TO GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION
Silas M. Simiyu
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR A
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
1. Heat Source
Magma Body related to volcanic activity
Deep circulating fluids along Deep faults
May be a Radioactive plutons
2. Reservoir
Fluid availability and recharge
Pathways/conduits along which fluids will
circulate
Status of the reservoir
Liquid/water dominated
Steam/Vapour Dominated
2
SEISMIC WAVES
3
TYPE AND PROPERTIES OF SEISMIC
WAVES
4
P and S Wave Properties
5
MAGNITUDE DETERMINATION
P S
Vertical
5
Radial
0
-5
10 15 20 25 -10
Transverse
5
0
Time [Seconds]
6
Effect of Media on P and S Wave
Transmission velocity 1
7
Effect of Media on P and S Wave
2Transmission velocity 2
8
Seismic Methods
9
ACTIVE SOURCE METHODS
Refraction Seismology
10
Active Source
Kenya Rift Axis Refraction Profile
11
Active Source
Kenya Rift Axis Refraction
12
Active Source
Kenya Rift Axis Seismic Refraction Results
6
-5
Depth
4
-10
3
2
-15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Distance (km)
Figure 1.2. Seismic Velocity model along the Rift axis showing high velocity zones beneath
Menengai, Olkaria and Suswa Volcanic centers based on the KRISP 1985-1990
axial model by Simiyu and Keller, 2000.
13
Active Source -Seismic Refraction
Olkaria Geothermal Field
14
Active Source -Seismic Refraction Results
Olkaria Geothermal Field
Velocity (Vp)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 OCF NEF
0 OWF
1.9 1.9
2.2
2.8
2.2 3.5 3.3
2 3.6
3.1 3.5
Depth (km)
4.3
4.2
3.8
OCF 4.3
4 4.5
NEF
4.3
6.5
OWF
6.4
Vp
6.3
6
15
Active Source Seismic Refraction Results
Olkaria Geothermal Field
Velocity (km/s)
OWF OCF NEF
0.0
5.6
-1.0
5.2
-2.0
Depth (km)
4.5
-3.0
3.5
-4.0 3.1
-5.0 2.7
-6.0 2.0
192000 194000 196000 198000 200000 202000 204000
Grid Eastings
16
PASSIVE SOURCE METHODS
Ground Noise Monitoring
17
Background Noise Monitoring
Menengai Geothermal Field
MCA
MNA
MSW
MSE
MNW
MNE
Figure 2.1. Background Seismic Noise in Menengai Area: MNA, MSE, MNE, MCA, MSW and MNW
18
APPLICATION OF WAVE PROPERTIES
Lake
Reservoir
Brittle Brittle
Ductile Ductile
Heat Source 20
MODEL OF A GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM AND SEISMICITY
DISTRIBUTION WITH DEPTH
0
-2
-4
-6
Depth
-8
-10
-12
-14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Kilometers
21
HEAT SOURCE -OLKARIA
22
EVENT DISTRIBUTION -OLKARIA
[a]
9908000
KM7
KR2
KM2
NE3 DM2
KM8 CE1
9904000
NE2
9900000
DM3
KM5 OS1
DM1
9896000
0 2000 4000M
188000 192000 196000 200000 204000 208000
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
0 2000 4000 M
-8
188000 192000 196000 200000 204000 208000
Horizontal error Vertical error
23
Event Distribution & σ with Depth at Olkaria
Heat Source and Seismic Anisotropy
Events
200
100
0
Heat Source Depth Seismic Anisotropy
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Depth [km]
Figure 3.4A. Histogram of earthquake frequency distribution with depth
POISSON'S RATIO POISSON'S RATIO
TRANSITION 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
200
1 1
100
DEPTH (KM)
2
DEPTH (KM)
3
3
4
4 N[39-7 1]E AZIMUTH
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5
Depth [km] 5
Figure 3.4B. Plot of crustal strength changes with depth showing the 6
Brittle, Brittle-Ductile transition, Ductile Zone 6
24
EVENTS HYPOCENTER VARIATION
Hypocenter Variations at Olkaria
Depth
9906000
-1.5
9904000
-2.5
9902000 -3.5
Grid Northing
-4.5
9900000
-5.5
9898000
-6.5
9896000
-7.5
25
Active Source Seismic Refraction Results
Olkaria Geothermal Field
Resistivity [Ohm-m]
40
9905000
38
36
34
OCF NEF 32
Grid Northings [m]
9903000
30
28
26
OWF
24
9901000
EPF 22
20
DOMES 18
17
9899000
14
OSF
10
5
191000 193000 195000 197000 199000 201000 203000
26
Shear Wave attenuation
9915000 20
21 LAKE
NAIVASHA
4 2
SM6
9910000
DM5
OR2 1 NE3
9905000 KM8
Grid Northings
DM4 OR1
KM11 DM1
9900000 OLKARIA
OS1
KM12
LONGONOT
CALDERA
9895000
22
3
16
9890000 NAIRAGIE OR3 Event Epicenter
ENGARE Recording station
OR4
9885000
180000 185000 190000 195000 200000 205000 210000 215000 220000
Grid Eastings
27
SHEAR WAVE ATTENUATION:
RAYPATH SECTION ACROSS OLKARIA
-5
EVENT 18
Depth [Km]
-15
EVENT 13
Normal raypath
-20
Attenuated raypath
178000 182000 186000 190000 194000 198000 202000 206000 210000
Grid Eastings
28
3D PLOT OF DEPTH TO ATTENUATING HEAT
PossibleSOURCES BENEATH
Seismic S-wave OLKARIA
attenuating AREA
Bodies [Semi-Fluidized]
NEF EPF
DOMES
OWF OW-01
29
HEAT SOURCE -SUSWA
30
SEISMIC EVENTS DISTRIBUTION
SU02
SU07
9880000
SU15 SU06
SU08
9876000
SU04
Grid Northings [m]
SU05
SU09
SU11
9872000
SU14 SU03
SU10
9868000
SU16
SU01
SU12
SU13
9864000
31
SEISMIC SECTION SHOWING EVENT
DISTRIBUTION ACROSS SUSWA CALDERA
-----------Outer Caldera-----------
0
-Inner Caldera-
-2000
-4000
Depth (m)
-6000
-8000
-10000
196000 200000 204000 208000 212000
Grid Eastings [m]
32
SEISMIC INTENSITY WITH DEPTH
[a] 500<depth>1500 m [b] 1500<depth>2500 m
9880000
9876000
9868000
9864000
196000 200000 204000 208000 212000 196000 200000 204000 208000 212000
Grid Eastings [m] Grid Eastings [m]
9880000
9876000
Grid Northings [m]
9872000
9868000
9864000
196000 200000 204000 208000 212000 196000 200000 204000 208000 212000
Grid Eastings [m] Grid Eastings [m] 33
CONTOUR MAP OF AVERAGE EVENT DEPTH
BENEATH THE SUSWA VOLCANO
SU02 Average Event
SU07 Depth
9880000
SU08
9876000
SU04 2600
SU05
SU09
SU11
2000
9872000
SU14 SU03
SU10 1400
9868000
SU16
1100
SU01
SU12
SU13
9864000 800
W11
3 SU02
4 8
9880000 W12
2
SU06
SU08 9
W05
W03 SU04
Grid Northings
18
W01 19
W08
24 SU14
SU10
9870000 20
15 W06 SU16
SU12
W14
W16
14
10
12
9860000 21W13
W09
16 W07
23 13
W10
22 11
9850000
185000 195000 205000 215000 225000
Grid Eastings
35
SCHEMATIC WEST-EAST SECTION ACROSS THE
SUSWA GEOTHERMAL FIELD
-3
Depth [km]
-7
-11
HEAT
SOURCE
-15
196000 200000 204000 208000 212000
Grid Eastings
36
HEAT SOURCE -MENENGAI
37
MAP OF AVERAGE EVENT DEPTH BENEATH THE
MENENGAI PROSPECT
9990000
To
MN15 MN13
Ba
rin
go
-2
Majani Mingi MN12 Bahati ru
uru
ah
9985000 Ny
To
-3
MN14
-4
9980000 Kabarak MENENGAIMN09 Bahati
Grid Northings
Lake
Rongai Nakuru Lake Nakuru
National Park
9965000MN02 MN01
160000 165000 170000 175000 180000 185000
38
Grid Eastings (m)
SEISMIC SECTION SHOWING EVENT
DISTRIBUTION ACROSS MENENGAI CALDERA
-2
Depth (Km)
-4
-6
-8
165000 167500 170000 172500 175000 177500 180000
Distance (M)
39
SEISMIC RAYPATHS ACROSS MENENGAI
CALDERA
9990000
MN15 MN13
MN12 Bahati
9985000
MN14
9980000
Grid Northings
MN09
MN10
MN11
MN07
MN08
9975000
MN06
MN04
9970000
MN05
MN03
Olkaria
41
Vp/Vs AND RESERVOIR FEATURES
Pressure at 500 m.a.s.l Bars
OW-704 98
OW-703
9905000
95
OW-714
OW-710 93
OW-727 OW-723
OW-726
9904000
OW-711 OW-716 92
OW-705
OW-709
OW-722 90
OW-718
OW-713
87
9903000
82
OW-32 OW-30
78
1.78
1.75
OW-714
OW-710
Grid Northings [m]
OW-707 OW-724
OW-727
1.73
OW-723
OW-726
9904000
OW-711 OW-716
OW-705 1.69
OW-709
OW-722
OW-718 1.67
OW-713
1.66
9903000
1.64
OW-32 OW-30
42
1.63
RESISTIVITY, MAGNETICS & GRAVITY PLOTS
95 [a] Vp 1000
A RESISTIVITY (Ohm-m)
2.4
9879000
75 2.3
9874000 2.2
55
2.1
9869000
35
2.0
9864000 1.9
15
140
C RESIDUAL GRAVITY (gu) B AEROMAGNETIC (Gammas)
100 200
9879000 9879000
60
100
20 9874000
9874000
-20 0
-100
3.1
2.1 4.1
2.8
2.0 3.8
2.5
1.9 3.5
1.92
1.75 2.04
1.90
1.70
2.03
1.88
1.65
1.86
2.02
1.60 1.84
44
RESERVOIR COMPARISSON: Vp/Vs RATIOS
OLK-EAST SUSWA
MENENGAI OLK-NEAST
OLK-SOUTH OLK-CENTRAL
45
SEISMIC VELOCITY RATIOS IN SUSWA
GEOTHERMAL AREA (DRILL SITE)
W
F LO
IN
Vp/Vs Ratio
LD
OW
CO
9880000
FL
1.82
IN
LD
CO
1.78
9876000
Grid Northings[m]
1.74
Site 2
Inner and outer
Caldera walls
1.70
9872000
HOT
UPFLOW
Site 3 1.66
Site 1
9868000
Ou 1.62
tfl
o w
w
1.58
tflo
Ou
9864000
9990000
Vp/Vs Ratio
To
Cold Water
Ba
rin
go
ru
Co
u ru
2.0
ld
ah
9985000 Ny
W
UPFLOW To
at
er
MN02
MN03
9980000
er
at 1.7
UPFLOW W
ld
To Co
El
do
re MN01
er
9975000 t
at
W
ld
Co
1.7
To Nairo
ater
bi
9970000
Cold W
Rongai
9965000 1.5
160000 165000 170000 175000 180000 185000
Figure 5.1. Average Vp/Vs rartion variations in the Menengai study area showing proposed
test drill sites [Stars], interpreted upflow zones and fluid recharge for the system
47
VOLCANO-SEISMIC HAZARDS ANALYSIS
48
THE ‘B VALUE’ RELATIONSHIP
4.0
Menengai =1.21
Suswa =1.09
Olkaria =1.05
3.0
LOG (N)
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
MAGNITUDE
49
CONCLUSIONS
50
THANK YOU