopted
which wherebywith
are fabricated two
shape primitives
thermoplastic were introduced—the
polyurethane-coated IB The
fabric. module and the FRA
rudimentary module,
polygonal which
outline ofare fabricated
modules with
enhances
thermoplastic polyurethane-coated fabric. The rudimentary polygonal outline of modules
their versatility, for it permits construction of larger pneumatic structures of more complex shapes andenhances
their versatility,
actuation modes for it permits
through construction
selective of larger
congregation pneumatic
of multiple structures
modules. of more complex
The contributions of theshapes
paper
and actuation modes through selective congregation of multiple modules. The contributions
are as follows: (1) A simple modular design concept using shape primitives that are inspired by basic of the
paper are as follows: (1) A simple modular design concept using shape primitives that are inspired
by basic geometrical polygons, and (2) construction of larger pneumatic structures using fabric-based
modules, which can be assembled and disassembled. Module-based construction of pneumatic
structure requires lower volume of operating fluid to function and is able to operate within a lower
range of pneumatic pressure, compared to continuum actuators. Reconfigurable fabrication allows
Micromachines 2019, 10, 236 14 of 15

geometrical polygons, and (2) construction of larger pneumatic structures using fabric-based modules,
which can be assembled and disassembled. Module-based construction of pneumatic structure requires
lower volume of operating fluid to function and is able to operate within a lower range of pneumatic
pressure, compared to continuum actuators. Reconfigurable fabrication allows the usage of the same
designs of actuators to construct more than one type of pneumatic structures. The versatility of the
modules was illustrated by the construction of a soft textile-based robotic arm (TERA) with two rotary
joints and an end-effector, all of which were developed using the two essential modules. TERA is a
lightweight, mobile system which can be attached to objects such as wheelchairs for the disabled to
assist with grasping tasks.

Author Contributions: P.M.K. provided the idea and wrote the paper. J.H.L. and P.M.K. designed and performed
the experiments. M.H.A. and C.H.Y. supervised and reviewed the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by R-397-000-332-305 (National Robotics Programme RECT Grant).
Acknowledgments: The authors want to thank the researchers in Advanced Robotics Centre for help in
the experiments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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1. Euclid; Heath, T.L.; Densmore, D. Euclid’s Elements: All Thirteen Books Complete in One Volume; Green Lion
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