Human Anatomy EVALS #2

Lecture #4: THE CELL

THE CELL
• Basic morphologic and functional unit of all living
things
• Capable of independent existence (under favorable
environmental conditions)
• Human beings start as a single cell (fertilized
ovum/zygote)

Cells à Tissues à Organs à Organ Systems

• Eukaryotic basic cell structure:

• Cytoplasm
Fig 3. Cell membrane composition
• Cell membrane
• Nucleus + nuclear membrane GLYCOCALYX
• Coating for the cell
CELL MEMBRANE
Envelope delimiting the cell from the surroundings • Thin layer of amorphous electron-dense
•
Protects the cell material on cell surface
•
• Regulates movement of substances in/out of the cell • Glycolipids + glycoproteins
• Attachment for cytoskeleton • Functions
• Receives and sends out stimuli 1. Cell-to-cell recognition
• Provide binding sites and receptors 2. Cell-to-cell adhesion
• Allows cell-to-cell recognition 3. Immunological response
• 8-10 nm thick
• Trilaminar structure
• Trilayer (1 electron-lucent layer of
hydrophobic tails and 2 electron-dense
layers of hydrophilic heads)
• Made up of mainly phospholipid and
protein molecules
• Also contains cholesterol and
polysaccharides (glycolipids and
glycoproteins)

Fig 4. Glycocalyx

UNIT MEMBRANE
Fig 1. Cell membrane structure • Trilaminar entity that comprises the cell membrane
and makes up or envelops all the other membrane-
• Phospholipid molecules containing structures in the cell
• Polar head = globular, composed of glycerol • Variation in thickness is due to protein content
connected to nitrogenous compound by a
phosphate bridge SPECIALIZED JUNCTIONS FORMED BY THE CELL
• 1 saturated, 1 unsaturated fatty acid MEMBRANE
• Fatty acid tails + glycerol head: linked by • For cell adhesion or communication with
covalent bonds each other or with the extracellular matrix.
• Tails at middle zone of CM: bound together • Junctions for cell adhesion (binding)
by very weak intermolecular forces • Occluding
• Zonula Occludens (tight
junction; closing belt)
• Adhesive
• Zonula adherens (adherens
junction; adhering belt; belt
desmosome; band
desmosome)
• Fascia adherens - muscle
tissue
Fig 2. Cell membrane (Phospholipid molecule) • Desmosome (macula
adherens; spot desmosome)
• Highly impermeable structure
• Hemidesmosome
• Permeable to water, gases, non-polar molecules
• Junctions for cellular communication
PROTEIN MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE • Gap junctions (nexus;
communicating junctions)
• ½ the mass of the cell membrane
• Chemical synapses
• Perform in transport of substances across the
membrane
• Integral proteins: span the whole thickness
• Peripheral Proteins: at outer or inner surface

CHOLESTEROL MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE

• Found in irregular spaces between
phospholipid molecules
• Stiffen and strengthen cell membrane
• Make the cell membrane less permeable
to water-soluble substances
• Membrane buffer
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SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO
HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL
Fig 5. Junctional complexes
CYTOPLASM
• Enclosed in a cell membrane
• Homogenous substance (cytoplasmic matrix)
• With formed elements:
• Organelles
• Permanent structures
• Perform specific function in the cell
• Membrane bounded
• RBCs and lens fiber
• Inclusions
• Temporary fixtures
• Accumulations of pigment, lipids, etc.
• Fibrillar elements
• Form the cytoskeleton or supporting
framework
• Increase in cytoplasmic matrix viscosity
= increase in fibrillar elements.
• Cytoplasmic Matrix
• Viscid, translucent, and colloidal
• 70% water
• Inorganic ions and organic molecules (lipids,
proteins, carbs, nucleic acids, etc) are dissolved
Fig 6. Cytoplasmic matrix
MITOCHONDRIA
• 0.5-1.0 µm in diameter; 10 µm long
• Present in all cells EXCEPT RBCs and lens fibers.
• Encloses a space (intercristal space) filled with
amorphous substance (mitochondrial matrix)
• Wall is made up of 2 layers of unit membrane
• Outer membrane/leaflet: delimits mitochondrion from
cytoplasmic matrix
• Inner leaflet: infolded to form shelf-like tubular
structures (cristae mitochondriales)
• Space between outer and inner leaflets =
intermembranous space à extends into
cristae as intracristal spaces
• Generates most of the energy for metabolic pathways
Krebs/TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle within
•
mitochondrial matrix
• Enzymes for Krebs complete degradation of
products of fat, carb, protein metabolism to
carbon dioxide and water
• Yields a lot of ATP = energy
• If cells don't have mitochondria (i.e. RBCs),
GLYCOLYSIS for energy production.
• Matrix = ions (Mg,Ca), DNA strand, mRNA, tRNA
• For protein and enzyme synthesis for
mitochondrial use
• mDNA (mitochondrial DNA) = only DNA
outside the nucleus
• Number of mitochondria dependent on cell's function
TRANSCRIBER: ALEA THERESE
SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO
• Examples:
Hepatocyte = numerous mitochondria
Lymphocyte = few
• Motile: aggregate in areas where energy is needed
• Example: For sperm, it is concentrated at the
middle piece of the tail
• During fertilization, the sperm's mitochondria
is excluded from the zygote because it was
already used for "invasion" towards the egg.
Without energy, there is no baby
• Sperm does not contribute to any
cytoplasmic component to the formation of
the zygote
• Thus, only mothers contribute for the
zygote's mitochondria. (Damn woman, so
much energy.)
• Limited life spans but can replicate as fast as bacteria
can
Fig 7. Mitochondria
RIBOSOMES
• 15-30 nm in size
• Ribosomes= singly
• Polyribosomes/polysomes = cluster of ribosomes
connected by mRNA; actively translating the mRNA;
this only happens in prokaryotes
• Ribosomes are either:
• Free in the cytoplasm
• Attached to the surfaces of the ER
• 2 subunits:
• Ribosomal subunit = ribonucleoprotein
• Dense, globular structure that is
composed of a strand of rRNA and
associated proteins
• Produced in the nucleus
(nucleolus), rRNA
• Large = 50s-prokaryotes; 60s-eukaryotes
• Where tRNA gets amino acids from
cytoplasm for peptide bond
formation (formation of polypeptide
chains)
• Small = 30s-prokaryotes; 40s-eukaryotes
• Attached to mRNA during
translation
• Peptidyl synthetase = enzyme for
peptide bond formation
• Cells with numerous ribosomes have intensely
basophilic cytoplasm due to numerous
phosphate groups (acids are basophilic)
• Sites for protein synthesis
• Proteins that are produced in:
• Free ribosomes= used by the cell
= proteins of cytoplasmic
matrix
• Attached ribosomes (RER)= for
intracellular use OR secretion, will be
processed by ER and Golgi Complex
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Most extensive membranous structure
• Consists of interconnecting tubules, vesicles, and
flattened sacs (cisternae)
• Practically present in all cells
• Supporting structure for the cytoplasm
• Present in all cells but seen only in EM and special
preparations (e.g. flourescent dyes)
• Membranes
• thinner than plasmalemma
• continuous with nuclear membrane
• cavity continuous with space
between outer and inner layers of
nuclear membrane
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL
• Dynamic organelle
• capable of remodeling, disassembly
and assembly
• interacts with other organelles.
Fig 8. Endoplasmic reticulum
• Two contiguous regions:
• RER (rough)
§ Has attached ribosomes and
polyribosomes
§ Synthesis and transport of
proteins
§ Proteins transferred to Golgi
Complex through transfer vesicles
§ N-glycosylation of proteins thru Asn
• SER (smooth)
§ Lipid synthesis (phospholipids,
cholesterol, steroids)
§ Membranes have numerous
attached enzymes that are
accessible to substrates in the
cytoplasm
§ Transport of fatty acids and lipids
§ Better developed sER than rER in
hepatocytes (liver cells)
• Serves as site of
detoxification
§ Modified SER for striated muscles =
sarcoplasmic reticulum
• For release of calcium ions
for muscle contraction
• Capable of remodeling, disassembly, and assembly
• Interacts with other organelles
GOLGI COMPLEX / APPARATUS / BODY
• Semicircularly stacked layers of membrane-bound,
flattened tubes (cisternae)
• Vesicles = rounded dilatations of cisternae
filled with fluid
• Present in practically all cells
• In basophilic cytoplasm, it is marked by a pale region
adjacent to the nucleus (negative Golgi image)
• Cis face (facing the nucleus; convex; forming face)
Trans face (concave; maturing face)
• Processes, concentrates, sorts, and packages
proteins from rER, involved in protein synthesis
• Uses secretory vesicles to release the proteins to
the cytoplasm
• Secreted proteins may be used intracellularly.
• Lysosomal development
• Integral membrane proteins
• O-glycosylation of proteins thru Ser and Thr
Fig 9. Golgi complex
LYSOSOMES
• 0.05-0.08 µm in diameter, usually spherical or ovoid
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SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO
• Not seen in H& E (hematoxylin and eosin) stain but
can be seen in EM (electron microscope)
• Membrane bound Chemical-containing pouches
• With hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases) from Golgi
• Degrades biomolecules
• Proteases, lipases, carbohydrases,
esterases, nucleases
• Delimited by its membrane
• Reason why it doesn’t digest the cell
• For intracellular digestion of organic substrates
• Involved in heterophagy and autophagy:
Heterophagy
• Digestion of particulate material (bacteria,
dead and senescent [dying] cells) from
environment by phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis
§ By neutrophils and macrophages
(aka phagocytes)
§ Process: binding of particulate à
phagocyte forms cell protrusions
(pseudopodia) at binding area à
pseudopodia elongate until they
reach the distal pole of phagocytic
material à material engulfing à
pseudopodia fuse to completely
envelope material à
phagosome/phagocytic vacuole is
formed à pinching off from the
cytoplasm then traversing of the
cytoplasm
§ After Phagocytosis:
• Phagosome + primary lysosome thru
membrane fusion along with hydrolases of
lysosome digests the particulate.
• Secondary lysosome/phagolysosome =
primary lysosome + phagosome
Digested nutrients
• Nutrients diffuse out of
phagolysosome for
recycling
• Undigested nutrients
§ Residual bodies = undigested
material kept within
phagolysosomal membrane
§ May be released through exocytosis
or kept within the cytoplasm
§ Can coalesce forming
lipochrome/lipofuschin pigments
Fig 10. Phagocytosis
Autophagy
§ Digestion of unneeded/senescent
cell organelles
• Lysosomes numerous in
exocrine gland cells and
neurons (high turnover of
organelles)
§ Wrapping target structure with a
unit membrane
§ Attack of primary lysosome
(nutrients diffuse out, materials
recycled)
§ Structural renewal of the cell
(continuous process)
• Hydrolases may also be found extracellularly as in
osteoclasts (bone resorption à affected by calcitonin
presence)
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL


PEROXISOMES (AKA MICROBODIES) INCLUSIONS
• 0.5-1.2 µm, Membrane bound • Temporary and inert structures
• In all cells but numerous in metabolically active cells • May or may not be membrane-bound
(i.e. hepatocytes) • Some useful, some harmful
• Unlike lysosomes, contain oxidases and catalases • Not all cells have inclusions and no cell has all types
(both from the cytoplasmic matrix; free ribosomes) of inclusions
• Function: enzymes (more than 40 identified) • Fat droplets (lipid droplets)
• Oxidase § Adipocytes: store lipid
• Oxidation; detoxification and catabolism § Not enclosed by membrane (direct
(NOTE: cat à cutting (rawr) àbreaking) of contact with cytoplasmic matrix)
substances (i.e. phospholipids, fatty acids, § Single huge blob can occupy more
ethanol, and formaldehyde) than 90% of the cell.
• For long chain fatty acids § Can be fixed by gulatraldehyde
§ Produces hydrogen peroxide and osmic acid à appear as gray-
• Useful for phagocytes by or black-staining glovules
destroying invading • Glycogen (glycogen granules)
microorganisms § Storage form of carbs
• Cytotoxic (toxic to the cell) § Abundant in liver and muscle cells
• Catalase § May be seen through Periodic-Acid
• To prevent cytotoxic level of oxidase: Schiff method à purple-coloured
Hydrogen peroxide à oxygen + water § No membrane
§ Two sizes:
CENTROSOME (MTOC) • Large (alpha) particles:
• Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC) 90nm
• Usually near the nucleus, surrounded by Golgi • Small (beta) particles:
• Present in all cells 20-30 nm
• Centrioles = minute, short, cylindrical bodies • Zymogen Granules
surrounded by granular structures (centriolar § Characteristic of secretory
satellites) epithelial cells
• composed of electron-dense wall that § Aka “secretory granules”
surrounds an electron-lucent (hollow) space (membrane-bound proteins from
§ Centriolar wall formed by groups of Golgi complex to be released to
microtubules extracellular space through
§ 1 group= 3 microtubules (triplet) exocytosis)
§ Innermost: circular • Pigment Granules
§ Outer 2: C-shaped § Melanin – skin pigment; formed by
• Source of cilia, flagellum, and mitotic melanocyetes;
spindles (mitosis) • Also in nerve cells of
• Replication: substantia nigra, locus
Prior to mitosis, buds (procentrioles) grow coeruleus in the brain,
at lateral surface and pigment epithelium
of the retina
Buds (now daughter centrioles) elongate § Hemosiderin
perpendicular to their mother centrioles • Iron-containing pigment
before they separate (NOTE: hemo à
hemoglobin à iron)
Daughter and mother centrioles form • Brown pigment
diplosome responsible of RBCs color
• Form of granules in cells
At start of mitosis, daughter and mother such as those in spleen
centrioles move to one pole of cell that phagocytose
senescent RBCs
Migration of one centrosome (two centrioles) • Distinguished by iron stain:
to opposite poles during mitosis (prophase) Prussian blue
§ Lipochrome pigments
Spindles separate sister chromatids • AKA lipochrome granules,
(telophase) lipofuschin pigments,
lipofuschin granules)
Daughter cells get 1 centrosome each • Coalesced residual bodies
• Yellowish brown at long-
• Two centrioles = diplosome (lie lived cells (muscle cells in
perpendicular to each other) myocardium, and sertoli
• Where microtubules are assembled/formed cells of testes [spermatid
• Fibrillary structure development])
• Part of cytoskeleton • Crystals
• Components of centriolar wall and the core § At interstitial cells of Leydig (for
(axoneme) testosterone production) and
• Basal body = fully formed cilium or flagellum still Sertoli cells of testes
attached to its parent centriole • Dust Particles
§ Numerous in cytoplasm of
phagocytes of lungs (pulmonary
alveolar macrophages; dust
cells)
§ Common among smokers and city
dwellers
§ Brown to black structures
§ Composed of dust and particulate
matter

CYTOSKELETON
• Fibrillary (fiber) elements for structural framework
• Seen only through electron microscopy
• 3 types:
Fig 11. Diplosome of a centrosome • Microfilaments

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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL
§ 5-7 nm diameter
§ Composed of F-actin (filament form
of actin) = 2 strands of G-actin
coiled around each other forming a
filament
§ G-actin (globular actin; soluble
form)
§ Can be assembled and
disassembled easily
§ Abundant in cell peripherals
§ Involved in cell membrane activities
(exocytosis and endocytosis)
§ Associated with movement of
organelles
§ Contraction of myoepithelial cells
and muscle cells
• Intermediate filaments
§ 10-12 nm diameter
§ Solid in cross-section
§ Not easily assembled and
disassembled
§ 5 major types:
Keratin - In epithelial cells;
numerous in keratinocytes; main
cell type in epidermis; primarily for
protection of epithelial cells
Desmin (skeletin) - characteristic of
muscle cells; often at smooth
muscles; forms bundles in smooth
muscles; seen around myofibrils (Z-
lines/discs); maintenance of muscle
cell structure
Vimentin - differentiated from
mesenchyme (such as muscle cells
and fibroblasts); cell shape and
integrity of cytoplasm; support of
cytoplasmic organelles
Neurofilaments – characteristic of
nerve cells; at cell body and neuron
processes (extensions); internal
support of nerve cells
Glial filaments (glial fibrillary acidic
protein; GFA) - integral support of
neuroglial cells
• Microtubules
§ ~25 nm diameter
§ Wall of microtubule = 13 tubulin
molecules around a lumen
• Tubulin = family of small
globular proteins
• Polymers of alpha-tubulin
and beta-tubulin
Fig 12. Microtubule composition
§ Assembled in the centrosome
§ Movement of organelles
§ Internal support of the cell
§ Forms wall of centrioles, axoneme
(core of cilia), tail of sperm cell
§ Surrounded by microtubule-
associated proteins (MAPs)
§ Can be assembled and
disassembled easily as needed
NUCLEUS
• Separated from cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope
• 3-10 µm in diameter
• Often occupies central region
• Largest organelle in the cell
• Not present in RBCs and lens fiber (enucleate)
• Vital structure (removal à death)
TRANSCRIBER: ALEA THERESE
SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO
• Filled with a homogenous substance (nuclear matrix)
• Data bank of cell
• Genes in its chromosomes contain
information needed for synthesis of all
proteins and nucleic acids
Fig 13. Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope/membrane
• 2 unit membranes (7-8 nm thick each)
• Has perinuclear space (10-30 nm) between
outer and inner parts
• Perinuclear space / perinuclear cisterna /
intermembranous space: continuous with
cavity of rER
• Outer nuclear membrane: continuous with
membranes of rER
• Fibrous lamina / nuclear lamina = fibrillar
protein later associated to the inner nuclear
membrane
§ 30-100 nm
§ Fine protein filaments
§ Where clumps of chromatin attach
• Has nuclear pores – stabilized by fibrous
lamina
§ Each pore ringed by nuclear pore
complex (electron dense proteins)
§ Pore diaphragm = thin film of
proteins from nuclear pore complex
that covers the nuclear pore
§ For exchange of substance
between cytoplasm and nucleus
• Chromatin (chromatin material / threads)
• Chromosomes at interface
• 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 somatic
[soma:body], 1 sex chromosome)
• Ploidy; 46-diploid, 23-haploid
• Chromosome = DNA + nucleoproteins
(either histone and nonhistone)
• Two distinct dispersal patterns formed:
§ extended areas – “euchromatin”,
expressed genes; in the process of
producing mRNAs and tRNAs
§ condensed areas – condensed
because of histones;
“heterochromatin”, not expressed
HUMAN GENOME
• Total amount of DNA present in a human cell
• Chromosomal genome + mitochondrial genome
• Database of instructions for protein and nucleic acid
synthesis
• Gene = segment of DNA with unique sequence for
production of a particular protein
• Some sequences are for structural purposes/
regulation of gene expression/ no purpose
• Only about 5% of DNA encode for genes
NUCLEAR MATRIX
• Composed of water, proteins, metabolites, and ions
• Interphase nucleus: contains nuclear scaffold /
nuclear skeleton (filamentous protein network)
• Anchored on fibrous lamina
• Has links to intermediate filaments of
cytoskeleton
• Functioning for transcription and regulation
of gene expression
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL
NUCLEOLUS
• Inside the nucleus
• Present at interphase ONLY (disappears during
prophase and reappears during late telophase)
• Can be numerous if cell is active in protein synthesis
• For synthesis of ribosomal subunits
• Three areas:
• Nucleolar organizing region
§ Circular pale area surrounded by
pars fibrosa
§ Where chromosomes with nucleolar
organizers (gene sequence for
rRNA) gather
• Pars fibrosa
§ Electron-dense filaments
§ Surrounds NOC
§ Formed by the rRNA molecules
produced in the NOC
• Pars granulosa
§ rRNA is linked to imported proteins
(from the cytoplasm) =
ribonucleoprotein or ribosomal
subunit
§ Formed by ribosomal subunits
§ Grainy area in nucleolus
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• Nonessential amino acids: produced by the body
• Essential amino acids: not produced by the body
• Proteins from ingested food are too big
• Break down of proteins à amino acid molecules
• Broken down AA molecules are used for protein
synthesis
• Site of code/DNA seq. for protein synthesis: nucleus
• Site of protein synthesis: cytoplasm
• Transcription: DNA sequence à mRNA
• Pre-mRNA: undergoes post-transcriptional
modification first before it turns into a mature mRNA
• Codon: three-letter code for an amino acid
• Each codon à 1 amino acid
• 1 amino acid à 1 or more codons
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is involved because it is where
a specific amino acid is attached
• Each tRNA has an anticodon that is
complementary to the codon of its attached
amino acid
• Example: If Alanine (GCU) is attached to the
tRNA, anticodon is CGA
Fig 14. Protein synthesis
• Translation: mRNA used as template for polypeptides
• Ribosome binds to mRNA
• Ribosome finds codon
• tRNA looks for correct anticodon
• tRNA with correct anticodon and has the
specific amino acid it codes for is present
^this enters the ribosome and pairs up with
the codon present in the mRNA
• AA attached to the tRNA are joined by
peptide bonds
• Ribosome slides along the mRNA for the
next codon and does the same until stop
codon is detected (UAA/UAG/UGA)
• 1 mRNA can be translated by more than one
ribosome = polyribosomes/polysomes
TRANSCRIBER: ALEA THERESE
SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO
§ Production of many polypeptide
chains simultaneously
• Free ribosomes vs. attached ribosomes
proteins synthesis
§ Free: released to cytoplasm for use
within the cell
§ Attached: transfer vesicles are
used by rER to release it towards
the Golgi for further processing and
packaging of the protein then
released from the golgi through
secretory vesicles
• Exocytosis - vesicles are made to fuse with
the membrane to allow the contents of
secretory vesicles (protein produced) to be
released outside of the cell
MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE CELL
MEMBRANE
• Semi-permeable barrier
• Diffusion, facilitated diffusion (ion channels and
carrier transport), active transport
• Endocytosis and exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• Outside à inside of cell
• Phagocytosis: solid material
• Pinocytosis: liquid material
§ No receptors or pseudopodia
needed
§ Micropinocytosis: small amount of
fluid intake
§ Macropinocytosis: large amounts
of fluid intake
§ Vesicles are attacked by
lysosomes through the vesicular
membrane’s destruction and
hydrolases released inside the cell
§ Transcytosis: pinocytic vesicle
transported across the cell and
content is released at the opposite
surface (bulk transfer)
Fig 15. Endocytosis and transcytosis
• Exocytosis
• Inside à outside of cell
• Mostly for transport of secretory products
(secretions) in the form of secretory vesicles
of the Golgi complex
• Fusion of vesicular membrane with cell
membrane à contents released the exterior
of the cell
• Generates extra cell membrane but this extra
part is pinched off later by invagination of the
cell membrane forming a small vesicle which
is then brought back to the Golgi complex
• Either regulated secretion or constitutive
secretion
§ Regulated secretion: specific
signal needed for release à stored
in apical portion à accumulate and
get dehydrated à dehydrated
secretory granules appear as
secretory granules/zymogen
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE # -- TOPIC TITLE
§ granules; in pancreatic
acinar cells and major
salivary glands
§ Constitutive secretion:
released from the cells as
soon as they are formed
à no visible secretory
granules in cytoplasm; in
fibroblasts and
chondroblasts
8. Intermediate filaments that are present only in
epithelial cells?
A. Desmin
B. Keratin
C. Vimentin
D. Neurofilament
9. TRUE of the nuclear envelope:
A. The inner nuclear membrane has
attached ribosomes.
B. It is perforated by nuclear pores that
serve as channels for the exchange of
substances between the cytoplasm and
the nucleus.
C. The fibrous lamina is attached to the
outer surface of the outer nuclear
membrane.
D. All of the above

10. tRNA and mRNA are transcribed and produced in

the:
A. Nucleus
B. Heterochromatin
C. Euchromatin
D. All of the above
Fig 16. Exocytosis
11. The segment of the DNA molecule within a
SAMPLE QUESTIONS (FROM PAST EVALS) chromosome that contains the DNA sequence for
1. In the EM, the electron lucent later in the trilaminar the production of a ribosomal RNA:
cell membrane consists of: A. Genome
A. fatty acids B. Gene
B. glycerol molecules C. Nucleolar organizer
C. integral proteins molecules D. Heterochromatin
D. all of the above 

12. Cytoplasmic organelle/s that are involved in the
2. Components of the glycocalyx on the outer surface production of proteins that are contained in
of the cell membrane in many cells: secretory granules and lysosomes:
A. trans-membrane proteins A. Ribosomes
B. cholesterol molecules B. rER
C. fatty acids C. Golgi complex
D. glycolipids 
 D. All of the above

3. Which of the following cellular structures is 13. The contents of secretory vesicles are released to
membrane bound? the intercellular space by:
A. mitochondrion A. Phagocytosis
B. centrosome B. Pinocytosis
C. nucleolus
 C. Exocytosis
D. all of the above 
 D. Transcytosis

4. TRUE of mitochondria: 14. The process that involves passage of substances

A. Their matrix contains many of the across a cell:
enzymes involved in Kreb’s cycle. A. Transcytosis
B. In an individual, the mitochondria in all B. Exocytosis
the cells can be traced to the C. Endocytosis
mitochondria of the male gamete. D. Constitutive secretion
C. They are not enveloped by a unit
membrane.
D. All of the above ANSWERS
1. A
5. Membrane bound spherical bodies in the 2. D
cytoplasm of cells that are involved in
3. A
heterophagy and autophagy:
4. A
A. Ribosomes
5. B
B. Lysosomes
6. D
C. Peroxisomes 7. D
D. Both B&C 8. B
9. B
6. TRUE of microtubules: 10. C
A. They are produced in the centrosome.
11. C
B. They comprise the wall of centrioles.
12. D
C. They make up the mitotic spindles that
13. C
appear during mitosis. 14. A
D. All of the above

7. Which of the following cytoplasmic inclusions are REFERENCES:

enveloped by unit membranes?
• PPT
A. Fat droplets th
B. Zymogen granules • Book (Textbook of Histology 5 ed.
C. Lipofuschin pigments by Eduardo G. Gonzales)
D. Both B&C • Past E (Batch 2019)

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SUBTRANSHEADS: DANIELA MARQUEZ, MARIE MACALINO