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What is This?
A cruciform test specimen and a loading rig are described, by which any combination of biaxial strains can be
applied to a specimen. With the pressurizing equipment so far available, three states of strains have been
investigated for two steels. In the mild steel used, large inclusions oriented in the roll direction aided fracture
propagation when a maximum shear plane coincided with the roll direction. When not influenced by inclusions,
fatigue life is related to total strain range by Coffin’s law
<Nu = C
The values of a and C are different for different states of strains. Empirical formulae are given to predict
results for other states of strains.
have been carried out by Yokobori et al. (10) on mild in the arms and are uniform over a considerable area.
steel and by Halford and Morrow (11) on aluminium, Under fatigue loading, failure always starts at the centre.
brass and steel. Their results are quoted only in terms of This form was arrived at after various static loading
plastic strain range and gave values for a in the range tests with photo-elastic models and steel specimens,
0.50460. Ives et al. (12) have carried out equibiaxial followed by dynamic tests on steel specimens. The first
tests on three different pressure vessel steels by testing form tried had on each side a flat-bottomed recess with a
circular plates bent laterally by hydraulic loading. The conical transition to the full thickness, but was rejected
state of strains was ( E , E , - 2 ~ )and the slope, a, of the log E- because fatigue cracks started at the boundary of the flat
log N curve was 0.3. In all cases it was found that Coffin's area. The spherical recess form was then tried. At first, a
law was obeyed, but the values of a and C varied with the specimen with a larger radius of curvature and a thicker
method of loading.
Ives et al. (12)proposed a method of correlating results
from uniaxial and multiaxial tests on the basis of equiva-
lent strain, assuming that the state of strains satisfied the
assumption of constant volume. The work described in
this paper shows that this is not sufficient and a further
h
term has to be taken into account.
Although a reasonable amount of work has been done
with different states of strain in the low-cycle field, it was
carried out with different types of specimen and on
different testing machines and usually with different - -1in
materials. Hence any comparison between the results is
complicated and attended with a mass of doubts.
In the work described in this paper, a form of specimen
has been developed and a loading rig constructed, by
which a wide range of different states of biaxial stress or .-
strain can be imposed on the same form of specimen so c
c/
0
0
that the behaviour under these different states can be
compared directly, differences in other variables being
eliminated. An attempt has been made to develop para-
meters which define the state of strains and which can be
used to give empirical forecasts of results for untested
states of strains.
SPECIMEN
The form of specimen which was finally adopted is shown +I
1000 1 Y
\
\
\
Fig. 2. Strain distribution due to loading in one direction within elastic range
test section than that shown in Fig. 1 was used. This did THE LOADING FRAME
not give a sufficiently high ratio for stress at the test The specimens were tested in the rig shown diagrammatic-
section compared with that in the arms, so that plastic ally in Fig. 3. Each arm is gripped by serrated jaws clamped
yielding was taking place other than at the central region. in a holder as shown in Fig. 4. Tensile load is transmitted
Hence a thinner section was adopted. Then under very by the jaws and compressive load by the contact where
high biaxial compressive strain buckling occurred. This the specimen bears directly on to the curved surface in the
was overcome by a reduction in the radius of curvature. end of the centre shaft of the jaw assembly. A tubular
Under uniaxial loading in the elastic range, the strain connection piece is screwed to each jaw assembly, passes
distribution along each of the principal axes is as shown in through a well-aligned brass bush in the main frame and
Fig. 2. For loading simultaneously in the directions of is screwed to the piston rod of a double-acting hydraulic
both sets of arms, it was found that, in the elastic range, cylinder. Each of these has cylinders of 5 in internal
the strains could be obtained from the results in Fig. 2 by diameter and a thrust rod and tail rod of 2+ in diameter.
the principle of superposition. Hence the force exerted in either direction is the same for
the same pressure difference between the fluid on the two
sides of the piston. One connecting piece between jaw
A R
assembly and piston rod for each direction has a reduced
section on which electric resistance strain gauges are
fitted and serves as a load cell.
The equipment has been designed for a maximum fluid
pressure of 3000 lbf/in2 which gives a load in each arm of
19.5 tonf.
1 Si I M n ) P 1 Cu
1
1 S 1 Ni 1 Cr I M o V
Mild steel
QT35
. .I
. . .
0.15
0.115 ~
0.05
0.18 ~
0.64
1.04 ~
_
0.031
0.031
_ _
~
_ ~~~
0.08
0.15
~ ~
1
I
0.032
0.014 ~
0.05
1.04 I
1 0.08
0.84 I < 0.05
0.83 0.05
-
Mechanical properties
Test direction
relative to
I Young's modulus,
Ibf/in2
Poisson's ratio ' Yield stress,
Ibf/inz
Ultimate tensile
stress,
roll direction 1
Mild steel Parallel 28.9x lo6 0.265 37 000 60 000
Perpendicular 27.9 0.265 38 000 59 900
45" 293 0.266 37 500 59 900
QT 35 Parallel 29.4 0.260 100 000 109 900
Perpendicular ~ 29.8 0.260 100 800 111 500
45" 1 29.4 0.265
~
100 000 110 500
post-yield foil strain gauges were attached to each speci- Failure of the specimen was considered to be the stage
men at the centre of the test section, one on each side and at which the crack has propagated sufficiently for relative
with one parallel to each set of arms. These would thus movement (sliding or opening) between the two sides of
measure the principal strains in the two directions. the surface crack to be observed by means of the micro-
T M L YL-5 gauges were used, which of those tried were scope. Although it entailed a continuous observation of
found to give the longest life under high strain repeated the specimen surface, no difficulty was encountered in
loading conditions. observing the first sign of relative movement. The cracks
The specimen was placed in the loading rig, taking at this stage are referred to as primary cracks and after any
especial care that the axes were in line with the axes of the further spread due to continued fatigue loading are called
loading cylinders. The strain gauges on the specimen and secondary cracks.
those in the load cells were connected to visual display
strain gauge bridges. While it was desired to test the
specimens under constant strain range conditions, this TYPES OF LOADING CONDITION
could not be done directly because the pressure gauge The results required are the variation of life with strain
contacts operate at values which depend upon the fluid range for different ratios of principal strains at the test
pressure and hence on the load. For constant strain limits, section. The strain ratios available with the equipment are
the limits of the load range vary but become fairly steady at present restricted to values determined by the types of
after a few cycles with very little variation thereafter. For loading that can be employed. Three types of loading have
the first ten cycles the pressure was applied slowly, one of been used so far.
the strains in the specimen being monitored. The direction
of loading was changed when the strain value reached each Shear loading
of the prescribed limits. During this time the contacts on Equal and opposite loads are applied in the two loading
the pressure gauges were set to the correct operating directions, so that the principal strains at the centre of and
values and then testing was allowed to proceed automatic- in the plane of the specimen are equal and opposite, i.e. the
ally at a faster rate. At intervals, the strain range was state of strains is (6, -6, 0). This loading condition there-
monitored and the pressure gauge contact settings modi- fore gives pure shear on the planes inclined at 45" to the
fied if necessary. The strain gauges always ceased to fmc- loading directions.
tion at some time during the test and were then removed.
For the remainder of the test the specimen was cycled
between load limits, as registered by the load cells, at the Uniaxial loading
final values recorded before the strain gauge failure. It was The load is applied to one pair of arms only. The stress at
hoped that the strain range would also stay constant, an the centre is not however uniaxial because of the geometry
assumption justifiable from the behaviour of the specimen of the specimen. Under elastic conditions (see Fig. 2) the
up to strain gauge failure. cross strain is -0.525 of the maximum principal strain.
The surfaces of the specimen were observed with a Under plastic deformation, as occurred in all specimens
microscope using a magnificationof x 120 and the number tested to failure, this factor became -0.625 for the mild
of cycles was registered when any surface cracks were steel specimens and - 0 5 4 for the Q T 35 specimens, which
visible. These surface cracks formed very early in the had a higher yield stress. The states of strain are thus
fatigue life of the specimen and could be observed clearly (c, -0.6256, -0.3756) and (6, -0.546, -0.46~) respec-
with a microscope as distinct lines on the surface. tively.
Equibiaxial loading The values of total strain range are plotted against
Equal loads of the same sign are applied in both directions cycles to surface cracking and cycles to failure in Fig. 6.
simultaneously. Hence the principal strains at the centre
are equal and there is no shear strain in the plane of the Mild steel
specimen. However there will be maximum shear on planes It will be seen that the points for shear and uniaxial loading
at 45" to the surface as will be discussed later. The state of in mild steel fall into two groups. The specimens with one
strains is (E, E, -26). of the loading directions parallel to the roll direction give
For the shear loading and equibiaxial loading, the pres- values which fall very close to straight lines, while those
sure range was controlled by monitoring the strain in the with the loading arms at 45" to the loading direction gave
vertical direction. For the uniaxial loading conditions, the shorter lives and a greater scatter. For equibiaxial loading
major principal strain was monitored. The other measured on mild steel, the different roll directions made no dif-
strain was also recorded and sometimes was found to vary ference, the results showing a greater degree of scatter. I n
in the early part of the test. all cases the points agreed with Coffin's law.
For both shear and uniaxial loading, surface cracks
RESULTS O F T E S T S formed early in the life of the specimen (as early as 5 per
In all, 31 specimens of mild steel and 21 specimens of cent of the life for the highest strain ranges employed and
Q T 35 steel have been tested. For each mode of loading, as late as 50 per cent for the lowest). The directions
very consistent results were obtained from different speci- followed by these cracks were independent of any surface
mens for the strain at yield and for the ratio of plastic scratches but were along the directions of maximum shear
strain range to total strain range. strain, i.e. at 45" to the loading arms. They formed a
For straining within the elastic range, there is for each square network (Fig. 7), their density increasing with
state of strains a definite ratio between the mean stresses in number of cycles. Some of these surface cracks propagated
the arms and the principal stresses at the centre of the into the depth of the material to the stage when relative
test section. However, when plastic yielding occurs in the sliding was visible under the microscope, so that the
central region, this is no longer true, there being a redis- primary cracks (criterion of failure) also formed a square
tribution of stress. A higher but unknown proportion of the network. The propagation of these cracks through the
load will be carried by the outer thick ring which surrounds thickness of the material was slow, after which they pro-
the test region and is still elastic. The stresses at the test pagated further along shear planes, occasionally switching
region are then unknown, the only measurable quantity from one principal shear plane to the other, thus forming
being the total strains. a saw-tooth fatigue crack with the ultimate tendency t o
A typical load-strain hysteresis loop is shown in Fig. 5. follow the roll direction of the plate.
It might be inferred that the plastic strain range would be If one of the maximum shear planes coincides with the
given by AB, i.e. assuming that the stress at the test region roll direction, the fatigue life is about one quarter of that
has become zero when the load is zero. However, owing for specimens with the maximum shear planes at 45"to the
to the stiffness of the outer thick ring, this is not neces- roll direction. These shorter lives are due to inclusions
sarily true, so that the plastic strain cannot be determined. which lie in the roll direction. They also exhibit more
Hence only total strain has been considered in this paper. scatter from a straight line on a log r-log N plot, which is
ty 30
/
0 0
I I I
-6000 -4000 // -2000 4000 6000
/
S T R A I N -pin/in
dI '0
mx /
P' .10 .c
-
--- PRINCIPAL STRAIN ( Y Y )
PRINCIPAL STRAIN ( X X )
due to the different positions of inclusions in different For equibiaxial loading, the surface cracks also formed
specimens. early in the fatigue life of the specimen (14-47 per cent),
Some specimens were sectioned and examined micro- but their directions were at random and did not propagate
scopically to establish the depths of the surface and according to a regular pattern. The primary cracks
primary cracks which had been detected by the micro- (Fig. 8) were shorter on the surface than for the other two
scope at x 120 magnification. Surface cracks with depths loading conditions, but propagated faster through the
varying from 0.0008 to 0.002 in were noted and primary thickness of the material. The secondary crack was always
cracks varied from 0.0025 to 0.0045 in depth. Cracks were in the roll direction. As the primary crack may form in any
found on both surfaces of the specimens, showing that the direction, the orientation of the loading arms to the plate
strains on the two surfaces must have been equal. The roll direction has little effect on fatigue life. But the cracks
cracks sometimes followed grain boundaries, but also which lie parallel and adjacent to inclusions are likely to
propagated through grains in a direction almost per- propagate faster. Hence all specimens give points which
pendicular to the specimen surface. lie near a single curve but with considerable scatter.
M I L D STEEL OT 35
NUMBER O F 'CYCLES
SURFACE PRIMARY
CRACKS CRACKS
SPECIMEN ARMS PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR TO ROLL DIRECTION - - -f - - +
SPECIMEN ARMS AT 45' TO ROLL DIRECTION ----y--- -0-
x 120
x 120
Fig. 8. Primary cracks in mild steel due to equibiaxial
Fig. 7. Surface cracks in mild steel due to shear loading loading
While cracks are initiated on planes of maximum shear and C for all states of strain. The first relates a to the
strain, the life is dependent not only upon the range of equivalent strain ceq which is given by
this maximum shear strain but also upon the state of d2
strains. Empirical rules are suggested to give values of a Eeq 3 1/[(€i-Qd2+(%-%)’ + ( % - E d 2 ]
=-
The ratio E~ of this equivalent strain to the maximum
principal strain parallel to the surface depends only upon
the state of strains
€eq
Cr =-
€1
and is termed the state of strains factor. The slopes of the
fatigue curves for the various states of strain agree closely
with the values calculated from the empirical formula
lo5:
E
1 c
1
I
lo4:
.
’
\- \
-SHEAR
--- UNIAXIAL
LOADING
LOADING
BlAXlAL LOADING
. .‘
\.‘\\A
( 3 . \
z
Q .
u , 1.
5 ’
[L
\ ‘ ,.\
lI- J .
I
10’
x 120
J O U R N A L O F STRAIN A N A L Y S I S V O L 2 N O 2 1967
Downloaded from sdj.sagepub.com at Virginia Tech on October 18, 2014
LOW CYCLE FATIGUE OF STEELS UNDER BIAXIAL STRAINING
Type of loading
Uniaxial specimen c1
States of strains
-0.56, -0.56
I 1
Em
2
~
Calculated
-
a
1 Experimental
0.5
I Calculated
0.35
C
Experimental
-
Uniaxial mild steel:
Q, -0,6256, -0.375~ 1.01 2 0.495 1 -
Shear
QT 35:
C, -0.546, -0.46~
E) -E, 0
1.001
1.155
2
2
0.499
0.433
1 0.49
0.43 0.263
0.34
0.26
Equibiaxial El El -2E 2 4 0.25 0.25 0.0437 0.042
rate of propagation of the crack may not depend entirely give the same behaviour in terms of el as for shear loading.
upon shear, but also upon the amount of opening of the This is approximated by the wide cantilever tests of
crack, i.e. tension strain. This may explain the increase of Gross (9) which give good agreement.
fatigue life by hydrostatic pressure, as investigated by However, there is a large region from OA to OC for
Crossland (13), White et al. (14),Burns and Parry (IS) and which no experimental results have been obtained with
Libertiny (16). The hydrostatic pressure has a greater the cruciform specimen. T o investigate states of strain in
effect on torsional fatigue than on push-pull fatigue. The this region, unequal loads must be applied in the two
most dangerous state of strains is equibiaxial loading loading directions. By using a pressure transformer in one
where, in addition to a large equivalent strain, there are line, a constant ratio of loads can be applied. This gives a
also high tensile strains across the cracks. constant ratio of strains in the elastic region, but as soon
As a factor which corresponds to the tensile strains as plastic yielding occurs, the strain ratio changes. In fact,
opening the crack, the sum of the moduli of the three with the cruciform specimen, yielding will occur in the
principal strains is taken, also expressed as a ratio to the direction of the major load and there may even be a change
maximum principal strain parallel to the surface in the sign of the minor principal strain. Hence it will be
=
IE1 I + k 2 l + I4 necessary to use a form of servo control on each loading
Em direction, which regulates the load to give the desired
kll value of strain. Equipment to provide this facility will be
The greater this factor, then the greater would be the obtained.
tendency for the crack to open and spread, so that C In addition to determining the fatigue behaviour for
would be smaller. The empirical formula suggested to
give the C values is