Learning objectives

• Define energy in its various forms and energy related

properties;
• Use the correct units for energy and power, and convert
from one unit to another as needed;
• Determine the properties of steam and moist air;
• Describe the mechanisms by which heat is transferred;
• Explain the effect of insulation on heat transfer, and the
means by which radiative heat transfer is controlled.

1
Energy in its various forms

• Chemical – in fuels
• Thermal – sensible and
latent
• Mechanical
• Electrical
Energy Equivalents

1000 joules (J) 1 kilojoule (kJ)

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) 3,600,000 J or 3.6 MJ

2
 Basic electricity

• Voltage
This is what pushes electricity through a circuit - the
“driving force”
Units are Volts (V)
• Current
This is what is pushed through by the voltage - the “flow”
Units are Amperes (A) (“Amps”, for short)

DME Building Energy Audit

Course 3
Electrical power

When voltage and current work together to do

something useful - such as turn a motor or light a
lamp
▪ Units are Watts
▪ 1000 Watts = 1 kilowatt (kW)
▪ 1 horsepower (HP) = 746 Watts

4
Calculating power

• Watts = Volts x Amps x Power Factor

▪ VA = Volts x Amps
• Power factor (PF) indicates how well the current
and voltage are working together

Incandescent Lamps 100%

Large Motors 80-90%
Small Motors 60-75%

5
Power Factor - lagging current

310 310

220 220

0 0

-310 -310

Figure 2.3: Waveforms Illustrating Power Factor

6
Why should I care about power factor?

• Utilities may bill for Volts x Amps (kVA) or apply a surcharge

for PF below a set value
• Note that kVA is always greater than or equal to kW
• Increased line currents
• Low PF may suggest lightly loaded motors
• Facilitates interpretation of electrical profiles

7
 Power factor correction

• Add capacitance
• At service entrance
• In distribution system
• At point of use – e.g. on motors

DME Building Energy Audit

Course 8
 Power and energy

• Power = How Fast

(Demand)
• Energy = How Much
(Consumption)
• Energy = Power x Time
Units are kilowatt-hours (kWh)

9
What is efficiency?

Efficiency = Output x 100%

Input
Device Efficiency Input - Output
Electric Heat 100% Elec - Heat
Incandescent Lamp 10-20% Elec - Light
Motors 50-95% Elec - Power
Pumps/Fan 20-60% Elec - Flow
Air Compressor 5-15% Elec - Air

10
 Thermal energy units

• Unit of thermal energy is a Joule (J)

• Typically use MJ or GJ.
• 1 Joule per second = 1 Watt
• 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ (0.0036 GJ)
• 1 boiler HP = 9,810 Watts

11
 What is energy auditing?

“An energy audit is developing an understanding of the specific energy

using patterns of a particular facility.”
Carl E. Salas, P.E.

12
How is energy management done?

• Purchase energy
supplies at the lowest
possible price.
• Manage energy use at
peak efficiency.
• Utilize the most
appropriate
technology.

13
Managing Technology

• No cost - housekeeping
measures
• Low cost - some
technology, lots of
people input
• High cost - capital
investment

14
 Energy consuming systems in
buildings

Organization /
Site

Building A Building B

Department A Department B Department C Department ...

System A System B System C System _ System _

Equipment A Equipment B Equipment C Equip... Equip... Equip... Equip... Equip...

Figure 2.1: The Structure of Energy Consuming

Systems 15
 A basis for the energy audit
. . . what comes in, goes out

Solar
Process Exhaust
Energy Inflow
Boiler Stack Loss Ventilation
Exhaust

Window
Electricity Heat Loss
Energy Inflow

Wall
Heat Loss

Oil or Natural Gas

Energy Inflow

Energy System Boundary

Door Heat Loss Warm Fluid to Drain

16
 Two levels of audit
• Preliminary Audit • Detailed Audit
• High level assessment • Greater detail in
• Assesses merits of doing assessment of specific
detailed audit areas
• Identifies areas of focus • Identifies specific EMOs
for detailed audit
• Includes walk-through
and preliminary data
analysis

17
 Pre-site inspection data
requirements
• Historical energy and water consumption and billings data
for at least 12 months, preferably multi-year;
• Basic building configuration information, including at least
conditioned floor area;
• Building schedule and occupancy data;
• Breakdown of building uses by area (i.e. general office,
computer facilities, library, cafeteria, etc.);
• Any other energy assessment data that may be available,
including demand profiles, equipment inventories, etc.
• Degree-day information applicable to the building
location.
18
Preliminary data analysis

• Organise historical data

• What are the patterns and
trends?
• Calculate the
Energy/Demand Intensity
• Correlate consumption with
weather/occupancy

19
 Preliminary Audit
• Purpose
• the need for or merits of
a detailed audit, based
on performance indices:
• consumption index
• Steps
• historical analysis
• collect building data
• demand profile
• walk-through
• tariff analysis

• demand index
MJ/m2/year

VAaverage/m2/month

20
Preliminary audit findings

• Building performance
indices
• Demand profile analysis
• Potential savings
opportunities
• Confirmation of tariff

21
 Detailed audit
• Purpose • Steps
• identify specific • examine site drawings
measures to reduce • prepare load inventory
consumption, demand, • assess demand profile
cost
• assess all energy load
areas
• provide baseline
criterion
• assess tariff change
opportunity

22
 Auditing – the “big picture”

• How and where energy enters the facility,

department, system or piece of equipment;
• Where it goes and how it is used;
• Any variances between inputs and uses;
• How it can be used more effectively or efficiently.

23
Ten Steps
Figure 3.4: Audit Process Flow Chart
Preliminary Client Meeting and
Historical Data Analysis Preliminary Audit Audit Plan Detailed Audit

1. Conduct a Walk-through Initial Client (4) Det ermine (1) Detailed Walk-

Inspection Meeting Audit Mandate throughs

EMOs

2. Analyze Energy Consumption and (6) Analyse

Costs Historic al Data

Analys is
(5) Define Audit
Scope
Energy Use
Patterns
EMOs

3. Compare Energy Performance ( 1) Preliminary (7) Inventory

EMOs EMOs

4. Establish the Audit Mandate Walk-through Energy Use

5. Establish the Audit Scope (2) Analyse

Energy
EMOs
(8) Identify EMOs
Consumption &
6. Profile Energy Use Patterns Costs

7. Inventory Energy Use (3) Comparative

EMO
A sses sment
Detailed
Analys is Assessment
Required
8. Identify Energy Management
Opportunities EMOs

(9) As sess the

9. Assess the Benefits Benefits
Engineering Study

10. Report for Action (10) A udit Report

Engineering Report
f or Ac tion

24
 Planning for the audit

• Audit mandate and scope

• Dates and places where the audit is to be conducted
• Details of the organizational and functional units to be
audited and contacts
• Identification of the energy audit elements that are of high
priority
• Expected time and duration for major audit activities
• Identification of audit team members
• Audit report content and format, expected date of issue
and distribution.

25
 Coordination with O&M personnel and
building occupants

• Review the purposes, scope and plan of the audit –

change as needed
• Describe audit methodologies
• Define communication links
• Confirm availability of resources and facilities
• Confirm schedule of meetings with management group
• Inform about site health, safety and emergency
procedures
• Answer questions - create comfort level with the audit
purposes and outcomes.

26
Step 1: the walk-through

• Where energy is being

Historical Data
wasted; Analysis

• Where repair or
maintenance work is
(1) Preliminary
needed; Walk-through

• Where capital
investment may be (2) Analyse
needed to improve Energy
Consumption &
energy efficiency. Costs

27
Step 2: Analyse energy
consumption and costs

• Understand the tariffs

• Assess the trends (1) Preliminary
Walk-through
• Correlate to independent
variables (e.g. weather,
(2) Analyse
occupancy, schedule) Energy
Consumption &
• Unit energy cost Costs

• Incremental energy cost –

what does the next unit (3) Comparative
consumed, or the first unit Analysis

saved cost

28
Step 3: Comparative analysis

• Two kinds of
(1) Preliminary
comparison: Walk-through
• Internal - period to
period, site to site;
(2) Analyse
• External - to standards Energy
of performance Consumption &
Costs
established in the
buildings sector.
(3) Comparative
Analysis

29
Data analysis

• Energy density:
• MJ/m2/year
• Demand density:
• VAaverage/m2/month
• Correlation with
weather - HDD and CDD

30
 Performance indices

• Consumption

MJ/m2/year

• Demand

VAaverage/m2/month

31
Energy use drivers

• Climate
• Facility size & Age
• Schedules
• Equipment type
• Building design
• Processes
• Organisational culture
• Behaviour
32
 Types of comparisons

• External benchmarks
• Internal benchmarks
• multiple facilities
• Historical consumption
• Trends and patterns

33
 Benchmarking is…

• A methodology to improve energy performance

• Comparison of energy performance to a
“standard”
• Investigation of the differences between existing
and “standard” practices
• Driving action to improve practices

34
 Selected benchmarks

• Demand intensity
• VA/m2
• relates to size/number of electricity consumers
• Electric energy intensity
• kWhE/m2
• relates to size/number/duration of electricity use
• Cooling or heating energy intensity
• kWhC/m2 or kWhH/m2
• Total energy intensity
• kWhT/m2 = kWh(C or H)/m2 + kWhE/m2

35
 Best practices

• Proven solutions for improving performance

• External sources:
• Industry / sector case studies
• Survey / study groups
• Internal sources:
• Individuals/groups
• Best historical performance

36
“This facility is different
from those benchmarks!”

• Investigate the
differences
• The opportunities lie in
the differences

37
Step 4: Define the audit
mandate
• Clarification of the goals
Audit Plan
and objectives of the
audit, and the key (4) Determine
constraints that will Audit Mandate

apply to actions on its

recommendations (5) Define Audit
Scope

38
Step 5: Define the audit scope

• Specification of
Audit Plan
• The physical extent of
the audit (4) Determine
• The energy inputs and Audit Mandate

outputs
• The sub-systems to be (5) Define Audit
assessed Scope

39
Step 6: Profile energy consumption

• Electrical demand profile:

• Time pattern of consumption (1) Detailed Walk-
EMOs
throughs
• System sizing
• Demand reduction
opportunities (6) Analyse
Energy Use EMOs

• Power factor correction? Patterns

• Loads on when they don’t

need to be? (7) Inventory
EMOs
Energy Use

40
Step 7: Inventory energy loads

• Electrical load inventory:

• How much and how fast? (6) Analyse
Energy Use EMOs
• Where? Patterns

• Thermal load inventory:

• An energy flow diagram (7) Inventory
Energy Use
EMOs

(8) Identify EMOs

41
Step 8: Identify EMOs

• STEP 1 - Match usage to

requirement (7) Inventory
Energy Use
EMOs

• STEP 2 - Maximise
system efficiencies (8) Identify EMOs

• STEP 3 - Optimise the

energy supply
EMO
Assessment
Required
Begin the search for opportunities where the
energy is the most expensive – at the point of end
use!

42
Step 9: Assess the costs and
benefits

• What benefits should be

taken into account EMO
Assessment
Required
• What costs should be
included in the analysis
(9) Assess the
• What economic Benefits

indicators should be
used (10) Audit Report
for Action

43
 Costs and benefits
• Benefits • Costs
• direct energy savings • direct implementation
• indirect energy savings costs
• comfort/productivity • direct energy costs
increases • indirect energy costs
• operating and • O&M cost increase
maintenance cost
reductions
• environmental impact
reduction

44
Step 10: Report for implementation

• Provide a clear account EMO

of the facts upon which Assessment
Required
your recommendations
are made
• Interest those who read (9) Assess the
Benefits
the report in acting
upon those
recommendations (10) Audit Report
for Action

45
Analyzing performance requires
energy data

G a s E n e r g y v s . W e a t h e r
E n e r gA y B C ( GF a Jc ) i l i t y f o r 1 9 9 9
3 2 0

2 8 0

2 4 0 E l e c t r i c i t y C o s t B r e a k d o w n f o r 1 9 9 9
A B C F a c i l i t y
2 0 0 E n e r g y C o s t D e m a n d C o s t
$ 4 0 , 0 0 0
1 6 0

1 2 0
$ 3 0 , 0 0 0
8 0

4 0
$ 2 0 , 0 0 0
0
0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 0 0
W e a t h e r
$ 1( 0 ,H D
0 D
0 0 )
G J = 0 . 3 9 5 x H D D + 1 2 [ R - s q = 0 . 9 1 ]

$ 0
F e b A p r J u n A u gO c tD e c
J a nM a Mr a y J u lS e p N o v

O n - PO e af k f - DE P en e me a r k ag ny E d n e r g y

46
 Data requirements
• Historical energy • building automation system
consumption data (BAS) documentation
• Metered energy • maintenance logs
consumption
• key plans (floor plans)
• Building configuration
• Weather data • contact information for
building operational
• Energy system nameplate personnel or service
data
contractors
• mechanical, electrical,
architectural plans and
specifications

47
 Instrumentation for auditing
• Electric Power Meter • Other useful items:
• Combustion Analyzer • A camera
• Digital Thermometer • Binoculars and a small flashlight
• Duct tape & Tie Wraps
• Infrared Thermometer • Multi- screw driver, adjustable
• Psychrometer (Humidity wrench and pliers
Measurement) • Tape measure
• Bucket and stopwatch
• Air Flow Measurement • Safety Glasses, Gloves & Ear Plugs
Devices
• Caution tape
• Tachometer
• Ultrasonic Leak Detector

48
Hand-held wattmeter

49
Single-phase connections

50
3-phase digital power meter

DME Building Energy Audit

Course 51
Combustion analysis

Fuel Flue Gas (TS)

- carbon - CO2
- hydrogen - nitrogen, NOx
- water
- sulpher Combustion - excess air
- SOx
- VOC
- CO
Combustion Air (TC) Heat
- oxygen (75- 85%)
- nitrogen

Figure 5.21 Electronic Combustion Analyzer

52
Light level measurement

Table 5.14
RECOMMENDED ILLUMINANCE LEVELS,
POWER DENSITIES AND SURFACE REFLECTANCES
Area and Task Illuminance Power Den- Reflectances %
sity
2
W/m Ceiling Walls Floor

Offices - accounting 750 - 950 25

- drafting 750 - 950 25 70 - 80 40 - 60 20 - 40
- 540 - 700 18
general
Corridors 210 5.5
Lobbies 320 9
Cafeterias and Kit- 320 - 500 70 - 80 40 - 80 20 - 40
chens 14
Lecture Rooms 540 - 700 18 70 - 80 40 - 60 20 - 40
Toilet Areas 320 9
Laboratories 750 - 950 25 70 - 80 40 - 80 20 - 40
Production - general 750 - 950 25
W arehouses 320 9
Roadways 50 2
Parking 50 2

Figure 5.22: A Basic Light Meter

53
Temperature measurement

Figure 5.24 Infrared Temperature Measuring Devices (Right Hand Photo: OMEGA)

54
Humidity measurement

55
Static pressure

56
Leak detection - ventilation and compressed
air

Figure 5.27: Ultrasonic Leak Detector and Transmitter 57

Check your speed - digital tachometer

Figure 5.28 Typical Tachometer

58
An electricity tariff

• Administrative charge
• Demand charge per kVA
• May be time of use – on-
peak/off-peak
• Energy charge per kWh

59
Analysing the electricity billings

Electricity Consumption Data Location: ABC Facility

[ C:\Project Files\Audit Manual\Spreadsheets\[Electricity Cost.xls]Electicity Consumption Data ]

Billing Metered Metered Power Billed Energy Daily Load Demand Energy Adjust Sub Total --- Demand Block A
Date kVA kW Factor kW kWh Days kWh Factor Cost Cost (+/-) Total Cost
01/01/99 1,800.0 1,800.0 1,006,703 30 33,557 78% $21,250 $50,365 ($11,147) $71,615 $64,701
02/01/99 1,900.0 1,900.0 1,206,383 31 38,916 85% $22,750 $56,441 ($13,204) $79,191 $70,607
03/01/99 1,400.0 1,400.0 842,286 28 30,082 90% $15,250 $42,144 ($9,263) $57,394 $51,501
04/01/99 1,850.0 1,850.0 1,102,176 31 35,554 80% $22,000 $53,315 ($12,132) $75,315 $67,606
05/01/99 1,870.0 1,870.0 1,213,021 30 40,434 90% $22,300 $56,641 ($13,252) $78,941 $70,287
06/01/99 2,200.0 2,200.0 1,339,599 31 43,213 82% $27,250 $60,438 ($14,716) $87,688 $78,080
07/01/99 1,560.0 1,560.0 850,195 30 28,340 76% $17,650 $42,540 ($9,438) $60,190 $54,304
08/01/99 1,570.0 1,570.0 948,747 31 30,605 81% $17,800 $47,467 ($10,429) $65,267 $58,677
09/01/99 1,950.0 1,950.0 1,213,798 31 39,155 84% $23,500 $56,664 ($13,308) $80,164 $71,536
10/01/99 2,300.0 2,300.0 1,373,054 30 45,768 83% $28,750 $61,442 ($15,111) $90,192 $80,337
11/01/99 2,100.0 2,100.0 1,347,059 31 43,454 86% $25,750 $60,662 ($14,731) $86,412 $76,699
12/01/99 2,400.0 2,400.0 1,024,475 30 34,149 59% $30,250 $50,984 ($11,685) $81,234 $74,418
Totals/Max 2,400.0 2,400.0 13,467,496 364 $274,500 $639,104 ($148,415) $913,604 $818,752

Monthly Demand (kW) Monthly Load Factor (%)

3,000.0 100%
2,500.0
80% 90% 90%
85% 86%
2,000.0 78% 80% 82% 81% 84% 83%
76%
60%
1,500.0 59%
40%
1,000.0
500.0 20%

0.0 0%

Daily Energy (kWh/day) Energy Cost Demand Cost

50,000
$100,000
40,000 $80,000
30,000 $60,000
Cost ($)

20,000 $40,000
10,000 9 $20,000
0 $0

Nov-99
May-99
Mar-99

Sep-99
Apr-99

Dec-99
Oct-99
Feb-99

Aug-99
Jan-99

Jul-99
Jun-99
Feb-99

Dec-99
Sep-99

Oct-99
Apr-99

Aug-99
Jul-99
Jan-99

Jun-99

Nov-99
Mar-99

May-99

60
 Electricity Consumption Data Location: ABC Facility

Load factor
dit Manual\Spreadsheets\[Electricity Cost.xls]Electicity Consumption Data ]

tered Metered Power Billed Energy Daily Load Demand Energy Adjust Sub Total
kVA kW Factor kW kWh Days kWh Factor Cost Cost (+/-) Total Cost
1,800.0 1,800.0 1,006,703 30 33,557 78% $21,250 $50,365 ($11,147) $71,615 $64,701
1,900.0 1,900.0 1,206,383 31 38,916 85% $22,750 $56,441 ($13,204) $79,191 $70,607
1,400.0 1,400.0 842,286 28 30,082 90% $15,250 $42,144 ($9,263) $57,394 $51,501
1,850.0 1,850.0 1,102,176 31 35,554 80% $22,000 $53,315 ($12,132) $75,315 $67,606
1,870.0 1,870.0 1,213,021 30 40,434 90% $22,300 $56,641 ($13,252) $78,941 $70,287
2,200.0 2,200.0 1,339,599 31 43,213 82% $27,250 $60,438 ($14,716) $87,688 $78,080
1,560.0 1,560.0 850,195 30 28,340 76% $17,650 $42,540 ($9,438) $60,190 $54,304
kWh used in period
Load Factor (%) =
1,570.0 1,570.0 948,747 31 30,605 81% $17,800 $47,467 ($10,429) $65,267 $58,677
1,950.0 1,950.0 1,213,798 31 39,155 84% $23,500 x 100
$56,664 ($13,308) $80,164 $71,536
2,300.0
2,100.0
2,300.0
2,100.0
1,373,054 30
1,347,059 31
Peak kW x 24 hr per day x # days in period
45,768
43,454
83%
86%
$28,750
$25,750
$61,442
$60,662
($15,111)
($14,731)
$90,192
$86,412
$80,337
$76,699
2,400.0 2,400.0 1,024,475 30 34,149 59% $30,250 $50,984 ($11,685) $81,234 $74,418
2,400.0 2,400.0 13,467,496 364 $274,500 $639,104 ($148,415) $913,604 $818,752

Low load factors mean Monthly Load Factor (%)

Monthly Demand (kW)
excessive demand for a
100%
short duration - and
80% 90% 90%
higher than necessary 78%
85%
80% 82%
76%
81% 84% 83%
86%

60%
cost. 59%
40%

20%

0%

Daily Energy (kWh/day) Energy Cost Demand Cost

$100,000
$80,000
$60,000 61
Cost ($)

$40,000
Graphical analysis of historical energy
use
Building "A" Building "B"
Gas Space Heat & Gas Domestic Hot Water, Electric A/C Electric Space Heat, Electric A/C, Gas Domestic Hot Water

16,000 18,000
14,000 16,000
14,000
Equivalent kWh

Equivalent kWh
12,000
12,000
10,000
10,000
8,000
8,000
6,000 6,000
4,000 4,000
2,000 2,000
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Monthly Electricity Consumption Monthly Gas Consumption Monthly Electricity Consumption Monthly Gas Consumption

Building "C" Building "D"

Gas Space Heat & Domestic Hot Water, no A/C Gas Space Heat & Process Heat, 2 Week August Shutdown
12,000 12,000

10,000 10,000
Equivalent kWh

Equivalent kWh
8,000 8,000

6,000 6,000

4,000 4,000

2,000 2,000

0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Monthly Electricity Consumption Monthly Gas Consumption Monthly Electricity Consumption Monthly Gas Consumption

62
Calculating degree-days

63
Correlation of energy consumption to
degree-days

64
Hourly Demand Profile

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hour of the Day

65
 Patterns Revealed
• Peak Demand • Loads that Cycle
• Night Load • Interactions
• Start-Up • Occupancy Effects
• Shut-Down • Production Effects
• Weather Effects • Problem Areas

66
 Analyzing the Profile

• Requires facility operational knowledge

• Mark scheduled events on the profile
• Correlate events with:
• Demand increase, decrease, cycling, peaks
• Reconcile with demand on utility bills
• Investigate unknown patterns

“There’s always a savings opportunity in a

new demand profile”

67
 Obtaining a Demand Profile

• Periodic utility meter readings

• Recording clip-on ammeter measurements
• Basic recording power meter
• Multi-channel recording power meters
• A Facility energy management or SCADA system
• A dedicated monitoring system

DME Building Energy Audit

Course 68
Obtaining a demand profile

L1

L2

L3

CLIP-ON AMMETER

3 phase power from single

START
CHART

STOP
POWER
OFF
phase measurement:
ON
DC

kVA = Amps x Volts x

AC
1.73  1000
RECORDER

69
3 phase measurement

70
Daily or monthly

Monthly Demand Profile

15 minute demand interval
2000
1800
1600
1400
kilowatts

1200
1000
800
600
400

Day of the Month

71
 Meter response
Typical Meter Response
Load
Each type has adisconnected
different response - contact your utility.

Load
connected

72
What the demand meter sees

20

15

10

73
 Savings opportunities

• Scheduling – reduce startup peaks

• Infrequent demand peaks – avoidable
• Shift on-peak to off-peak usage pattern
• Equipment loading – consider sequencing

74
 Peak demand control

• Eliminate accidental peaks

• Shift activity “off-peak”
• Peak demand warning for staff
• Interlock equipment
• Load shedding system
• Use generator to “clip” the peak

75
 Power factor correction

• Correct power factor – on peak

• at service entrance
• in the distribution system
• at the point of use power factor

76
Lighting system

Ballast
Lamps (light source)
Ceiling
Fixture

Lens or Diffuser

Switch

Walls
The Requirement Work Surface

Floor

77
 Lighting considerations

• Minimise operating time

• Ensure appropriate levels and quality
• Maximise efficiency of delivery
• Maximise the source efficiency
• Lamp efficiency = efficacy

78
 Lighting quality

• Illumination level
• Uniformity
• Absence of glare
• Colour temperature
• Colour rendition index (CRI)

79
Colour rendering index (CRI)

Light Source CRI Rendering

Incandescent lamps 97 Excellent
FL, full spectrum 7500 94 Excellent
FL, cool white deluxe 87 Excellent
Compact Fluorescent 82 Excellent
FL, Warm White deluxe 73 Good
MH (400 W clear) 65 Good
HPS (250 W deluxe) 65 Good
Fl, Cool White 62 Good
FL, Warm White 52 Fair
MV (phosphor-coated) 43 Poor
HPS (400 W diffuse coated) 32 Poor
MV (clear) 22 Poor
Low Pressure Sodium --- Impossible
80
Light source efficacy

Lamp Type Lumens/Watt

Incandescent 10 - 18
Mercury Vapour 20 - 50
Fluorescent 40 - 100
Metal Halide 60 - 100
High Pressure Sodium 60 - 120
Low Pressure Sodium 90 - 200

DME Building Energy Audit

Course 81
 Summary of lighting
opportunities
• Lower Cost – match the requirement
• Better switching - more switches & levels
• Occupancy sensors & timers
• Reduce overall level & use task lights
• Higher Cost – improve the efficiency
• Upgrade to a more efficient fixture
• Use a more effective fixture layout
• Use a more efficient light source

82
 EMOs for lighting

• Switch off unnecessary lights

• Remove redundant fixtures
• Delamping
• Relamping
• Modifications or replacement
• Remove or replace fixture lenses
• Retrofit the existing lighting system with a more efficient
system
• Replace inefficient ballasts
• Clean light fixtures, lamp reflectors and room surfaces
83
Plug loads

• Plug loads add up

• Turn them off
• Select high efficiency
models

84
Electric motors

• First, reduce
unnecessary use
• Ensure proper operating
conditions
• Provide good
maintenance
• Consider an energy The motor is not the end-
efficient motor use; consider what is being
driven.

85
Imbalance = Inefficiency!
Increase in Losses (%)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Voltage Im balance (%)

86
Match the motor to the load

50% 75% 100%

Efficiency (%)
25%
0%

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Motor Loading

87
 Operating conditions

• Leading cause of motor failure is heat

• 10% temperature increase = ½ life
• Clean air vents
• Balance voltages
• Avoid too many starts

88
 Watch your speed!

• Energy efficient motors tend to have higher

rated/operating speeds.
• 1-3% higher rated speeds.
• When driving a centrifugal load:
• A 1% speed increase = 3.5% power increase.

89
Fans & pumps

• Comprise significant
load in buildings
• Typically oversized
• Misapplication is
common
• Proper flow control can
yield large savings

90
 Assessing fans & pumps

• Match the need - make sure the fan/pump size

matches the need for flow
• Ensure that the pump or fan is operating at close
to optimal conditions - if not reconsider the
pump/fan selection
• Reduce resistance to flow in the distribution
systems - flow resistance, fittings, pipe/duct sizing

91