All Units

Composite Materials and Structures
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UNIT I
STRESS STRAIN RELATION
Introduction- Advantages and application of composite materials, reinforcements and

matrices – Generalised Hooke’s Law – Elastic constants for anisotropic, orthotropic and
isotropic materials
INTRODUCTION
A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined

constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is embedded is
called the matrix. The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibres, particles,
or flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally continuous. Examples of composite
systems include concrete reinforced with steel and epoxy reinforced with graphite
fibres, etc.
Naturally found composites include wood, where the lignin matrix is reinforced
with cellulose fibres and bones in which the bone-salt plates made of calcium and
phosphate ions reinforce soft collagen. Advanced composites are composite materials
that are traditionally used in the aerospace industries. These composites have high
performance reinforcements of a thin diameter in a matrix material such as epoxy and
aluminium. Examples are graphite/epoxy, Kevlar/epoxy, and boron/ aluminium
composites. These materials have now found applications in commercial industries as
well. Hybrid Composites are composites consisting of two constituents at
the manometer or molecular level. Commonly one of these compounds is inorganic and
the other one organic in nature. Thus, they differ from traditional composites where the
constituents are at the macroscopic (micrometer to millimetre) level. Mixing at the
microscopic scale leads to a more homogeneous material that either shows
characteristics in between the two original phases or even new properties.
Introduction to Fibres
Organic and inorganic fibres are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all
organic fibres have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibres are of high
modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibres and not
withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibres which render the composites in
which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibres namely, glass fibres,
silicon carbide fibres, high silica and quartz fibres, alumina fibres, metal fibres and
wires, graphite fibres, boron fibres, aramid fibres and multi phase fibres are used.
Among the glass fibres, it is again classified into E-glass, S-glass, A- glass, R-glass
etc.There is a greater market and higher degree of commercial movement of organic
fibres. The potential of fibres of graphite, silicon carbide and boron are also exercising
the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.
Types of fibres
Glass Fibres
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Over 95% of the fibres used in reinforced plastics are glass fibres, as they are
inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect
to the plastics with which they are reinforced. Their low density, resistance to
chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major
disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for
a long time. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time
frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is
expected to sustain such loads for many months or years continuously. Period of
loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of
glass fibres and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness
of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catastrophic failure. But all
this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact that the wide range of glass fibre
variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die moulding,
filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibres are available in the form of mats, tapes,
cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, roving and yarns. Addition of chemicals to
silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses.
Metallic Fibres
As reinforcements, metal fibres have many advantages. They are easily produced using
several fabrication processes and are more ductile, apart from being not too sensitive to
surface damage and possess high strengths and temperature resistance. However, their
weight and the tendency to react with each other through alloying mechanisms are
major disadvantages. Steel wire is the most extensively used reinforcement in most
large-scale metal filament applications. Wire is used for its capacity to enhance the
tensile strength of concrete and continuous metal fibres are the reinforcing constituents
in metal and ceramic composite materials.
Ceramic fibres improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is

incorporated with refractory ceramics by improving their thermal shock and impact
resistance properties.
Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and
epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue
resistance. Besides, continuous metal fibres are easily handled, unlike glass fibres.
Better flexural properties are observed in some metal fibres reinforced plastic
composites which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibres.
Metal wires, of the continuous version, also reinforce plastics like polyethylene and
epoxy. Such combinations ensure high strength, light weight and good fatigue
resistance.Besides, continuous metal fibres are easily handled, unlike glass fibres. Better
flexural properties are observed in some metal fibres reinforced plastic composites
which also offer improved strength and weight, than glass fibres. However, their poor
tolerance of high temperatures and the resultant steep variation of thermal expansion
coefficient with the resins are a discouragement that limits their application.
Alumina Fibres
Alumina or aluminium oxide fibres, basically developed for use in metal matrices are
considered a potential resin-matrix composite reinforcement. It offers good
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compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high

melting point of about 2000°C and the composite can be successfully used at
temperatures up to about 1000°C. Magnesium and aluminium matrices frequently use
alumina fibre reinforced composites as they do not damage the fibre even in the liquid
state.
Boron Fibres
They are basically composites, in which boron is coated on a substance which forms the
substrate, usually made of tungsten. Boron-tungsten fibres are obtained by allowing hot
tungsten filament through a mixture of gases. Boron is deposited on tungsten and the
process is continued until the desired thickness is achieved. The tungsten however
remains constant in its thickness. Properties of boron fibres generally change with the
diameter, because of the changing ratio of boron to tungsten and the surface defects
that change according to size. However, they are known for their remarkable stiffness
and strength. Their strengths often compare with those of glass fibres, but their tensile
modulus is high, almost four to five times that of glass. Boron coated carbons are much
cheaper to make than boron tungsten fibre. But its low modulus of elasticity often
works against it.
Silicon Carbide Fibres

Silicon carbide can be coated over a few metals and their room temperature tensile
strengths and tensile moduli are like those of boron-tungsten. The advantages of silicon
carbide-tungsten are several and they are more desirable than uncoated boron tungsten
fibres. Elevated temperature performance and the fact that they reported only a 35%
loss of strength at 1350°C are their best qualities. Silicon carbide-tungsten and silicon
carbide-carbon have both been seen to have very high stress-rupture strength at 1100°C
and 1300°C. Uncoated boron-tungsten fibres tend to lose all their strength at
temperatures over 680°C. Silicon carbide fibres do not react with molten aluminium,
unlike uncoated boron and they also withstand high temperatures used in hot-press
titanium matrices. However, silicon carbide-tungsten fibres are dense compared to
boron- tungsten fibres of the same diameter. They are prone to surface damage and
need careful, delicate handling, especially during fabrication of the composite. Further,
above 930°C, weakening reactions occur between tungsten and silicon carbide, making
it difficult to maintain balance in high-temperature matrix formations.
Silicon carbide on 'carbon substrates have several advantages, viz. no, reaction at high
temperature, being lighter than silicon carbide tungsten and possessing tensile
strengths and modulus that is are often better than those of silicon carbide-tungsten
and boron fibres.
Aramid/Kevlar Fibres
Aramid fibres are made from aromatic polyamides which are long polymeric
.chains and aromatic rings. They are structures in which six carbon atoms are bonded to
each other and to combinations of hydrogen atoms. In aramid fibres, these rings occur
and reoccur to form the fibres. They were initially used to reinforce automobile tires.
Since then, they have also found other uses like bullet proof vests. As high strength
applications, their use in power boats is not uncommon. Aramid have high tensile
strength, high modulus and low weight. Impact- resistant structures can be produced
from aramid. The density of aramid fibres is less than that of glass and graphite fibres.
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They are fire resistant apart from being high-temperature resistant and also unaffected
by organic solvents and fuels. But their resistance in acid and alkaline media is poor.
They are supple and allow themselves to be woven into matrices by simple processes.
Aramid fibres have a negative coefficient of thermal expansion in the fibre direction
and the failure of aramid fibres is unique. When they fail, the fibres break into small
fibrils, which are like fibres within the fibres. This unique failure mechanism is
responsible for high strength.
Quartz and Silica Fibres

The glass-types typically contain about 50 to 78% silica. Silica glass is a purer glass fiber
that can be made by treating fibreglass in an acid bath, which removes all impurities
without affecting the silica. The final product contains 93 to 99% silica. Quartz is even
more pure, and quartz fibres are made from natural quartz crystals that contain 99.9%
silica, possessing nearly all the properties of pure solid quartz.Ordinary fibreglass, high
silica and quartz fibres share several characteristics and can be produced in a range of
fibre diameters. Roving or yarns and other forms of fibres can be made from high silica
as well as quartz. All matrix materials that accept fibreglass are amenable to high silica
and quartz too. They differ from glass in many factors, however, especially in heat-
related properties. Although quartz crystals are commonly available, pure crystals are
hard to come by. On the other hand, high silica comes from the same material as glass
fibres and is easily accessible. However, quartz makes up for its rarity with its capacity
to" withstand high temperatures, which silica is incapable of barring this difference,
silica and quartz are similar in other respects. They are highly elastic and can be
stretched to 1 % of their length before break point. Both silica and quartz are not
affected by acid attacks and are resistant to moisture. Owing to their thermal
properties, silica and quartz are the natural choice as fibres in several applications. They
have good insulating properties and do not melt at temperatures up to 1600°C. In
addition, they have low thermal expansion coefficients which make them withstand
high temperatures.
Graphite Fibres
While use of the term carbon for graphite is permissible, there is one basic
difference between the two. Elemental analysis of poly-acrylo-nitrile (PAN) base carbon
fibres show that they consist of 91 to 94% carbon. But graphite fibres are over 99%
carbon. The difference arises from the fact that the fibres are made at different
temperatures. PAN-based carbon cloth or fibre is produced at about 1320°C, while
graphite fibres and cloth are graphitized at 1950 to 3000°C. The properties of graphite
remain unchanged even at very high temperatures, but its willingness to react readily
with most metals at the fabrication stage or during use at very high temperatures is
often a stumbling block, as seen in aluminium matrices when carbides are produced at
the interface. These carbides react with moisture with disastrous effects on the
composite material. Graphite fibres are some of the stiffest fibres known. The stiffness
of the fibre is as high as the graphite content. But a major drawback is that stiffness and
strength are inversely proportional to each other. Forbidding costs make the use of
graphite fibres prohibitive. The best glass fibres are far less expensive than the cheapest,
lowest quality of graphite, and in PAN-base fibres, other raw materials too are equally
expensive. The carbonization and graphitization are time-consuming, apart from
demanding excessive energy, materials and close controls throughout the process.
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Cheaper pitch base fibres are now being developed, with greater performance potential
and there are possibilities of the increased use of graphite fibres.
Multiphase Fibres
Spool able filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually
the multi phase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and
their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or
tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their
reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other
metallic fibres. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediate-
temperature composites. A poly-phase fibre is a core-sheath fibre consisting of a poly-
crystalline core.
The main reasons for using fibres of thin diameter are the following
• Actual strength of materials is in several magnitudes lower than the theoretical

strength. This difference is due to the inherent flaws in the material. Removing these
flaws can increase the strength of the material. As the fibres become smaller in
diameter, the chances of an inherent flaw in the material are reduced. A steel plate may
have strength of 100 ksi (689 MPa), while a wire made from this steel plate can have
strength of 600 ksi (4100 MPa). Fibres able to bend without breaking are required in
manufacturing of composite materials, especially for woven fabric composites. Ability
to bend increases with a decrease in the fibre diameter and is measured as flexibility.
Flexibility is defined as the inverse of bending stiffness and is proportional to the
inverse of the product of the elastic modulus of the fibre and the fourth power of its
diameter.
Four fibre factors contribute to the mechanical performance of a composite
• Length: The fibres can be long or short. Long, continuous fibres are easy to orient and
process, but short fibres cannot be controlled fully for proper orientation. Long fibres
provide many benefits over short fibres. These include impact resistance, low
shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional stability. However, short fibres
provide low cost, are easy to work with, and have fast cycle time fabrication
procedures. Short fibres have fewer flaws and therefore have higher strength.
• Orientation: Fibres oriented in one direction give very high stiffness and strength in
that direction. If the fibres are oriented in more than one direction, such as in a mat,
there will be high stiffness and strength in the directions of the fibre orientations.
However, for the same volume of fibres per unit volume of the composite, it cannot
match the stiffness and strength of unidirectional composites.
• Shape: The most common shape of fibres is circular because handling and
manufacturing them is easy. Hexagon and square shaped fibres are possible, but their
advantages of strength and high packing factors do not outweigh the difficulty in
handling and processing.
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• Material: The material of the fibre directly influences the mechanical performance of a
composite. Fibres are generally expected to have high elastic moduli and strengths. This
expectation and cost have been key factors in the graphite, aramids, and glass
dominating the fibre market for composites.
How is the mechanical advantage of composite measured?

For example, the axial deflection, of a prismatic rod under an axial load, P, is given by
Stiffness is defined as the resistance of a material to deflection,

 Strength is defined as the stress at which a material fails.
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 Fatigue resistance is the resistance to the lowering of mechanical properties such

as strength and stiffness due to cyclic loading, such as due to take-off and
landing of a plane, vibrating a plate, etc.
 Impact resistance is the resistance to damage and to reduction in residual
strength to impact loads, such as a bird hitting an airplane or a hammer falling
on a car body.
 Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat flow across a unit area of a material in a
unit time, when the temperature gradient is unity in the direction perpendicular
to the area.
 Corrosion resistance is the resistance to corrosion, such as pitting, erosion,
galvanic, etc.
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels
• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent.
The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal
Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term
organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites,
namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites
commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced
composites, laminar composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced
Polymers composites (FRP) can be further divided into those containing
discontinuous or continuous fibres.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material.
Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite
if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the
fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic
modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre
reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily
although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to
keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a
matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood
particle boards are examples of this category.
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess

lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high
temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications. Two main kinds of
polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-
bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of
melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to
alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can
be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering
Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced
conditions fibre reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in
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the chopped fibre composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding

compound with fibres of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be starting
material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins. Thermoplastics have
one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated
temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the
process of softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties
during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould
the compounds.
Table.1.1 Comparison of thermoplastics and thermosets

Thermoplastics Thermosets
Soften on heating and pressure, and thus Decompose on heating
easy to repair Low strains to failure
High strains to failure Indefinite shelf life Definite shelf life
Can be reprocessed Cannot be reprocessed
Not tacky and easy to handle Tacky
Short cure cycles Long cure cycles
Higher fabrication temperature and Fair solvent resistance
viscosities have Lower fabrication temperature
made it difficult to process
Excellent solvent resistance
Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in

research fraternity, are not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength,
fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than those offered by
their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive
environment than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as
matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be stable over a range
of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the choice
depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for
temperature application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned
reasons are characterized by high moduli.
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Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic
bonding in general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good
corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength,
render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a
structural material that doesn’t give way at temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally,
ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature applications.
Examples for composite materials

• Fibre reinforced plastics:
o Classified by type of fibre:
Wood (cellulose fibres in a lignin and hemicelluloses matrix)
Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)
Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fibreglass")
o Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites
• Short fibre thermoplastics
• Long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre reinforced
thermoplastics
• Glass mat thermoplastics
• Continuous fibre reinforced thermoplastics
Thermoset Composites
• Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)
• Metal matrix composites (MMCs):
o White cast iron
o Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
o Metal-intermetallic laminate
• Ceramic matrix composites:
o Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres)
o Cermet (ceramic and metal)
o Concrete
• Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites
o Asphalt concrete
o Dental composite
o Syntactic foam
o Mother of Pearl
• Chobham armour (see composite armour)
• Engineered wood
o Plywood
o Oriented strand board
o Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix)
o Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix)
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Fig.1.1 Plywood
• Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles
o Arborite
o Formica (plastic)
Advantages of Composites
Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant
use in aerospace industry are as follows:
• High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.
• High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio. As enumerated above, weight
savings are significant ranging from 25-45% of the weight of conventional
metallic designs.
• Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
• Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre
pattern can be laid in a manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently
sustain the applied loads.
• Fibre to fibre redundant load path.
• Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not
sustain damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.
• It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction.
Complex double-curvature parts with a smooth surface finish can be made in
one manufacturing operation.
• Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling
speeds, reduced number of intermediate bearings and supporting structural
elements. The overall part count and manufacturing & assembly costs are
thus reduced.
• High resistance to impact damage.
• Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high
volume commercial applications that traditionally have been the domain of
sheet metals. Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.
• Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.
• Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity
and low coefficient of thermal expansion. Composite materials can be
tailored to comply with a broad range of thermal expansion design
requirements and to minimise thermal stresses.
• Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration
(joint/fastener reduction) thereby reducing cost.
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• The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well

as their corrosion resistance and durability reduce the down time for
maintenance.
• Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.
• Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built
to shape rather than machined to the required configuration, as is common
with metals.
• Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon,
combined with their lightweight have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
• Improved friction and wear properties.
• The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed
new approaches to the design of aeroelastic flight structures.
The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common
implements and equipment such as a graphite racquet that has inherent damping,
and causes less fatigue and pain to the user.
Limitations of Composites
Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:
• High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
• Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily
damaged.
• Transverse properties may be weak.
• Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
• Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
• Difficult to attach.
• Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:
 Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited
shelf life.
 Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
 Hot or cold curing takes time.
 Analysis is difficult.
 Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.
However, proper design and material selection can circumvent many of the
above disadvantages. New technology has provided a variety of reinforcing fibres and
matrices those can be combined to form composites having a wide range of exceptional
properties. Since the advanced composites are capable of providing structural efficiency
at lower weights as compared to equivalent metallic structures, they have emerged as
the primary materials for future use. In aircraft application, advanced fibre reinforced
composites are now being used in many structural applications, viz. floor beams,
engine cowlings, flight control surfaces, landing gear doors, wing-to-body fairings, etc.,
and also major load carrying structures including the vertical and horizontal stabiliser
main torque boxes. Composites are also being considered for use in improvements to
civil infrastructures, viz., earthquake proof highway supports, power generating wind
mills, long span bridges, etc.
Applications of Composites
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 In manufacturing of automobile parts, glass and sisal fibres usually find the
maximum use. Sisal costs very less and this alone has prompted extensive
research to come up with applications in which sisal is the dominant reinforcing
material in filled polyester resin, in parts where specific mechanical properties
are required and appearance is not very important. Heater housings, which find
uses for sisal, are produced by compression moulding.
 Good stability against corrosion or impact makes the composites widely used in
vulnerable valance panels below the front and rear bumpers. Signal lamps,
indicator lamps of vehicles are fabricated from glass-reinforced composites and
tractors have a different selection methodology from that of passenger cars.
 Truck bodies and trailers use assemblies and parts made from reinforced plastics
to a great extent. The use of light metals, which lends itself to simple shapes and
extricable forms, is also found to be economical.
 Commercial aircraft applications are the most important uses of composites.
Aircraft, unlike other vehicles, need to lay greater stress on safety and weight.
They are achieved by using materials with high specific properties. A modern
civil aircraft must be so designed as to meet the numerous criteria of power and
safety. Glass reinforced composites are the most desired materials as a result of
advanced technology that has gone beyond the design and application.
 Nowadays, composites are used in peripheral structures of aerodromes.
Conventional constructions of composites ought to cost much less in future and
will not be a constraint.
 The high strength of composites allows designing of higher aspect ratio wings in
aerofoil sections.
 Sometimes weight reduction is required to maintain the center of gravity of the
system. Specially, tail weight can be reduced by application of composites so that
weights do not have to be added at the nose to maintain the center of gravity
position.
 The use of fibre reinforced composites has become increasingly attractive
alternative to the conventional metals for many aircraft components mainly due
to their increased strength, durability, corrosion resistance, resistance to fatigue
and damage tolerance characteristics. Composites also provide greater flexibility
because the material can be tailored to meet the design requirements and they
also offer significant weight advantages. Carefully designed individual
composite parts, at present, are about 20-30% lighter than their conventional
metal counterparts. Although all-composite airplanes are now available in the
world market, yet advances in the practical use of composite materials should
enable further reduction in the structural weight of airplane. The composite
materials used in aircraft industry are generally reinforced fibres or filaments
embedded in a resin matrix. The most common fibres are carbon, aramid, glass
and their hybrid. The resin matrix is generally an epoxy based system requiring
curing temperatures between 120° and 180°C (250° and 350°F). Comparison plot
to find weight saving with respect to type of Aircraft is shown in fig.1.2 to fig.1.6.
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Fig. 1.2 The comparison plot to find weight saving with respect to type of Aircraft
Fig.1.3 The composite material was used in fin leading edge and other glass fibre fairing panels
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Fig.1.4 Composite used for different part of B- 737 aircraft
Fig 1.5 Composites used in Tejas Aircraft
Fig 1.6 Usage of Composites in Tejas
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Table.1.2 The components used on Airbus series of aircraft
Aircraft Type Components Made of Composite Materials

Airbus A300B2/B4 Radome, fin leading edge and tip, fin trailing edge panels, cabin and
cargo hold furnishings. Fairing -pylon, wing/ fuselage rear.
Airbus A310-300 Rudder, elevator, vertical stabilizer, spoilers, cowl (inlet & fan), thrust
reverser, main & nose landing gear door of wing leading & trailing edge
panels, nacelles. Fairings -Ion, flap track, win fuselage.
Airbus A320/A319 & Aileron, horizontal and vertical stabilizer, elevator, rudder, spoilers,
A321 flaps, engine cowl, radome, landing gear doors (main & nose), floor
panels, wing panels (leading & trailing edge), other access panels,
nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward & rear), and main landing
gear leg.
Airbus A330 Ailerons, rudder, flaps, spoilers, elevator, horizontal and vertical
stabilizer, wing panels (leading & trailing edge), landing gear doors
(main & nose), nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward & rear).
Airbus 340 Ailerons, rudder, flaps, spoilers, elevator, horizontal and vertical
stabilizer, wing panels (leading & trailing edge), landing gear doors
(main & nose), nacelles.
Fairings -flap track, wing/fuselage (forward & rear).
Table.1.3 Weight of composites used in different Airbus

Aircraft Type Weight of Composites
Airbus A300 ≈4000 lb. (5%)
Airbus A310 ≈7400 lb (7%)
Airbus A320 ≈9000 lb (15%)
Airbus A330/A340 ≈16000 lb (12%)
Table.1.4 The components used on Boeing series of aircraft

Aircraft Type Components Made of Composite Materials
Boeing 737 Spoilers and horizontal stabilizer (both limited production), trailing
-200 edge flaps.
-300 Aileron, elevator, rudder, nacelles.
-400 Aileron, elevator, rudder, nacelles.
Boeing 747-400 CFRP winglets and main deck floor panels. CFRP and AFRP used
in cabin fittings engine nacelles.
Boeing 757 Aileron, elevator, rudder, spoilers, flaps (in-board & outboard),
fairings and nacelles.
Boeing 767 Ailerons, elevator, rudder, spoilers, landing gear doors (nose &
main), fairings and nacelles.
Boeing 777 Ailerons, elevator, rudder, spoilers, flaps (in-board & outboard),
floor beams, landing gear doors (nose & main), fairings and
nacelles.
Table.1.5 Weight of composites used in different Boeing

Aircraft Type Weight of Composites
Boeing 737 - 200 ≈100 lb. Spoiler (1973)
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≈1150 lb. Horizontal Stabilizer

Boeing 737 - 300 ≈1150 lb. (3%)
Boeing 737 - 400 ≈1150 lb. (3%)
Boeing 757 ≈3400 lb. (3%)
Boeing 767 ≈3400 lb. (3%)
Boeing 777 ≈33000 lb. (10%)
Boeing 737 - 300 ≈1150 lb. (3%)
Comparison with Metals

Requirements governing the choice of materials apply to both metals and reinforced
plastics. It is, therefore, imperative to briefly compare main characteristics of the two.
• Composites offer significant weight saving over existing metals. Composites can
provide structures that are 25-45% lighter than the conventional aluminium
structures designed to meet the same functional requirements. This is due to the
lower density of the composites. Depending on material form, composite
densities range from 1260 to 1820 kg/in 3 (0.045 to 0.065 lb/in3) as compared to
2800 kg/in3 (0.10 lb/in3) for aluminium. Some applications may require thicker
composite sections to meet strength/stiffness requirements, however, weight
savings will still result.
• Unidirectional fibre composites have specific tensile strength (ratio of material
strength to density) about 4 to 6 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
• Unidirectional composites have specific -modulus (ratio of the material stiffness to
density) about 3 to 5 times greater than that of steel and aluminium.
• Fatigue endurance limit of composites may approach 60% of their ultimate
tensile strength. For steel and aluminium, this value is considerably lower.
• Fibre composites are more versatile than metals, and can be tailored to meet
performance needs and complex design requirements such as aero-elastic
loading on the wings and the vertical & the horizontal stabilisers of aircraft.
• Fibre reinforced composites can be designed with excellent structural damping
features. As such, they are less noisy and provide lower vibration transmission
than metals.
• High corrosion resistance of fibre composites contributes to reduce life- cycle cost.
• Composites offer lower manufacturing cost principally by reducing significantly the
number of detailed parts and expensive technical joints required to form large metal
structural components. In other words, composite parts can eliminate joints/fasteners
thereby providing parts simplification and integrated design.
• Long term service experience of composite material environment and durability
behaviour is limited in comparison with metals.
Reinforcements
Reinforcements for the composites can be fibres, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibres
are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often
circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their
shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as
compared to fibres. Figure M1.2.3 shows types of reinforcements in composites.
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Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Fibres are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired
conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing
their properties as desired.Glass fibres are the earliest known fibres used to reinforce
materials. Ceramic and metal fibres were subsequently found out and put to extensive
use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat. Fibres fall short of ideal
performance due to several factors. The performance of a fibre composite is judged by
its length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibres and the mechanical
properties of the matrix. The orientation of the fibre in the matrix is an indication of the
strength of the composite and the strength is greatest along the longitudinal directional
of fibre. This doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibres can take the same quantum of load
irrespective of the direction in which it is applied. Optimum performance from
longitudinal fibres can be obtained if the load is applied along its direction. The
slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically reduce the strength of the
composite.
Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibres can be

oriented unidirectional stacked into plies containing layers of filaments also oriented in
the same direction. More complicated orientations are possible too and nowadays,
computers are used to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In
short, in planar composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fibre oriented
composites that result in composites with nearly isotropic properties. Properties of
angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number of
plies and their orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to
have a constant ratio and the matrices are considered relatively weaker than the fibres.
The strength of the fibre in any one of the three axes would, therefore be one-third the
unidirectional fibre composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all
three axes.
Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of
materials. They can be described as materials comprising of layers of materials bonded
together. These may be of several layers of two or more metal materials occurring
alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as
required for a specific purpose.
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Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they
are known to follow the rule of mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view.
Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-reinforced composites are also
fairly well known.
Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one
phase strewn in the other, are known as particle reinforced composites. Square,
triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the dimensions of all
their sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of
the dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials. The dispersed size
in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration is
greater than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion
strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The mechanism used to strengthen each of them
is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials reinforces the
matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the
restriction created by dispersion. In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the
system by the hydrostatic coercion of fillers in matrices and by their hardness relative
to the matrix.
Classification Based On Matrices

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded,
and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix to any
point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural
applications, the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as aluminium, magnesium, or
titanium, and provides a compliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature
applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common. The composite
materials are commonly classified based on matrix constituent. The major composite
classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is
generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix
Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon-
carbon composites.
These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.

1. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example,
use ceramic fibres in a plastic matrix.
2. Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibres embedded
in a matrix made from an alloy of aluminium and magnesium, but other matrix
materials such as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used. Typical
applications of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance systems;
an MMC made from silicon-carbide fibres in a titanium matrix is currently being
developed for use as the skin (fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace
Plane.
3. Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples
include silicon carbide fibres fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass.
The ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight,
high-temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet engines.
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Fig.1.7 Usage of Composites in Various Domains
Fig.1.8 Particulate Composites
Fig. 1.9 Flake Composites
Fig.1.10 Fibre Composites

Prepregs
Prepregs are a ready-made tape composed of fibres in a polymer matrix. They
are available in standard widths from 3 to 50 in. (76 to 1270 mm). Depending on
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whether the polymer matrix is thermoset or thermoplastic, the tape is stored in a

refrigerator or at room temperature, respectively. One can lay these tapes manually or
mechanically at various orientations to make a composite structure. Vacuum bagging
and curing under high pressures and temperatures may follow.
Fig.1.11 Prepregs
Fig.1.12 Usage of Composites in Space Shuttle
Generalized Hook’s Law (Stress-strain Relation)

Robert Hooke (who in 1676) stated that, “The power of any springy body is in the same
proportion with the extension” and it commonly called/announced as “the birth of
elasticity”.
Fig1.10 Elements 3-dimensional stress. All stresses have positive sense.
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Defining a set of internal datum planes aligned with a Cartesian coordinate system
allows the stress state at an internal point ‘P’ to be described relative to x-, y-, and z-
coordinate directions as shown in Figure. For example, the stress state at point ‘P’ can
be represented by an infinitesimal cube with three stress components on each of its six
sides (one direct and two shear components).
Since each point in the body is under static equilibrium (no net force in the absence of
any body forces), only nine stress components from three planes are needed to describe
the stress state at a point ‘P’.
These nine components can be organized into the matrix:
The subscript notation used for the nine stress components have the following
meaning:
Global 1D Strain
Global 1D strain
Consider a rod with initial length L which is stretched to a length L', as shown in
Figure. The strain measure ε, a dimensionless ratio, is defined as the ratio of elongation
with respect to the original length,
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Infinitesimal 1D Strain
The above strain measure is defined in a global sense. The strain at each point may vary
dramatically if the bar's elastic modulus or cross-sectional area changes. To track down
the strain at each point, further refinement in the definition is needed.
Consider an arbitrary point in the bar P, which has a position vector x, and its
infinitesimal neighbor ‘dx’. Point ‘P’ shifts to P', which has a position vector x', after the
stretch; as shown in Figure. In the meantime, the small "step" dx is stretched to dx'. The
strain at point p can be defined the same as in the global strain measure,
Infinitesimal 1D Strain
Since the displacement, the strain can hence be rewritten as,
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationships can be summarized as,
where ‘’ is the displacement vector, ‘x’ is coordinate, and the two indices ‘i’ and ‘j’ can
range over the three coordinates {1 in three dimensional space. u,2,3} Expanding the
above equation for each coordinate direction gives,
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Engineering Shear Strain
Focus on the strain εxy for a moment. The expression inside the parentheses can be
rewritten as,
In contrast, the shear strain εxy is the average of the shear strain on the ‘x’ face along the
y-direction, and on the ‘y’ face along the x-direction,
We can rewrite as,
For yz and xz simultaneously,
Introducing a new term,
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The strain energy in the body per unit volume, per above equation is expressed as
Now, by partial differentiation of Equation,
Because the differentiation does not necessarily need to be in either order,
Thus Generalized Hook’s Law was derived.
Elastic Constants for anisotropic material
Fig 1.13 Types of materials axes
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Contracted Notation
Unlike a matrix (which has rows and columns, 2-D representation), general tensors
cannot be written on the blackboard. So in order to manipulate the elastic relations like
a matrix, a mapping was created to write the stress and strain tensors as "vectors" and
the stiffness (or compliance) as a "matrix". The mapping is simply by Cartesian
coordinate system:
where C is the stiffness matrix, ‘S’ is the compliance matrix, and S = C -1. In general,
stress-strain relationships such as these are known as constitutive relations. The general
strain–stress relationship for a three dimensional body in a 1–2–3 orthogonal Cartesian
coordinate system is
Monoclinic Material (STIFFNESS AND COMPLIANCE MATRIX DERIVATION)

If, in one plane of material symmetry, for example, direction 3 is normal to the plane of
material symmetry, then the stiffness matrix reduces to
The direction perpendicular to the plane of symmetry is called the principal direction.
Note that there are 13 independent elastic constants. Feldspar is an example of a
monoclinic material. The compliance matrix correspondingly reduces to
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Then using the Hooke’s law and the compliance matrix for the monoclinic material, one
gets
Elastic Constants for isotropic material:
The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus E and the
Poisson's ratio η(or ‘n’). However, the alternative elastic constants bulk modulus (K)
and/or shear modulus (G) can also be used. For isotropic materials, G and K can be
found from E and n by a set of equations, and vice-versa.
Hooke's law for isotropic materials in compliance matrix form is given by,
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The stiffness matrix is equal to the inverse of the compliance matrix, and is given by,
For a linear isotropic material in a three-dimensional stress state, the Hooke’s law
stress–strain relationships at a point in an x–y–z orthogonal system in matrix form are,
By Compliance terms,
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where u is the Poisson’s ratio. The shear modulus G is a function of two elastic
constants, E and u, as
If the circular rod is made of an isotropic, homogeneous, and linearly elastic material,
then the stress–strain at any point is related as
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If all planes in an orthotropic body are identical, it is an isotropic material; then, the
stiffness matrix is given by
The compliance matrix reduces to
Elastic Constants for Orthotropic material:
The compliance matrix can be written as,
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STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS FOR LAMINA WITH ARBITRARY ORIENTATION

Consider an orthotropic lamina with its principal material axes oriented at
an angle θ with the reference coordinate axes as shown in figure. Stresses and strains
can be easily transformed from one set of axes to another.
Fig. 1.12 Lamina with Arbitrary Orientation
From elementary mechanics of materials the transformation equations for expressing

stresses in a 1-2 coordinate system in terms of stresses in a x-y coordinate system,
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Problem 1:
Find the compliance and stiffness matrix for a graphite/epoxy lamina. The material
properties are given as
Solution:
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Problem 2:
For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following

1. Compliance matrix
2. Minor Poisson’s ratio
3. Reduced stiffness matrix
4. Strains in the 1–2 coordinate systems, if the applied stresses are
Use the properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from above problem,
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Solution:
The minor Poisson’s ratio is
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The strains in the 1–2 coordinate systems are
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Problem 3:
Find the following for a 60° angle lamina Figure of graphite/epoxy. Use the properties
of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina.
1. Transformed compliance matrix
2. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
3. Global strains
4. Local strains
5. Local stresses
6. Principal stresses
7. Maximum shear stress
8. Principal strains
9. Maximum shear strain
Solution:
1.
Now,
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2. By inverting the transformed compliance matrix to obtain the transformed reduced

stiffness matrix,
Therefore,
3. The global strains in the x–y plane are given by
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4. Using transformation Equation, the local strains in the lamina are
5. Using transformation Equation, the local stresses in the lamina are
6. The principal normal stresses are
The value of angle,
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7. The maximum shear stress is
The angle at which the maximum shear stress,
8. The principal strains are
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The value of the angle at which the maximum normal strains
9. The maximum shearing strain is
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The value of the angle at which the maximum shearing strain
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UNIT-2
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Micro mechanics – Mechanics of materials approach, elasticity approach to determine

material properties – Macro Mechanics – Stress-strain relations with respect to natural
axis, arbitrary axis – Determination of material properties-Experimental
characterization of lamina.
Micromechanics
The stress–strain relationships, engineering constants, and failure theories for an
angle lamina were developed using four elastic moduli, five strength parameters, two
coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE), and two coefficients of moisture expansion
(CME) for a unidirectional lamina. These 13 parameters can be found experimentally by
conducting several tension, compression, shear, and hygrothermal tests on
unidirectional lamina (laminates). However, unlike in isotropic materials, experimental
evaluation of these parameters is quite costly and time consuming because they are
functions of several variables: the individual constituents of the composite material,
fiber volume fraction, packing geometry, processing, etc. Thus, the need and motivation
for developing analytical models to find these parameters are very important. In this
chapter, we will develop simple relationships for the these parameters in terms of the
stiffnesses, strengths, coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion of the individual
constituents of a composite, fiber volume fraction, packing geometry, etc. An
understanding of this relationship, called micromechanics of lamina, helps the designer
to select the constituents of a composite material for use in a laminated structure.
Volume Fractions
Consider a composite consisting of fibre and matrix. Take the following symbol
notations:
Mass Fractions
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From above equation,
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Density
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Mechanics of materials approach
Strength of Materials Approach
Fig 2.1 Representative volume element of a unidirectional lamina
From a unidirectional lamina, take a representative volume element*that consists

of the fiber surrounded by the matrix .This representative volume element (RVE) can be
further represented as rectangular blocks. The fiber, matrix, and the composite are
assumed to be of the same width, h, but of thicknesses tf , tm, and tc, respectively. The
area of the fiber is given by
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and the matrix fibre volume fraction Vm is
Elasticity approach to determine material properties:

There are four elastic moduli of a unidirectional lamina:
• Longitudinal Young’s modulus, E1
• Transverse Young’s modulus, E2
• Major Poisson’s ratio,v12
• In-plane shear modulus, G12
Longitudinal Young’s modulus, E1 (Determination of E1):
Fig 2.2 A longitudinal stress applied to a representative volume element used to calculate
longitudinal Young’s modulus of a unidirectional lamina.
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under a uniaxial load Fc on the composite RVE, the load is shared by the fiber Ff and
the matrix Fm so that
By above Equation,
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The definition of volume fraction,
Transverse Young’s modulus, E2 (Determination of E12):
Fig 2.3 A transverse stress applied to a representative volume element used to calculate
transverse Young’s modulus of a unidirectional lamina
The composite is stressed in the transverse direction. The fibres and matrix are again
represented by rectangular blocks as shown. The fibre, the matrix, and composite
stresses are equal. Thus,
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Major Poisson’s ratio,v12(Determination of v12):
Fig 2.4 A longitudinal stress applied to a representative volume element to calculate Poisson’s
ratio of unidirectional lamina
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The major Poisson’s ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of the normal strain in the
transverse direction to the normal strain in the longitudinal direction, when a normal
load is applied in the longitudinal direction. The Poisson’s ratios for the fibre, matrix,
and composite, respectively, are
As thickness fractions and Volume fractions are same,
In-plane shear modulus, G12(Determination of G12):
Fig 2.5 An in-plane shear stress applied to a representative volume element for finding in-plane
shear modulus of a unidirectional lamina.
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By above Equation,
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Elasticity Approach to Stiffness:

 Lower bound
 Upper Bound
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Definition of Micromechanics and Macro mechanics
EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF LAMINA:
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RULE OF MIXTURES
Composite stiffness can be predicted using a micro-mechanics approach termed the rule of
mixtures.
Assumptions
1. Fibers are uniformly distributed throughout the matrix.
2. Perfect bonding between fibers and matrix.
3. Matrix is free of voids.
4. Applied loads are either parallel or normal to the fiber direction.
5. Lamina is initially in a stress-free state (no residual stresses).
6. Fiber and matrix behave as linearly elastic materials.
'Rules of Mixtures' are mathematical expressions which give some property of the composite in
terms of the properties, quantity and arrangement of its constituents. In materials science,
a general rule of mixtures is a weighted mean used to predict various properties of
composite made up of continuous and unidirectional fibres. It provides a theoretical upper- and
lower-bound on properties such as the elastic modulus, mass density, ultimate tensile
strength, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity. In general there are two models, one
for axial loading and one for transverse loading (Reuss model). In general, for some material
property (often the elastic modulus the rule of mixtures states that the overall property in the
direction parallel to the fibres may be as high as In the case of the elastic modulus, this is
known as the upper-bound modulus, and corresponds to loading parallel to the fibres.
The inverse rule of mixtures states that in the direction perpendicular to the fibres, the elastic
modulus of a composite can be as low as metals.
YIELD CRITERION
The von Mises yield criterion suggests that the yielding of materials begins when
the second deviatoric stress invariant reaches a critical value. For this reason, it is sometimes
called the -plasticity or flow theory. It is part of a plasticity theory that applies best
to ductile materials, such as metals. Prior to yield, material response is assumed to be elastic.
Problem 1:
Find the in-plane shear modulus of a glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fibre volume
fraction. Use properties of glass and epoxy.
Solution:
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Problem 2:
Find the longitudinal elastic modulus and transverse Young’s modulus of a

unidirectional glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fibre volume fraction. Use the properties
of glass and epoxy
Solution:
The longitudinal elastic modulus of the unidirectional lamina is
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The transverse Young’s modulus of the unidirectional lamina is
Problem 3:
Solution:
Minor Poisson Ratio,
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UNIT-3
LAMINATED PLATES
Governing differential equation for a general laminate, angle ply and cross ply laminates.
Failure criteria for composites.
GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR A GENERAL LAMINATE:
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The Variation of stress and strain in the laminate:
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By the above equations,
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Classical Lamination Theory:
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Then the normal strains are written as,
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Classical Laminate Theory:
The classical laminate theory is a direct extension of the classical plate theory for isotropic
and homogeneous material as proposed by Kirchhoff –Love. However, the extension of this
theory to laminates requires some modifications to take into account the in homogeneity in
thickness direction. In the following, the assumptions made in this theory along with the
assumptions made for classical plate theory are given.
Assumptions of Classical Lamination Theory:
1. The laminate consists of perfectly bonded layers. There is no slip between the
adjacent layers. In other words, it is equivalent to saying that the displacement
components are continuous through the thickness.
2. Each lamina is considered to be a homogeneous layer such that its effective
properties are known.
3. Each lamina is in a state of plane stress.
4. The individual lamina can be isotropic, orthotropic or transversely isotropic.
5. The laminate deforms according to the Kirchhoff - Love assumptions for bending and
stretching of thin plates (as assumed in classical plate theory). The assumptions are:
a. The normal to the mid-plane remain straight and normal to the midplane
even after deformation.
b. The normal to the mid-plane do not change their lengths.
The classical laminate theory is abbreviated as CLT. This theory is known as the classical
laminated plate theory and abbreviated as CLPT.
LAMINA AND LAMINATES

• A Lamina is a flat (or sometimes curved) arrangement of unidirectional (or woven) fibres
suspended in lamina is generally assumed to be orthotropic and its thickness depends on
the material from which it is made.
• While a laminate is a stack of lamina oriented in a specific manner to achieve a desired
result. Individual lamina is bonded together by a curing procedure that depends on the
material system used. The mechanical response of a laminate is different from that of the
individual lamina that forms it. The laminate response depends on the properties of each
lamina, as well as the order in which the lamina are stacked.
TYPES OF LAMINAS:
Based on angle, material, and thickness of plies, the symmetry or antisymmetry of a
laminate may zero out some elements of the three stiffness matrices [A], [B], and [D]. These are
important to study because they may result in reducing or zeroing out the coupling of forces
and bending moments, normal and shear forces, or bending and twisting moments. This not
only simplifies the mechanical analysis of composites, but also gives desired mechanical
performance. The analysis of a symmetric laminate is simplified due to the zero coupling
matrix [B]. Mechanically, symmetric laminates result in no warpage in a flat panel due to
temperature changes in processing.
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FAILURE CRITERIA FOR COMPOSITES:

However, in a lamina, the failure theories are not based on principal normal stresses and
maximum shear stresses. Rather, they are based on the stresses in the material or local axes
because a lamina is orthotropic and its properties are different at different angles, unlike an
isotropic material. In the case of a unidirectional lamina, there are two material axes: one
parallel to the fibers and one perpendicular to the fibers. Thus, there are four normal strength
parameters for a unidirectional lamina, one for tension and one for compression, in each of the
two material axes directions. The fifth strength parameter is the shear strength of a
unidirectional lamina The five strength parameters of a unidirectional lamina are therefore
Unlike the stiffness parameters, these strength parameters cannot be transformed directly for an
angle lamina. Thus, the failure theories are based on first finding the stresses in the local axes
and then using these five strength parameters of a unidirectional lamina to find whether a
lamina has failed. Four common failure theories are discussed here. Related concepts of
strength ratio and the development of failure envelopes are also discussed.
Maximum Stress Failure Theory

Related to the maximum normal stress theory by Rankine and the maximum shearing
stress theory by Tresca, this theory is similar to those applied to isotropic materials. The stresses
acting on a lamina are resolved into the normal and shear stresses in the local axes. Failure is
predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal or shear stresses in the local axes of a lamina is equal
to or exceeds the corresponding ultimate strengths of the unidirectional lamina. Given the
stresses or strains in the global axes of a lamina, one can find the stresses in the material axes.
Note that all five strength parameters are treated as positive numbers, and the normal
stresses are positive if tensile and negative if compressive. Each component of stress is
compared with the corresponding strength; thus, each component of stress does not interact
with the others. A lamina is considered to be failed if the below equation is violated.
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Strength Ratio
The definition of strength ratio (SR) is helpful here. The strength ratio is defined as
The concept of strength ratio is applicable to any failure theory. If SR > 1, then the lamina is safe
and the applied stress can be increased by a factor of SR. If SR < 1, the lamina is unsafe and the
applied stress needs to be reduced by a factor of SR. A value of SR = 1 implies the failure load.
Failure Envelopes
A failure envelope is a three-dimensional plot of the combinations of the normal and
shear stresses that can be applied to an angle lamina just before failure. Because drawing three
dimensional graphs can be time consuming, one may develop failure envelopes for constant
shear stress txy and then use the two normal stresses sx and sy as the two axes. Then, if the
applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is safe; otherwise, it has failed.
Maximum Strain Failure Theory

This theory is based on the maximum normal strain theory by St. Venant and the
maximum shear stress theory by Tresca as applied to isotropic materials. The strains applied to
a lamina are resolved to strains in the local axes. Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the
normal or shearing strains in the local axes of a lamina equal or exceed the corresponding
ultimate strains of the unidirectional lamina. Given the strains/stresses in an angle lamina, one
can find the strains in the local axes. A lamina is considered to be failed if the below equation is
violated.
Tsai–Hill Failure Theory

This theory is based on the distortion energy failure theory of Von-Mises’ distortional
energy yield criterion for isotropic materials as applied to anisotropic materials. Distortion
energy is actually a part of the total strain energy in a body. The strain energy in a body consists
of two parts; one due to a change in volume and is called the dilation energy and the second is
due to a change in shape and is called the distortion energy. It is assumed that failure in the
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material takes place only when the distortion energy is greater than the failure distortion
energy of the material. Hill8 adopted the Von- Mises’ distortional energy which yields criterion
to anisotropic materials. Then, Tsai adapted it to a unidirectional lamina. Based on the
distortion energy theory, he proposed that a lamina has failed if the below equation violated.
The components G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, and G6 of the strength criterion depend on the failure
strengths and are found as follows.
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Then,
Tsai–Wu Failure Theory

This failure theory is based on the total strain energy failure theory of Beltrami. Tsai-
Wu9 applied the failure theory to a lamina in plane stress. A lamina is considered to be failed if
Is violated. This failure theory is more general than the Tsai–Hill failure theory because it
distinguishes between the compressive and tensile strengths of a lamina.
The components H1, H2, H6, H11, H22, and H66 of the failure theory are found
using the five strength parameters of a unidirectional lamina as follows:
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Then,
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Voids in composites:
During the manufacture of a composite, voids are introduced in the composite as shown
in Figure. This causes the theoretical density of the composite to be higher than the actual
density. Also, the void content of a composite is detrimental to its mechanical properties. These
detriments include lower
• Shear stiffness and strength

• Compressive strengths
• Transverse tensile strengths
• Fatigue resistance
• Moisture resistance
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Voids in Composites
Problem 1
properties of graphite/epoxy. Assume that each lamina has a thickness of 5 mm.
Solution
The reduced stiffness matrix for the 0° graphite/epoxy ply is,
The transformed reduced stiffness matrix for[C] each of the three plies is,
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The total thickness of the laminate is h = (0.005)(3) = 0.015 m. The midplane is 0.0075 m from the
top and the bottom of the laminate. Thus, the locations of the ply surfaces are
the extensional stiffness matrix [A] is,
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The coupling stiffness matrix [B] is,
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The bending stiffness matrix [D] is,
Problem 2
A [0/30/–45] graphite/epoxy laminate is subjected to a load of Nx = Ny = 1000 N/m. Using the

properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy and assuming that each lamina is 5 mm thick, find
1. Midplane strains and curvatures
2. Global and local stresses on top surface of 30° ply
Solution
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Because the applied load is Nx = Ny = 1000 N/m, the midplane strains and curvatures can be
found by solving the following set of six simultaneous linear equations,
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2. The strains and stresses at the top surface of the 30° ply are found as follows. First, the top
surface of the 30° ply is located at z = h1 = –0.0025 m.
For an angle ply,
The local strains and local stress as in the 30° ply at the top surface are found using
transformation,
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and transformation,
UNIT-4
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SANDWICH CONSTRUCTIONS
Basic design concepts of sandwich construction -Materials used for sandwich construction -
Failure modes of sandwich panels.
SANDWICH STRUCTURES
Sandwich construction has found extensive application in aircraft, missile and

spacecraft structures due to high strength to weight ratio. This type of construction consists of
thin, stiff and strong sheets of metallic or fiber composite material separated by a thick layer of
low density material as shown in Figure 4.1 and 4.2. The thick layer of low density material
commonly known as core material may be light foam type (e.g. Nomex core or Rohacell as
shown in Figure 4.1) or metallic honeycomb as shown in Figure 14b or corrugated core as
shown in Figure 14c. The core material is generally adhesively bonded to the face sheets.
Figure 4.1 Honeycomb Construction
(a) Foam (b) Honeycomb (c) Corrugated

Figure 4.2 Types of Cores
In some sandwich construction the core may be made of metallic or composite material
corrugations (Figure 14c). The corrugated core may be adhesively bonded, rivet bonded or
weld bonded if the face sheets are metallic material. For sandwich construction using composite
face sheets, the core may be bonded or co-cured with face sheets. A sandwich construction has
following advantages-
• High ratio of bending stiffness to weight as compared to monolithic construction.

• High resistance to mechanical and sonic fatigue.
• Good damping characteristic.
• Improved thermal insulation.
• No mechanical fasteners, hence, no crack initiation sites.
The mains disadvantages of honeycomb construction are-
• In-service trapped moisture in the core material causes corrosion problems. Hence,
degradation in the structural integrity of the parts.
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• A good quality control is needed during the fabrication process to make sure that there is no
disbonding in the adhesive layer.
• Disbonds may initiate and propagate in the adhesive layer during service and thereby
reduce the load carrying capacity of structures.
SANDWICH PANEL AND PLATE
• Sandwich panel is a structure made of three layers: low density core inserted in between
two relatively thin skin layers. This sandwich setup allows by achieving excellent
mechanical performance at minimal weight. The very high rigidity of a sandwich panel is
achieved thanks to interaction of its components under flexural load applied to the panel:
core takes the shear loads and creates a distance between the skins which take the in-plane
stresses, one skin in tension, the other in compression.
• Sandwich Plate is a structural composite material composed of steel and polyurethane elastomer.
Amongst all possible design concepts in composite structures the idea of sandwich
construction has become increasingly popular because of the development of manmade cellular
materials as core materials. Sandwich structures consists of a pair of thin strong skins faces
facings or covers a thick lightweight core to separate the skins and carry loads from one skin to
the other and an adhesive attachment which is capable of transmitting shear and axial loads to
and from the core. The separation of the skins by the core increases the moment of inertia of the
panel with little increase in weight producing an ancient structure for resisting bending and
buckling loads shows illustratively the flexural stiffness and strength advantage of sandwich
panels compared to solid panels using typical beam theory with typical values for skin and core
density. By splitting a solid laminate down the middle and separating the two halves with a
core material the result is a sandwich panel.
The new panel weighs little more than the laminate, but its flexural stiffness and
strength is much greater by doubling the thickness of the core material, the difference is even
more striking. Thus sandwich panels are popular in high performance applications where
weight must be kept to a minimum, for example aeronautical structures, high speed marine
craft and racing cars. In the most weight, critical applications, composite materials are used for
the skins; cheaper alternatives such as aluminium alloy, steel or plywood are also commonly
used. Materials used for cores include polymers, aluminium, wood and composites. To
minimise weight these are used in the form of foams, honeycombs or with a corrugated
construction
Fig 4.4 An example of structural efficiency of sandwich panels in terms of weight
FAILURE MODES
Failure modes in sandwich structures are different from those in monolithic structures. The
general failure modes that might occur in sandwich structures, depending on the design and
core material, are shown in Figure.
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(a) General Buckling (b) Shear Crimping

of Panel
(d) Intracell Buckling
(c) Face Wrinkling
(f) Transverse Shear

(e) Tensile Failure in Failure
Facing
(g) Flexural Crushing (h) Local Crushing of

of Core Core
Figure 4.3 Failure Modes in Sandwich Structures
General Buckling- The general buckling of a panel might occur if the panel thickness is not
sufficient or core rigidity is insufficient.
Shear Crimping- This occurs as a consequence of general buckling. It is caused by low core
shear modulus or low adhesive shear strength.
Face Wrinkling- In this failure mode, a face sheet buckles acting as a “plate on an elastic
foundation” with core acting as an elastic foundation. The wrinkling of face sheet may occur
inwards or outwards depending on relative strength of core in compression and adhesive
strength in tension.
Intracell Buckling (Dimpling) - This failure mode occurs in panels with cellular cores due to
thin face sheets or large core cell size. This failure mode may propagate in adjoining cells and
thus causing face sheet wrinkling.
Face Sheet Failure- This failure mode is caused by insufficient panel thickness, face sheet
thickness or face sheet strength.
Transverse Shear Failure- This type of failure mode is caused by insufficient core shear
strength or panel thickness.
Flexural Crushing of Core- This is caused by insufficient core compressive strength or

excessive panel deflection.
Local Crushing of Core- This failure mode is caused by low core compressive strength.
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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A sandwich structure is designed to make sure that it is capable of taking structural
loads throughout its design life. In addition, it should maintain its structural integrity in the in-
service environments. The structure should satisfy the following criteria:
• The face sheets should have sufficient stiffness to withstand the tensile, compressive, and
shear stresses produced by applied loads.
• The core should have sufficient stiffness to withstand the shear stresses produced by
applied loads.
• The core should have sufficient shear modulus to prevent overall buckling of the sandwich
structure under loads.
• Stiffness of the core and compressive strength of the face sheets should be sufficient to
prevent the wrinkling of the face sheets under applied loads.
• The core cells should be small enough to prevent inter-cell buckling of the face sheets under
design loads.
• The core shall have sufficient compressive strength to prevent crushing due to applied
loads acting normal to the face sheets or by compressive stresses produced by flexure.
• The sandwich structure should have sufficient flexural and shear rigidities to prevent
excessive deflections under applied loads.
• Sandwich materials (face sheet, core and adhesive) should maintain the structural integrity
during in-service environments.
UNIT-5
FABRICATION PROCESSES
Various Open and closed mould processes-Manufacture of fibres – Types of resins and
properties and applications – Netting analysis.
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Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Most widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as
follows:
 Open Mold Process
• Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled.
• Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure.
• Filament winding.
• Sheet molding compound.
• Expansion tool molding.
• Contact molding.
 Closed Mold Process

• Compression molding – Load with raw material, press into shape.
• Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured.
• Injection molding – Mold injected under pressure.
• Resin Transfer – Fibres in place, resin injected at low temperature.
 Continuous Process
• Pultrusion.
• Braiding.
All the methods described above are discussed in detail in the following paras.
Open Mold Processes
Open molding offers a number of process and product advantage over other high volume
and complex application methods. These include:.
• Freedom of design
• Easy to change design
• Low mold and/or tooling cost
• Tailored properties possible
• High strength large parts possible
• On-site production possible
Disadvantages associated with the open molding process include:
• Low to medium number of parts
• Long cycle times per molding
• Not the cleanest application process
• Only one surface has aesthetic appearance
• Operator skill dependent
 Spray Lay-up
In a spray lay-up method, the fibre is chopped in a hand held gun and fed into a spray of
catalysed liquid resin directed at the mold. The sprayed, catalysed liquid resin will wet the
reinforcement fibres, which are simultaneously chopped in the same spray gun. The deposited
materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions as shown in fig. 5.1.
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Fig 5.1 spray lay-up
Advantages
• Widely used form any years.
• Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin.
• Low cost tooling.
Disadvantages
• Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and, therefore, excessively heavy.
• Only short fibres are incorporated, which severely limits the mechanical properties of the
laminate.
• Resins need to be low in viscosity to be sprayable. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties.
• The high styrene content of spray lay-up resins generally means that they have the
potential to be more harmful and their lower viscosity means that they have an
increased tendency to penetrate clothing etc.
Applications
Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings,
bathtubs, shower trays, some small dinghies.
 Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up

The hand (wet) lay-up is one of the oldest and most commonly used methods for
manufacture of composite parts. Hand lay-up composites are a case of continuous fibre
reinforced composites. Layers of unidirectional or woven composites are combined to result in
a material exhibiting desirable properties in one or more directions. Each layer is oriented to
achieve the maximum utilisation of its properties. Layers of different materials (different fibres
in different directions) can be combined to further enhance the overall performance of the
laminated composite material. Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres, which are in the
form of woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or
brushes, with an increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics
by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under standard
atmospheric conditions as shown in fig.5.2.
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Fig 5.2 Hand lay-up
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of hand lay-up of composite structures are as
follows:
Advantages
• Design flexibility.
• Large and complex items can be produced.
• Tooling cost is low.
• Design changes are easily effected.
• Sandwich constructions are possible.
• Semi-skilled workers are needed.
• Higher fibre content and longer fibres than with spray lay-up.
Disadvantages
• Only one molded surface is obtained.
• Quality is related to the skill of the operator.
• Low volume process.
• Longer cure times required.
• Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises
their mechanical/thermal properties.
• The waste factor can be high.
Applications
• Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats, architectural moldings.
 Filament Winding
Filament winding is automated processes for creating parts of simple geometry wherein
continuous resin impregnated fibers are wound over a rotating male tool called mandrel. The
below figure depicts a filament winding process where a continuous fiber roving passes
through a shuttle, which rotates and the roving is wrapped around a revolving or stationary
mandrel. Two basic types of filament winding are in use - (i) the polar or planer method, and
(ii) the high helical pattern winding.
The polar or planer method of winding utilizes a fixed mandrel and a shuttle that
revolves around the longitudinal axis of the part to form longitudinal winding patterns. This
type of winding is used if the longitudinal fibers are required with angle less than 25° to the
mandrel axis as shown in fig. 5.3
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Fig 5.3 Filament Winding
In the high helical pattern winding, the mandrel rotates while the shuttle transverses
back and forth. Both the mandrel rotation and shuttle movement are in the horizontal plane. By
controlling the mandrel rotation and shuttle speed, the fibre angle can be controlled. Angles of
25°-85° to the mandrel rotation axis are possible. The helical winding schematic is shown in
below fig. 5.4
Fig 5.4 Filament Process

After completion of the winding, the filament wound structure is cured at room
temperature or in an oven. The mandrel is removed after the curing. The mandrel, which
determines accurate internal geometry for the component, is generally the only major tool. Low
cost mandrel materials such as cardboard or wood can be used for winding low cost routine
parts. For critical parts requiring close tolerances, expensive mandrels designed for long term
use may be required. For high temperature cure 315°C (600°F), graphite mandrels with low
thermal expansion may be advantageous. However, attention should be paid for potential
difficulties for mandrel removal. Mandrels are either removable or non-removable. Removable
mandrels are classified according to the removal techniques as:
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• Entirely removed.
• Collapsible.
• Breakable or soluble.
The selection of mandrel involves several considerations. These include part size and
complexity, size of openings, resin system and its curing and the number of components to be
fabricated. The requirements for a mandrel are:
• It must be stiff and strong enough to support its own weight and the weight of the
applied composite while resisting the fibre tension pressure from winding and curing.
• It must be dimensionally stable and should have thermal coefficient of expansion greater
than the transverse coefficient of the composite structure.
Different materials used for construction of mandrel are:

• Low melting temperature alloys used for small diameter applications.
• Sand, soluble plaster and eutectic salts used for irregular shapes.
• Inflatable material used in applications where sometimes the mandrel remains a part of
the structure.
• Segmented metal used for high production rates, and where the mandrel can be
withdrawn through a small hole in the part.
Of the above, segmented metal and inflatable mandrel are the reusable mandrels.
Advantages
• . Excellent mechanical properties due to use of continuous fibres.
• High degree of design flexibility due to controlled fibre orientation and lower cost of large
number of composites.
• This is a very fast and economic method of laying down material.
• Resin content can be controlled by metering the resin onto each fibre tow through nips or
dies.
Disadvantages
• Difficulty to wind complex shapes, which may require complex equipment.
• Poor external finish.
• The process is limited to convex shaped components.
• Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
• Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
• Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with lower mechanical properties.
 Sheet Molding Compound

Sheet molding compound (SMC) refers to both a material and a process for producing glass
fibre reinforced polyester resin items. The material is typically composed of a filled,
thermosetting resin and a chopped or continuous strand reinforcement of glass fibre. A SMC
processing machine, the below fig.5.5 shows the molding compound in sheet form. The glass
fibre is added to a resin mixture that is carried onto a plastic carrier film. After partial cure, the
carrier films are removed. The sheet molding material is cut into lengths and placed onto
matched metal dies under heat and pressure. Salient advantages of SMC molding process are as
follows:
• High volume production.
• Excellent part reproducibility.
• Minimum material scrap.
• Excellent design flexibility.
• Parts consolidation.
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Fig 5.5 Sheet Moulding Porcess
 Expansion Tool Molding

Expansion tool molding makes use of rubber inserts in a metal or epoxy tool that expands
when heated to provide the molding pressure. The advantage of expansion tool molding is its
ability to fabricate parts without an autoclave. The method is dependent upon materials with
high coefficients of thermal expansion. It is designed to utilize the difference in thermal
expansion between rubber and the tooling material. The female areas of the mold are made of a
material with a low coefficient of thermal expansion. The male plug is made of a silicon rubber
or other rubber type tool material having comparatively high coefficient of thermal expansion.
When the tool is heated, the rubber male plug expands at a much greater rate than the
surrounding female tool.
Pressure up to 14 MPa (2000 psi) can be achieved at 175°C (350°F), which acts in all
directions. The molding pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature, rubber
composition, rubber thickness and the ratio of rubber volume to the female mold volume.
Thermal expansion molding techniques are utilised for special applications of small complex
composite structures and composite tubing with critical outside surfaces. Below fig 5.6
illustrates the methods allowing the expansion of the silicone rubber to provide the required
pressure for compacting of the composite materials.
Fig 5.6 Expansion Tool Moulding
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The linear thermal coefficient of most silicone rubbers fall in the range of 1-2.1x10 5. This
range is consistent over a 23-246°C (75-480°F) temperature range. The rubbers have a linear
expansion of approximately17 times that of carbon steels due' to which they are used to mold
composites by thermal expansion molding techniques. Silicone rubber is very slow to cool
down and extra time must be allowed because the rubber is impossible to remove from the
composite part until it has shrunk back to its original size..
 Contact Molding
Contact molding involves the application of molding material to an open mold where it is
allowed to cure. The process has been basically developed for the manufacture of large fibre
glass components such as boats, automotive parts, etc. The process requires minimal tooling
and equipment cost and thus is ideally suited for low volume production. The method has two
basic approaches, namely hand lay-up and spray lay-up, which differ only in the manner in
which. The material is applied to the mold. The method produces high quality surface finish on
only one side of the final product.
Before the lay-up, the mold surface is coated with a thin layer of gel. After the lay-up, the
part is allowed to cure at room temperature. The curing can be accelerated by using heat lamps.
The major advantages of the method are its simplicity and low cost. The disadvantages of the
method are that only one good surface is produced while the other side is very rough.
Secondly, the method is relatively slow due to long lay-up and cure time and thus it is not
suitable for high volume production.
Closed Mold Processes
 Compression Molding
Compression molding is one of the oldest manufacturing techniques in the composites
industry. The recent development of high strength, fast cure, sheet molding compounds bulk
molding compounds and advancement in press technology is making the compression molding
process very popular for mass production of composite parts. Fully formed parts are molded in
matched metal compression molds that give the final part shape. In comparison with the
injection molding process, better physical and mechanical properties can be obtained in
compression molding.
This process utilises large tonnage presses wherein the part is cured between two matched
steel dies under pressure and high temperature. The moving platen is heated either by steam or
electricity to promote thermal curing. Curing of the part is affected by the following factors:
• Size of platen, which determines the length and width of the part, which can be cured.
• Total tonnage of the press, which determines the pressure to be exerted on the projected
surface area of the part.
After placing the laminate to be cured called the 'charge' in the core of the mold, the cavity
is then closed at a rate of usually 4-12 mm/sec. In most cases the mold is heated to 150°C
(302°F), which causes the charge viscosity to be reduced. With increasing mold pressure as the
mold is closed, the charge flows towards the cavity extremities, forcing air out of the cavity. The
molding pressure based on projected part area ranges from 0.7 to 9 MPa (100 to 1200 psi).
Higher molding pressure causes sink marks, while lower pressure cause scumming of the mold
and porosity. The curing time is usually between 25 sec to 3 minutes depending on several
factors including' resin-initiator-inhibitor reactivity, part thickness, component complexity and
mold temperature.
The exertion of high pressure eliminates the problem of development of voids. The primary
advantage of the compression molding is its ability of producing large number of parts with
little dimensional variations, if any, from part to part. A wide variety of shapes, sizes and
complexity can be produced by compression molding. An important factor to be considered
before deciding to use compression molding is the high tooling cost and the need for large
heated presses. Thus, this method is not practical for low volume production.
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Cure time is very critical. If the resin cure exotherm is not properly controlled, cracking,
blistering or warping may occur. Below fig. 5.7 shows a typical compression mold.
Fig 5.7 Compression Moulding

 Vacuum Bag Molding
Today bag molded (vacuum and pressure) composites provide higher performance that
results from optimisation of process controls, design refinements and improved materials.
Vacuum bagging techniques have been developed for fabricating a variety of aerospace
components and structures. The process is principally suited to prepreg materials. This method
utilises a flexible film or rubber bag that covers the part lay-up. The bag permits evacuation of
the air to apply atmospheric pressure. The primary limitation of this method is the limited
pressure that can be applied.
The bag used in this method has two fold objectives:
• It provides a means for removing volatile products during cure; and
• It provides a means for the application of a pressure of one atom which is adequate for
some materials.
The essential steps in the process are the lay-up, preparation of bleeder system and the
bagging operation. The required number of plies are cut to size and positioned in a mold. When
individual plies of a prepreg material are formed to the lay-up tool, certain amount of voids
exists between layers. The lay-up is covered with a flexible membrane or vacuum bag, which is
sealed around the edges of the mold by a sealant. An edge bleeder is also placed near the edges
of the lay-up. Its function is to absorb excess resin, which may flow during curing.
Requirement for proper bagging are:
• Bag to be impervious to air pressure,
• Bag to uniformly apply the cure pressure,
• Bag not to leak under over-pressure, and
• Good and high capacity vacuum path to be provided to evacuate air from between the
bag and the tool.
A vacuum is drawn on the lay-up, which helps in eliminating entrapped air. A maximum
pressure of about 104 kPa (15 psi) is achieved in this method. The removal of excess resin
results in higher fibre content and improved mechanical properties. The lay-up is usually
allowed to cool at room temperature. To reduce the cure time, oven is preferred. A typical
vacuum bag molding is shown below fig 5.8
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Fig 5.8 Vacuum Bag Moulding
Functions of vacuum bag Component Functions

components are as
follows: No.
1 Bag sealant Temporarily bonds vacuum bag to tool
2 Vacuum fitting and Exhausts air, provides convenient
hardware connection to vacuum pump
3 Bagging film Encloses part, allows for vacuum and
pressure
4 Open weave breather mat Allows air or vacuum transfer to all of
part
5 Polyester tape (wide) Holds other components of bag in place
6 Polyester tape (narrow) Holds components in place
7 Caul sheet Imparts desired contour and surface
finish to composites
8 Perforated release film Allows flow of resin or air without
adhesion
9 Non-perforated release Prevents adhesion of laminate film resin
to tool surface
10 Peel ply Imparts a bondable surface to cured
laminate
11 Laminate
12 Glass breather manifold Allows transfer of air or vacuum.
13 Glass bleeder ply Soaks up excess resin
14 Stacked silicon edge dam Forces excess resin to flow vertically,
increasing fluid pressure
Two types of vacuum bags commonly used are - (1) expandable bagging, or (2) reusable
bagging.
 Expendable Vacuum Bagging

Bleed-out systems are devised to maintain reduced pressures within the bags contents. The
bagged lay-up includes the bleed-out system designed for the composite part. Bagged lay-ups
can be bled in two ways, namely vertically or edge bled. The basic difference between the two
methods is shown in below fig 5.9 and 5.10
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Fig 5.9 Expandable Vacuum Bag Moulding
Many of today's resin systems are mostly net resin and do not require any resin bleed
during cure. This allows for better control of the resin content of the composite structures. If a
resin bleed sequence is preferred, the following sequence can be used as a general guide:
• The surface of the mold is prepared with the release agent.
• The composite plies are applied and rubbed out to remove the entrapped air.
• A perforated release film is applied over the composite laminate and extended
approximately 3.2mm beyond all edges.
• A predetermined number of bleeder plies are applied over the release film and extended
to the perimeter of the lay-up.
• A perforated release film is applied over the bleeders and extended 3.2 mm from edge.
• One or two layers of a non-woven breather is placed over the lay-up and extended over
the release film.
• Sealant tape is applied around the perimeter of the bleeder.
• The vacuum bag is positioned and sealed.
• The contents are evacuated and the bag is checked and sealed against leaks.
• The bagged lay-up is ready for curing.
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Fig 5.10 Vacuum Bag Process
Vacuum bag bridging is one of the leading causes of resin rich and excessive voids in
corners of composite laminates. Below fig 5.11 illustrates this common problem.
Fig 5.11 Vacuum Bagging
One method of eliminating bridging of the vacuum bag is presented in above figure by
means of 'ears' in the bag. Another method to help reduce resin rich and excessive voids in
corners is the placement of an intensifier over the area, usually placed between the separator
film and breather. The intensifier can be molded rubber in the radius desired or some sealant
tape to fill the corners.
Fig 5.12 Reusable Vacuum Bagging
 Reusable Vacuum Bagging

Due to material and recurring cost associated with the use of expendable vacuum bags, use of
silicone rubber reusable bags are the solution as shown in fig 5.12. Salient advantages and
disadvantages of the vacuum bagging method are as follows:
Advantages
• Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved.
• Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
• Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
• The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.
Disadvantages
• The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
• A higher level of skills required by the operators.
• Mixing and control of resin contents till largely determined by operator skill.
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 Autoclave Molding
Autoclave molding is similar to vacuum bag process except that the lay-up is subjected to
greater pressures and compact parts are produced. Primary disadvantage is high initial and
recurring operating cost. The advantage is to produce parts with complex configuration and
very large sizes.
Autoclave curing of composites is of prime importance for manufacturing high quality
aerospace laminates. Curing is achieved through a combination of pressure, temperature and
heat under inert conditions in an enclosed vessel. Processing materials must be added to a
composite ply lay-up before autoclave curing. These materials control the resin content of the
cured part and ensure proper application of autoclave pressure to the lay-up.
The materials usually used in preparing a lay-up for autoclave curing are peel ply, separator,
bleeder, barrier, breather, dam and vacuum bag. The materials are compatible with the
maximum cure temperature and pressures required for the matrix system being cured. The peel
ply if used is placed immediately on top of or under the composite laminate. It is ultimately
removed just before bonding or painting operations so that a clean, bondable surface is
available.
A separator (release material) is placed on top of or under the laminate and peel ply. It
allows volatile and air to escape from the laminate and excess resin to be bled from the laminate
into the bleeder plies during cure. It also gives the cured part a smooth surface.
The purpose of the bleeder is to absorb excess resin from the lay-up during cure, thereby
producing the desired fibre volume. Fibre glass fabric or other absorbent materials are used for
this purpose. The amount of bleeder used is a function of its absorbency, the fibre volume
desired in the part, and the resin content of the prepreg material used in the lay-up. In
advanced composites essentially all excess resin is bled from the surface of the laminate, with
edge bleeding being minimised by properly damming the lay-up edges.
The barrier is commonly placed between the bleeder plies, and breather plies. In the
case of epoxy resin, unperforated film is used so that resin removal from the part can be
controlled. For resins that produce volatile by-products during cure, a film with small
perforations and large spacing is used to prevent the breather materials from becoming clogged
with resin.The breather is a material placed on top of the barrier film to allow uniform
application of vacuum pressure over the lay-up and removal of entrapped air or volatile during
cure. It may be drapable or loosely woven fabric. The dam is sometimes located peripherally to
minimise edge bleeding. It maybe an integral part of the tool or built-in position using materials
such as pressure-sensitive tape, silicone rubber or Teflon or metal bars. The vacuum bag is used
to contain any vacuum pressure applied to the lay-up before and during cure and to transmit
external autoclave pressure to the part. It prevents any gaseous pressurizing medium used in
the autoclave (air or inert gas) from permeating the part and causing porosity and poor or
unacceptable part quality. As shown in fig 5.13
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Fig 5.13 Autoclave Moulding
Major components of autoclave are - a vessel to contain pressure; sources to heat the gas
stream and circulate it uniformly within the vessel; a sub-system to pressurize the gas stream; a
sub-system to apply vacuum to parts covered by a vacuum bag; a sub-system to control
operating parameters; and a sub-system to load the models into the autoclaves.
The materials, which can be processed in the autoclave, are metal bonding adhesives,
reinforced epoxy laminates, thermoplastic laminates, ceramics, carbon matrix materials; and
many other applications.
An autoclave system allows a complex chemical reaction to occur inside a pressure
vessel according to a specified schedule in order to process a variety of materials. The pressure
and temperature requirements are governed by the type of material to be cured. The evolution
of materials and processes has taken autoclave operating conditions from 120°C (248°F) and 276
kPa (40 psi) pressure to well over 760°C (1400°F) and 69 MPa (10000 psi). Epoxy matrix
composites, in general, use autoclave cure cycles, which involve487-690 kPa (85-100 psi)
pressure and 175°C (350°F) temperature. The materials processed in autoclaves range from
metal bonding adhesives, reinforced epoxy laminates, thermoplastic laminates, metal, ceramic
and carbon matrix materials, to many other aerospace and electronic components. Autoclave is
generally provided with automatic programmable controllers, which monitor and maintain the
required heat up and cool down cycles. The vacuum surrounding the part lay-up is also
controlled and is discontinued after initial temperature increase to prevent excess resin flow.
Brief functioning of various parts of autoclave is discussed in the following paras.
Pressure Vessel
It provides the means to retain pressure inside the work space. Typically, the pressure
vessel is fabricated from pressure vessel quality carbon steel. It is thermally insulated. All
autoclave vessels and closures are required to be inspected at regular interval. This will reveal
any potentially dangerous situation.
Gas Stream Heating
Several heating methods are available for autoclave systems. Most common method for
large autoclaves is indirect gas firing in which products of combustion are passed from external
chamber to an internal coil. Gas heating is regularly used in autoclaves with maximum
operating temperature of 450°-540°C (8500-1000°F). Earlier, hot oil was used as a heating
medium in which oil was circulated from an external heater to an internal coil. This system
became obsolete due to contamination problems of bonding area leading to improper
processing of parts. Steam heating is often used for autoclaves operating in the 150°-175°C
(3000-350°F) range. The superheated steam is passed through a coil in the autoclave to heat the
circulating gas. Most small autoclaves are electrically heated.
Gas circulation, within the autoclave, is essential to provide temperature uniformity and
proper heat transfer to the loaded part. The gas circulation is maintained at 1 to 3 m/s (250to
300 ft/min) in the workspace.
Gas Stream Pressurisation

The three pressurizing gases typically used for autoclaves are (a) air (b) nitrogen and (c)
carbon dioxide. Air is used for most of the 120°C (250°F) cures. However, disadvantage of air is
that it sustains combustion and maybe hazardous at temperatures above 150°C (300°F).
Nitrogen is commonly used in the autoclaves. Liquid Nitrogen is stored in cryogenic form and
then vaporised at approximately 1380 to 1552 kPa (200 to 225 psi). Carbon dioxide is the second
most commonly used gas. It is stored as refrigerated liquid at approximately 2070 kPa (300 psi).
Disadvantages of carbon dioxide are its high density, hazards to personnel, etc.
Vacuum Systems
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Most parts processed in autoclaves are covered with vacuum bags, which are used
primarily for compaction of laminates and to provide vacuum for removal of volatile products.
The bag allows the part to be subjected to differential pressure in the autoclave without being
directly exposed to the autoclave atmosphere. The vacuum bag is also used to apply varying
levels of vacuum to the part. The ability to provide pressure on the part under the bag by
means of vacuum results in reduced void content.
Control System
Control system means ability to monitor and control cure cycles. The cure cycle is
controlled by feedback from thermocouples, transducers and sensors, which are provided at
different locations in the autoclave.
Loading System
Carts or trolleys help in placing the parts horizontally and vertically in the autoclave.
The parts are loaded s~ that they are accessible to enable repair of bag leaks. All vacuum
sources and vacuum sensor lines are connected to the part when loaded on cart and desired
vacuum maintained. The cart must be gently rolled into the autoclave.
At present, computer controlled autoclaves with facility for storage of up to 60 different
curing cycles programmes are available in the world market.
In industry, autoclave curing of composites is used to improve cured product quality and
reduce fabrication costs by providing:
• Process optimization.
• Reduced process inconsistencies and product rejections. Accurate, real-time quality
assurance with rapid error detection and correction.
• Verification of process reaction behaviour kinetics.
• Non-destructive verification of cured properties.
• Accurate, permanent process documentation.
• Flexibility in adapting to new or modified processes.
 Injection Molding
Injection molding refers to a process that generally involves forcing or injecting a fluid
plastic material into a closed mold. It is differentiated from compression molding, in which
plastic materials in a soft but not fluid condition are formed by transferring them into an open
mold, which is then forcibly closed. This method is not normally used in polymeric matrix
compound processes due to fibre damage in the barrel.
The molding compound is fed into injection chamber through the feed hopper. The molding
compound is heated in the injection chamber wherein it changes into liquid form. It is forced
into the injection mold by the plunger. A typical injection mold is shown in below fig 5.14. The
injection molding process generally has the following advantages over the compression
molding:
• More readily automated process,
• Permits finer part detail.
Fig 5.14 Injection Moulding
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The part and the mold can often be designed in a manner so that no subsequent trimming
or machining operations are required. However, all plastic materials cannot be injection molded
successfully. There are two basic categories of plastic injection molding (a) thermoplastic and
(b) thermoset. In the former, a thermoplastic material is melted and forced through an orifice
into the mold, which is kept relatively cool. The material solidifies in the mold from which it
can then be removed. In thermoset injection molding, the solidification occurs at high
temperature. Therefore, a reaction material is forced into a generally warm mold in which the
material further polymerises into a solid part.
This method is normally used for high-volume and low-cost component manufacturing.
The disadvantage of the method is that it is limited to materials with very short fibre lengths.
Also, since there is large amount of flow during the process, material non-uniformities do exist.
 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

Resin transfer molding is a closed mold low pressure process that allows the fabrication of
composites ranging in complexity from simple, low performance to complex, high performance
parts and in size from small to large. The process is differentiated from other molding processes
in that the dry reinforcement and the resin are combined within the mold to form the composite
component. The fibre reinforcement, which may be pre-shaped, is placed into a tool cavity,
which is then closed. A tube connects the closed tool cavity with a supply of liquid resin, which
is pumped or transferred into the tool to impregnate the reinforcement for subsequent curing.
Injection pressure is normally less than 690 kPa (100 psi). The displaced air is allowed to escape
through vents to avoid dry spots. Cure cycle is dependent on part thickness, type of resin
system and the temperature of the mold and resin system. The part cures in the mold, normally
heated by controllers are as shown in fig 5.15.
Fig 5.15 Resin Transfer Moulding
The advantages and associated disadvantages of the RTM process are given below:
Advantages
• Parts can be made with better reproducibility than with wet lay-up.
• Reinforcement and combination of reinforcements can be used to meet specific properties.
• Production cycles are much faster than with wet lay-up.
• Using matched tools for the mold, one can improve the finish of all the surfaces.
• Mechanical properties of molded parts are comparable to other composite fabrication
processes.
• Large and complex shapes can be made efficiently.
• Volatile emissions are low because RTM is a closed mold process.
• The skill level of operator is less critical.
• Mold surfaces can be gel coated to improve surface performance.
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Disadvantages
• The mold design is critical and requires good tools or great skill.
• Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes a problem.
• Control of flow pattern or resin uniformity is difficult. Radii and edges tend to be resin
rich.
Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)

In the RTM process, a matched set of molds or closed mold is used. The fibre
reinforcements are usually pre-shaped off line to enhance the production cycle time of the
molds. Resin is injected through the injection ports and the process is sometimes assisted with
vacuum.
However, VARTM is different for many reasons compared to RTM. First, the fabrication
of parts can be accomplished on a single open mold. Second, the process uses the injection of
resin in combination with a vacuum and captured under a bag to thoroughly impregnate the
fibre reinforcement. This process has been used to make both thin and very thick laminates. In
addition, complex shapes with unique fibre architectures allow the fabrication of large parts
that have a high structural performance.
Fabrics are laid up as a dry stack of materials as in RTM and covered with peel ply and a
knitted type of non-structural fabric. The whole dry stack is then vacuum bagged, and once bag
leaks have been eliminated, resin is allowed to flow into the laminate. The resin distribution
over the whole laminate is aided by resin flowing easily through the non structural fabric, and
wetting the fabric.
Advantages
• Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum bag.
• Large components can be fabricated.
• Standard wet lay-up tools may be modified for this process.
• Cored structures can be produce din one operation.
Disadvantages
• Relatively complex process to perform well.
• Resins must be very low in viscosity, properties, thus compromising mechanical
• Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
Resin Film Infusion (RFI)

In resin film infusion process, dry fabrics are laid up interleaved with layers of semi-
solid resin film supplied on a release paper. The lay-up is vacuum bagged to remove air
through the dry fabrics, and then heated to allow the resin to first melt and flow into the air-free
fabrics, and then after a certain time, to cure. The main attraction of resin film infusion is
probably for parts of high surface area.
Advantages
• High fibre volumes can be accurately achieved with low void contents.
• Good health and safety and a clean lay-up, like prepreg.
• High resin mechanical properties due to solid state of initial polymer material and
elevated temperature cure.
Disadvantages
• Not widely proven outside the aerospace industry.
• Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures of the resin film.
• Core materials need to withstand the process temperatures and pressures.
Continuous Processes
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 Pultrusion
Pultrusion is an automated process used to create shapes by pulling rovings through a
shaped and heated die. The use of pultruded parts in aircraft is limited to specialized
applications. Practical applications are limited to constant cross-section parts. Pultrusion is used
to manufacture constant cross-section shapes, viz., I-beam, box, channels, tubings, etc.
The Pultrusion process machine consists of six different parts namely, the creel, the resin
bath, the forming die, the heated curing die, the pullers and the cut-off saw. The creel is the
beginning of the Pultrusion process and is the material storage system from which the fibres
and mat or fabric are drawn in the correct sequence to match the design requirements of the
structural shape. Virtually all Pultrusion processes utilise a resin impregnation bath to facilitate
the impregnation of the resin into the fibre structure. The use of pre-impregnated fibres
eliminates the resin bath.
Two types of dies are used in Pultrusion process, namely, the forming and the heating or
curing die. Forming is done immediately after the impregnation process. Forming dies are
normally attached to the heating or curing die in order to provide the correct relationship
between the forming and the heated curing step. The rovings go through a heated die that
represents the cross-section of finished part. Curing is accomplished by heating the die. The
product continuously pulled out and as it comes out of the puller mechanism, it is cu the
desired length by an automatic saw. The process is continuous and can be used to manufacture
extremely long sections as shown in fig 5.16.
Fig 5.16 Pultrusion
There are two categories of Pultrusion products. The first category consist of solid rod
and bar stock produced from axial fibre glass reinforcements and polyester resins. These are
used to make fishing rods and electrical insulator rods which require high axial tensile strength.
The second category consists of structural profiles, which uses a combination of axial fibres and
multi-directional fibre mats to create a set of properties that meet the requirements of the
application in the transverse and longitudinal directions.
More than 90% of all pultruded products are fibre glass reinforced polyester. When
better corrosion resistance is required, vinyl ester resins are used. When a combination of
superior mechanical and electrical properties is required, epoxy resin is used. Higher
temperature resistance and superior mechanical properties generally dictate the use of epoxy
resins reinforced with aramid or carbon fibres.
The major limitation of this method for aircraft use is the constant cross section
requirement. Also, more complex geometries are not feasible by this technique. The chief
advantage of the method is the ability to produce consistent parts at very low cost in a short
period of time. Pultruded composite parts exhibit all the features produced by other composite
processes, such as, high strength to weight ratio, corrosion resistance, dimensional stability, etc.
Advantages
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• Production is continuous.
• Material scrap rate is low.
• The requirement for support material is eliminated i.e., breathers. bleeder, cloth, separator
film, bagging film, edge tape, etc.
• Labour requirements are low.
Disadvantages
• Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
• Heated die costs can be high.
 Braiding
The braiding process involves the weaving of fibres into shape by repeatedly crossing them
back and forth over a mandrel. The use of braiding process in the aircraft industry is generally
restricted to non-structural applications. The braiding process has been utilised extensively for
covering of the electrical wires and fuel lines. The primary advantage of braiding offers is a
rapid, automated method for forming an interwoven structure. The method is a product of
textile technology and usually utilises equipment adapted from the textile industry. The
braiding carriers follow a zigzag path in a large circle surrounding the mandrel. The surface of
the mandrel is tightly woven with the fibres in a helical pattern in fig 5.17.
Due to high level of conformability and the damage resistance capability of braided
structures, the composite industry had found structural applications of braided composites
ranging from rocket launchers to automotive parts to aircraft structures.
2-D braided structures are inter-twined fibrous structures capable of forming structures
with 0° and ±θ fibre orientation. Although 2-D braids can be fabricated in tape form, the
majority of braided structures are fabricated with tubular geometry. Thickness is built up by
over braiding previously braided layers similar to a ply lay-up process. Braiding can take place
vertically or horizontally. A schematic of a horizontal braider is shown in below. Although
braiding is similar to filament winding, the major difference between braiding and filament
winding is that braids are interlaced structures having as many as 144 or more interlacing per
braiding cycle.
Fig 5.17 Braiding
3-D braiding technology is an extension of 2-D braiding in which the fabric is

constructed by the inter-twining or orthogonal interlacing of yarns to form an integral structure
through position displacement. A unique feature of 3-D braids is their ability to provide
through the thickness reinforcement of composites as well as their ready adaptability to the
fabrication of a wide range of complex shapes ranging from solid rods to I-beams to thick
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walled rocket nozzles. A generalized schematic of a 3-D braiding process is shown in fig 5.17
and 5.18.
Fig 5.18 Braiding process

 Prepreg Molding
In prepreg molding, fabrics and fibres are pre-impregnated under heat and pressure or with
solvent, or a pre-catalysed resin. The catalyst is largely latent at ambient temperatures giving
the material useful life when defrosted. The resin is usually a near solid at ambient
temperatures, and so the pre-impregnated materials (prepregs) have a light sticky feel, such as
that of adhesive tape. The prepregs are laid up by hand or machine onto a mold surface,
vacuum bagged and then heated to typically120-180°C (248-356°F). This allows the resin to flow
followed by curing. Additional pressure for the molding is usually provided in an autoclave.
Advantages
• Resin/catalyst levels and the resin content in the fibre are accurately set by the materials
manufacturer. High fibre contents can be safely achieved.
• The materials have excellent health and safety characteristics and are clean to work with.
• Fibre cost is minimised in unidirectional tapes since there is no secondary process to
convert fibre into fabric prior to use.
• Resin chemistry can be optimised for mechanical and thermal performance, with the high
viscosity resins being impregnable due to the manufacturing process.
• The extended working times (of up to several months at room temperatures) means that
structurally optimised, complex lay-up scan be readily made.
• Potential for automation and labour saving. .
Disadvantages
• Materials cost is higher for pre-impregnated fabrics.
• Autoclaves are usually required to cure the component.
• Tooling needs to be able to withstand the process temperatures involved.
• Core materials need to be able to withstand the process temperatures and pressures.
In conclusion, it may be seen that a fibre reinforced composite may be manufactured by one
of the many standard fabrication methods as explained above. The selection of the best method
for a given application requires the consideration of numerous factors. The selection process
must determine the appropriate constituent materials, the actual part design, the required
tooling, the fabrication process and the necessary inspection and testing requirements to assure
part quality.
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NETTING ANALYSIS
The analysis of filament-wound structures which assumes (1) that the stresses induced in the
structure are carried entirely by the filaments, and the strength of the resin is neglected; and (2)
that the filaments possess no bending or shearing stiffness, and carry only the axial tensile
loads.
POLYESTER RESIN TYPES -THEIR ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
NSR or Boatyard
• Inexpensive
• Highly inhibited for longer shelf life
• Stays liquid longer
• Shouldn't be used below the waterline
• Shows cosmetic defects
GP Marine
• Highly inhibited for longer shelf life
• Fast wet-out
• A good industrial laminating resin
• Water can bleed through and cause blisters or laminating problems
Boat Builder or Low Profile

• Designed for boats that don't stay in the water
• Higher heat temperature distortion
• Better water resistance
• Low shrink -good cosmetically
Isophthalic
• Corrosion resistance
• Good chemical resistance
• High strength
Vinylester
• High water barrier resistance
• Better bonding strength
• Helps to prevent osmotic blistering
• Better physical strength
Orthophthalic (GP100)
• Absorbs less water
• Shrinks less -good cosmetically
• Good for hand wet-out
• Can be used above or below the waterline
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Clear Casting
• Colorless and clear as ice
• Used for casting and embedding
Surfboard
• Clear, wax free
• Designed for surf and sail board building or repair
• laminating resin, highlights embedded graphics
SYNTHETIC RESIN:
Variations:
Polyurethane, Epoxy, Acrylic
Description:
Clear or translucent liquid that dries at room temperature when combined with a
curing agent.
Uses:
The most common casting resins will be polyurethane or acrylic. When casting in a
mold, resin should be mixed carefully to minimize air bubbles and the mold should be
designed so that gravity naturally pulls the resin into all places. Acrylic resins will dry
clear, polyurethane usually opaque, and epoxy clear in thin layers.
Manufacture:
The manufacture of synthetic resin varies between types and applications, however the
process is always dominated by chemical reactions. Countless additives and catalysts
end up in the mix on top of the base formula.
Notable Ingredients:
Alcohols, Diisocyanates (known to cause asthma)
Safety Notes:
-Always wear a respirator and eye protection.
-Do not store resin in areas that can reach excessive temperatures (cars).
AN INDUSTRIAL RESIN is a synthetic polymer which is has adhesive, film-forming or useful

reactive properties.
Unsaturated polyester resins:

These are formed from the reaction of a diol (a molecule containing several hydroxyl groups)
and an unsaturated diprotic acid. The resulting polyester chains are dissolved in a reactive
solvent. The chains crosslink are formed as a hard, strong resin which is used in making the
hulls of boats and in the production of "synthetic marble".
Alkyd resins
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Alkyd resins are used in many solvent-based paint systems and are a type of polyester made
from polyols, acids and vegetable oils.
Emulsion polymers
These are emulsions of monomers in water. As the water evaporates, the monomers polymerise
to form a thermosetting film. These are widely used as adhesives (e.g. PVA) and in water-based
paints.
Amino resins for surface coatings

When molecules containing amino groups are reacted with formaldehyde an amino resin is
formed. Their primary use is as a cross linking agent and as such they are used in paints in
conjunction with other polymers such as alkyds.
Polyurethane resins
Polyurethanes result from the reaction of a polyalcohol and an organic di-isocyanate. They can
be used as surface coatings, to make furniture and footwear and in foam form, for packaging.
Polyamide-epichlorohydrin resins
These are formed in two steps. The first step involves by reacting with a polyfunctional amine
with a diprotic acid to form a polyaminoamide resin. This is then cross linked with an
epichlorohydrin monomer. The resultant resin is used to coat paper fibres, increasing the
strength of the wet paper from less than 2% to around 30% of its dry strength.
.
Formaldehyde resins:
Formaldehyde resins are made by reacting formaldehyde with any of a variety of substances
such as urea and phenol. The reagents are mixed to form a thermosetting cross linked polymer
used in reconstituted wood (e.g. plywood) and timber adhesives.
Polymer Matrix Composite S-N Curve:
PLASTIC RESIN TYPES:
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET The most common type of plastic PET is used in soft drink
bottles and containers for ice water liquor cooking oil food condiments mouthwash and
cleaning products. It may be recycled into food containers filling for jackets and sleeping bags
bathtubs and swimming pools and other plastic items.
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High Density Polyethylene HDPE Another plastic with many uses this type is often found in
milk jugs yogurt and film containers grocery bags gasoline tanks detergent bottles toys pipes
and gallon drums. It may be recycled into toys plastic lumber mud flaps flower pats grocery
bags sheet plastic and containers.
Polyvinyl Chloride PVC though frequently used PVC is more difficult to recycle than numbers
and Pressure pipe surgical gloves clear food packaging and house siding are all made from this
plastic.
Low Density Polyethylene LDPE This plastic type is often seen as bread packaging frozen food
bags toys paint can lids and milk bottle caps.
PP Polypropylene plastic is widely used in food containers yarns and fabrics upholstery
luggage and car seats.
Polystyrene PS With a very wide range of uses this resin is used to make everything from
video cassettes and TVs to egg cartons and fast food packaging.
EPOXY RESINS are the most commonly used resins. They are low molecular weight
organic liquids containing epoxide groups. Epoxide has three members in its ring: one
oxygen and two carbon atoms.
Epoxy Resins are thermosetting resins, which cure by internally generated heat. Epoxy
systems consist of two parts, resin and hardener. When mixed together, the resin and
hardener activate, causing a chemical reaction, which cures (hardens) the material.
Epoxy resins generally have greater bonding and physical strength than do polyester
resins. Most epoxies are slower in curing, and more unforgiving in relation to
proportions of resins and hardener than polyesters. Superior adhesion is important in
critical applications and when “glassing” or gluing surfaces – such as steel, redwood,
cedar, oak and teak – as well as other non-porous surfaces. Ever coat Epoxy resins are
superior to polyester resins in that they impart exceptional strength in stress areas.
Epoxies will adhere to surfaces where polyesters may ruin them. Examples of areas
where epoxy resins products must be used are redwood, hardwoods, Styrofoam, some
plastic surfaces, and metal. They are generally higher in cost than polyester resins.
Epoxy resins may be mixed with various fillers to thicken them for special applications.
MANUFACTURE OF FIBRES:
CARBON OR GRAPHITE FIBRES:

Carbon and graphite materials are manufactured according to processes based on
conventional ceramic technologies. Raw materials such as petroleum cokes, pitch cokes, carbon
black or graphite materials with a defined grain size distribution are mixed with a
thermoplastic binder at elevated temperatures. Coal tar or petroleum based pitches as well as
synthetic resins are used as binders. Mineral additives or metal powders can be employed to
achieve special material properties. As an example, copper powder is generally used for the
manufacture of carbon brushes applied in low voltage motors.
Material Processing and Mixing:

Material processing and mixing is basically performed using computer controlled
continuous processes. The grain size distribution of the processed raw materials is controlled by
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laser diffraction. The mixing process is carried out in double screw extruders according to
specific parameters such as throughput, screw configuration and temperature profile.
Shaping:
The ready-to-mould mixes are formed into "green bodies" by die moulding, isostatic
moulding or extruding. The shaping process can be carried out at ambient or elevated
temperatures; the pressure may vary between 2 and 400 MPa.
Baking:
After the shaping process, the "green bodies" are baked. Depending on the type of
material, dimensions and the required material characteristics, the baking process is performed
in continuous or batch furnaces applying different heating rates, maximum temperatures (up to
1200 °C / 2190 °F) and furnace atmospheres. During baking, the binder is decomposed into
volatile components and carbon. This process is called pyrolysis. The resulting binder coke
ensures the integrity of the moulded and baked blocks. After baking, the blanks do not yet
possess a complete graphitic structure. They are brittle and generally, exhibit high mechanical
strength and hardness. At this stage, the material is called carbon/graphite or "hard carbon". It
demonstrates properties suitable for certain mechanical applications, such as sliding rings and
bearings.
Graphitizing:
For many applications, graphitic properties are required which are obtained through the
process of graphitization, a second heat treatment at temperatures up to 3000 °C (5430 °F). At,
graphitization is mainly performed by applying the Acheson process, whereby the material to
be graphitized is packed between two electrodes and connected as a resistance in the secondary
circuit of a transformer. Thus, the graphitizing temperature is reached by resistance heating.
During this process, recrystallization occurs, yielding in larger graphitic domains with a higher
degree of orientation. The material properties of the graphitized blanks are defined by the
structural properties of these graphitic domains. Graphitized carbon is called electrographite.
Electrographite materials generally possess excellent sliding properties, low electrical
resistance, high thermal conductivity and an improved corrosion resistance. They are used for
applications where enhanced sliding properties, high resistance to chemical attack and
temperature cycling as well as a high purity are required as an individual characteristic or as a
combination of properties. Inductively heated graphitizing furnaces or vacuum graphitizing
furnaces are frequently used for carbon fibre-reinforced carbon (CFRC; C/C) materials as well
as when the highest purity is required.
GLASS FIBRES:
Glass Fibres are among the most versatile industrial materials known today. They are
readily produced from raw materials, which are available in virtually unlimited supply. All
glass fibres described in this article are derived from compositions containing silica. They
exhibit useful bulk properties such as hardness, transparency, resistance to chemical attack,
stability, and inertness, as well as desirable fibre properties such as strength, flexibility, and
stiffness. Glass fibres are used in the manufacture of structural composites, printed circuit
boards and a wide range of special-purpose products.
Fibre Forming Processes:

Glass melts are made by fusing (co-melting) silica with minerals, which contain the
oxides needed to form a given composition. The molten mass is rapidly cooled to prevent
crystallization and formed into glass fibres by a process also known as fibreization. Nearly all
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continuous glass fibres are made by a direct draw process and formed by extruding molten
glass through a platinum alloy bushing that may contain up to several thousand individual
orifices, each being 0.793 to 3.175 mm (0.0312 to 0.125 in.) in diameter. While still highly
viscous, the resulting fibres are rapidly drawn to a fine diameter and solidify. Typical fibre
diameters range from 3 to 20 lm (118 to 787 in.). Individual filaments are combined into
multifilament strands, which are pulled by mechanical winders at velocities of up to 61 m/s
(200 ft/s) and wound onto tubes or forming packages. The marble melt process can be used to
form special-purpose, for example, high-strength fibres. In this process, the raw materials are
melted, and solid glass marbles, usually 2 to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in.) in diameter, are formed from
the melt. The marbles are re-melted (at the same or at a different location) and formed into glass
fibres. Glass fibres can also be down drawn from the surface of solid preforms.
Although this is the only process used for manufacturing optical fibres and it is a specialty
process for manufacturing structural glass fibres such as silica or quartz glass fibres.
Sizes and Binders:

Glass filaments are highly abrasive to each other. “Size” coatings or binders are
therefore applied before the strand is gathered to minimize degradation of filament strength
that would otherwise be caused by filament- to-filament abrasion. Binders provide lubrication,
protection, and/or coupling. The size may be temporary, as in the form of a starch-oil emulsion
that is subsequently removed by heating and replaced with a glass-to-resin coupling agent
known as a finish. On the other hand, the size may be a compatible treatment that performs
several necessary functions during the subsequent forming operation and which, during
impregnation, acts as a coupling agent to the resin being reinforced.
Glass Fibre Types:

Glass fibres fall into two categories, low-cost general-purpose fibres and premium
special-purpose fibres. Over 90% of all glass fibres are general- purpose products. These fibres
are known by the designation E-glass, the remaining glass fibres are premium special-purpose
products. Many, like E-glass, have letter designations implying special properties .Some have
trade names, but not all are subject to ASTM specifications. Specifically:
Letter designation Property or characteristic:

E, electrical Low electrical conductivity
S, strength High strength
C, chemical High chemical durability
M, modulus High stiffness
A, alkali High alkali or soda lime glass
D, dielectric Low dielectric constant, which covers all commercially which is available in high
strength glass fibres including S-glass and all silica or quartz glass fibres including Astroquartz
and Quartzel. It also lists a wide range of woven fabrics, which are commercially available in
the market of today, ranging from S-glass/aramid, S-glass/carbon, silica/aramid, and silica/
carbon yarns to silica/boron yarns. In addition, it covers all commercially available carbon,
ceramic, boron, and high-temperature polymer fibres and yarns.
KEVLAR/ARAMID FIBRES:
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Two Mark Questions and Answers
Unit-1
1. What are the major constituents in composite materials?

Reinforcing phase one in which it is embedded is called the matrix. Reinforcing
phase - Fibres, particles or flakes. Matrix- Materials are generally continuous.
2. Define lamina.
A lamina (also called a ply or layer) is a single flat layer of unidirectional fibres or
woven fibres arranged is a matrix.
3. Define laminate.
A laminate is a stack of plies of composites. Each layer can be laid at various
orientations and can be different material systems.
4. Define Hooke’s law.

Within elastic stress is proportional to strain. (e.g) Spring balance.
5. What are advanced composites?

Advanced composites are composite materials which are traditionally used in the
aerospace industries. These composites have high performance reinforcements of a thin
dia. in a matrix material such as epoxy and aluminium.
6. List down the reinforcement materials and resins used in composite materials.
Graphite, Glass, Aramid, Kevlar 49, Boron Resins, Epoxy, aluminium, Polyamide,
Nylon, Polyesters, Vinyl esters, Phenolics, Polymides, Polybenzimidazoles,
Polyphenylquinoxaline.
7. Why are fibre reinforcements of a thin diameter?

(i) As the fibres become smaller in diameter, it reduces the chances of an inherent flaw in
the material.
(ii)Fixed fibre volume in a given volume of composite, the area of the fibre-matrix
interface is inversely proportional to the diameter of the fibre.
(iii)Ability to bend increases with a decrease in the fibre diameter and is measured as
flexibility.
8. What are the aircraft structural components made of composite materials?

Elevator face sheets, Horizontal stabilizer, Wing spoilers, ailerons, rudders, elevators,
fairings etc., Skin on the horizontal stabilizer box, Under wing fairings, fin, rudder and
stabilizer skins, skins on vertical fin box, fin leading edge, wing skins, horizontal and
vertical tail boxes ; wing and tail control surfaces etc., Wing skins and sub structure;
forward fuselage; horizontal stabilizer flaps; ailerons.
9. Explain the difference between isotropic and anisotropic materials.

Anisotropic materials are the opposite of isotropic materials like steel and aluminium.
Anisotropic materials have different properties in different directions. For example, the
Young’s modulus of a piece of wood is higher (different) in the direction of the grain
than in the direction perpendicular to the grain. In comparison, a piece of steel has the
same young’s modulus in all directions.
10. What are the material constants of orthotropic materials?

For an orthotropic material, the nine independent elastic constants are E11, E22, E33,
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G12, G13, G23, ν 12, ν 13, ν 22. Unidirectionally oriented fibre composites are a special class
of orthotropic materials. If the fibres are in the 1-2 plane, elastic properties are equal in
the 2-3 directions so that E22=E33, ν 12=ν 13 and G12=G13. Furthermore G23 can be
expressed in terms of E22 and ν 12. Thus the number of independent elastic constants for
a unidirectionally oriented fibre composite reduces to 5. Such composites are often
called transversely isotropic.
11. What are the properties of matrices? Write down its usage. Properties
 Low viscosity. High melting point.
 Low curing temperature.
Usage:
 To transfer stresses between the fibres.
 To provide a barrier against an adverse environment.
 To protect the surface of the fibres from mechanical abrasion.
12. Define (a) Orthotropic material (b) isotropic material and give the number of elastic
constants in macro mechanics.
If a material has three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry it is called
orthotropic material. Three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry also
imply that there are three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry. Note
there are nine independent elastic constants. If all planes in an orthotropic body are
identical, it is an isotropic material. This also implies that there are infinite principal
directions. Note that there are two independent constants.
13. What is meant by orthogonally isotropic material? Give an example.

The Q16 qnd Q26 terms are non-zero when has any value other than 0º or 90º. This
indicates the anisotropic behaviour of an orthotropic lamina when its fibers are not
oriented along or perpendicular to the reference load direction. The terms Q16 and Q26
are that cause an orthotropic lamina to behave like an anisotropic lamina in a laminate,
when is neither 0º nor 90º.(Better 30º and 60º).
14. Define composite materials.

A composite is a structural material which consists of combining two or more
constituents. The constituents are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in
each other. One constituent is called the reinforcing phase and the one in which it is
embedded is called the matrix.
15. What is an isotropic body?
A isotropic material has properties that are the same in all directions. For example the
Young’s modulus of steel is the same in all directions.
16. Write four applications of composite materials?

Aircraft, Space, automotive, sporting goods and marine engineering.
17. Distinguish between long fibres and short fibres.

Long fibers: Easy to orient & process. Impact resistance, low shrinkage, improved
surface finish and dimensional stability.
Short fibers : Low cost, Easy to work with matrix. Short fibers have few flaws and
therefore have higher strength.
18. What is a particulate composite?

It consists of particles immersed in matrices such as alloys and ceramics. They are
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usually isotropic since the particles are added randomly.
19. What is an anisotropic material?

At a point in anisotropic material, material properties are different in all directions. The
material which has 21 independent elastic constants at a point is called an anisotropic
material.
20. What is hybrid Composites?

Hybrid Composites are composites consisting of two constituents at
the manometer or molecular level. Commonly one of these compounds
is inorganic and the other one organic in nature.
Unit-2
1. What are the assumptions made in the strength of materials approach model?
(i)The bond between fibres and matrix is perfect.
(ii) The elastic moduli, diameters and space between fibres are uniform.
(iii)The fibres are continuous and parallel.
(iv)The fibres and matrix follow Hooke’s law. (Linearly elastic)
(v)The fibres possess uniform strength.
(vi)The composite is free of voids.
2. Define micro mechanics.

Micro mechanics is the study of composite material behaviour wherein the interaction of
the constituent materials is examined on a microscopic scale to determine their effect on
the properties of the composite material.
3. Distinguish between natural axis and arbitrary axis.

The axis parallel to the nominal axis, it is called natural axis or right hand co-ordinate
system. The axis is some inclining of plane is called arbitrary plane.
4. What is macro mechanics?

The macro mechanical analysis of a lamina is based on average properties and by
considering the lamina to be homogeneous. Methods to find these average properties
based on the individual mechanical properties of the fibre and the matrix.
5. Define material axes or local axes.

The axes in the 1-2 co-ordinate system are called the local axes or the material axes. The
direction 1 is parallel to the fibres and the direction 2 is perpendicular to the fibres.
Direction 1 is also called the longitudinal direction (L) and the direction 2 is called the
transverse direction (T). The axes in the x-y co-ordinate system are called the global axes
or the off axes.
6. What is density of composites?

The mass of composite (Wc) is the sum of the mass of the fibers (Wf) and the mass of the
matrix (Wm).
7.What is elasticity approach?

Elasticity accounts for equilibrium of forces, compatibility and Hooke’s law
relationships in three dimensions, whereas the strength of materials approach may not
satisfy compatibility and not account for Hooke’s law in three dimensions.
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8. What is major Poisson’s ratio?

The major Poisson’s ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of the normal strain in
the transverse direction to the normal strain in the longitudinal direction, when a
normal load is applied in the longitudinal direction.
9. Write the general characteristics of composite materials.

 Low specific gravity.
 High strength weight ratio.
 High modulus-weight ratio.
10. What is meant by “stiffness”.

A measure of modulus is the relationship of load and deformation, the ratio between the
applied stress and resulting strain.
11. Write short notes on: Resilience.

A property of a material, which is able to do work against restraining, forces during
return from a deformed condition.
12. What are the assumptions made in micro mechanics?

Micro mechanics is the study of composite material behaviour wherein the interaction of
the constituent materials is examined in detail as part of the definition of the behaviour
of the heterogeneous composite material.
The two basic approaches to the micromechanics of composite materials are
(i) Mechanics of materials
(ii) Elasticity
The mechanics of materials (or strength of materials or resistance of materials)
approach embodies the usual concept of vastly simplifying assumptions regarding the
hypothesized behaviour of the mechanical system. The elasticity approach actually is at
least three approaches (i) bounding principles (ii) exact solutions and (iii) approximate
solutions. All approaches are characterized by more rigorous satisfaction of physical
laws (equilibrium, deformation continuity and compatibility and stress-strain relations)
than in mechanics of materials.
13. What is fibre reinforced plastic (FRP)?

A general term is for a composite that is reinforced with cloth, mat, strands or any other
fibre form.
14. Define the term: constituent.

In general, an element of a larger grouping, in advanced composites, the principal
constituents are the fibres and the matrix.
15. What is a homogeneous body?

A homogeneous body has properties that are the same at all points in the body. A steel
rod is an example of a homogeneous body. However, if one heats this rod at one end,
the temperature at various points on the rod would be different. Since young’s
modulus of steel varies with temperature, we no longer have a homogeneous body.
16. What is a non homogeneous body?

A non-homogeneous or inhomogeneous body has material properties which are a
function of the position on the body.
Unit-3
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1. Distinguish between symmetric cross ply laminate and symmetric angle ply laminate.
Symmetric cross ply laminates Odd no. of plies [0/90/0/90/0]
Symmetric angle ply laminates + and – directions Odd no. of plies [-40/40/-40/40/-40]
2. What are the merits and demerits of Tsai-hill failure theory?

The variation of strength with angle of lamina orientation is smooth rather than
having cusps that are not seen in experimental results. The strength continuously
decreases as grows from 0º rather than the rise in uni-axial strength that is characteristic
of both the maximum stress and the max. Strain criteria. The agreement between the
criterion and experiment is even better than that at first glance. The maximum stress and
strain criteria are incorrect by100% at 30º. Considerable interaction exists between the
failure strengths X, Y, S in the Tsai-hill criterion but none exists in the previous criteria
where axial, transverse and shear failures are presumed to occur independently.
3. Give examples of anti symmetric angle ply and symmetric cross ply laminates.
Anti-symmetric angle ply [-40/40/-40/40] Symmetric cross ply laminate
[90/0/90/0/90]
4. Define cross ply laminate and angle ply laminate.
Cross ply laminates

A laminate is called a cross ply laminate (also called laminates with specially orthotropic
layers) if only 0º and 90 º plies were used to make a laminate. An example of a cross ply
laminate is a (0/90/90/0/90] laminate.
Angle ply laminates
A laminate is called an angle ply laminate if it has plies of same material and thickness,
and only oriented at + and – direction. An example of an angle ply laminate is [-40/40/-
40/40].
5. What are the assumptions made in classical small deformation theory for a laminate?
(i)Each lamina is orthotropic.
(ii)Each lamina is homogeneous.
(iii)A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains straight and
perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation (γxz = γxz = 0)
(iv)A straight line in the z-direction remains of constant length (εz =0).
(v)The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane. (plane stress) (σz = τxz= τxz=0)
(vi)Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate. ( u , v ,
w <<laminate thickness).
(vii)Each lamina is elastic.
(viii)No slip occurs between the lamina inter faces.
6. Define inter laminar stresses with causes.

In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses such as σzx, τzx and τzy which
are shown on an element of an angle-ply laminate loaded with Nx. These stresses are
called inter laminar stresses and exist on surfaces between adjacent layers although they
exist within the layers but are usually largest at the layer interfaces.Accordingly,
classical lamination theory does not include some of the stresses that actually cause
failure of a composite laminate.
7. Define: Laminate code.

A laminate is made of a group of a single layers bonded to each other. Each layer can be
identified by its location in the laminate, its material and its angle of orientation with a
reference axis. Each lamina is represented by the angle of ply and separated from other
plies by a slash sign. The first ply is the top ply of the laminate. Special notations are
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used for symmetric laminates, laminates with adjacent lamina of same orientation or of
opposite angles and hybrid laminates.
8. Define: Quasi-isotropic laminate.

A laminate is approximating isotropy by orientation of plies in several or more
directions.
9. What is inter laminar shear?

A shearing force is tending to produce a displacement between two laminae along the
plane of their interface.
10. Define the term: Balanced laminate.

A laminate is in which all the plies are at angles other than 0º and 90º and occur in
±pairs. The plies are symmetrical about the centre line.
11. What are the transverse equations for laminated plates?

The equilibrium differential equations in terms of the force and moment resultants
derived and the transverse loading p(x,y) are
Nxx + Nyy=0
Nxy,x+ Ny,y=0
Mx,xx+2Mxy,xy+My,yy=-p
where a comma denotes differentiation of the principal symbol with respect to the
principal symbol with respect to the subscript that follows the comma.
12. What is hybrid laminate?

−− −
−
Graphite/Epoxy 0
−− −
−
Boron/Epoxy 45
−−−
−
Boron/Epoxy − 45
−−−
−−
Boron/Epoxy − 45
−−−
−−
Boron/Epoxy 45
−−−
−−
Graphite/Epoxy 0
− −−
−
[0Gr/±45B]s denotes the above laminate. It consists of six plies but the 0º plies are made of
graphite/epoxy, while the angle plies are made of boron/epoxy.
13. What is maximum strain failure theory?

This theory is based on the Maximum Normal strain theory by St. Venant and the
Maximum shear stress theory by Tresca as applied to isotropic materials. The strains
applied to a lamina are resolved to strains in the local axes. Failure is predicted in a
lamina, if any of the normal or shearing strains in the local axes of a lamina or exceeds
the corresponding ultimate strains of the unidirectional lamina. Given the strains
/stresses in an angle lamina, find the strains in the local axes.
14. What are the types of hybrid laminates?

 Interply hybrid laminates
 Intraply hybrid composites
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 Interply- intraply hybrids Resin hybrid laminates
15. What is warpage of laminates?

In laminates which are not symmetric, a temperature difference results in out-of-plane
deformation. This deformation is also called warpage.
16. What is maximum stress failure theory?

The stresses acting on a lamina are resolved into the normal and shear stresses in the
local axes. Failure is predicted in a lamina, if any of the normal or shear stresses in the
local axes of a lamina are equal to or exceed the corresponding ultimate strengths of the
unidirectional lamina.
17. What is strength ratio?

The strength ratio is defined as
SR= Maximum Load Which Can Be Applied

Load Applied
The concept of strength ratio is applicable to any failure theory. If SR>1, then the
lamina is safe and the applied stress can be increased by a factor of SR. If SR<1, the
lamina is unsafe and the applied stress needs to be reduced by a factor of SR. A value
of SR=1 implies the failure load.
18. What is ‘failure envelopes’?

A failure envelope is a three dimensional plot of the combinations of the normal and
shear stresses which can be applied to an angle lamina just before failure. Since
drawing three-dimensional graphs can be time consuming, one may develop failure
envelopes for constant shear stress, τxy, and then use the two normal stresses σx and σy
as the two axes. Then if the applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is
safe, otherwise it has failed.
Unit-4
1. List down the materials used for sandwich construction.

 Face material and Core material
 Wood
 Foam
 Polyvinyl chloride foam(PVC), Poystyrene foams, Polyurethane foams
 Polymethyl methacrylamide foams
 Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) co-polymer foams
2. List down the advantages using a sandwich construction.

Stiffness to weight ratio is high. Strength to weight ratio is high. Honeycomb sandwich
panels are also used for energy absorption, air directionanlisation, acoustical and
thermal versatility, radio frequency shielding etc., Honeycomb is also used for
straightening and directing air flow.
3. What are the three elements in a structural sandwich?

A pair of thin and strong facing, a thick and light weight core to separate the facings
and carry loads from one facings to the other and an attachment which is capable of
transmitting shear and axial loads to and from the core.
4. List down the modes of failure in a sandwich structure.

 Facing failure Flexure crushing of core
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 Local crushing of core

 General buckling
 Shear crimping Face
wrinkling
 Intra-cell buckling (dimpling)
5. What is meant by sandwich construction?

Two relatively thin, parallel sheets of structural material bonded to and
separated by a relatively thick, light weight core.
6. Define: Shear crimping.

The column buckling is caused by the core having too low a shear modulus.
7. Distinguish between face dimpling and face wrinkling.
Face dimpling Face wrinkling

The compressive buckling of the The local compressive instability of
facing in between the honeycomb facing; similar to plate buckling on an
walls caused by thin facings or elastic foundation.
large cell core.
8. What is splicing?
When large core pieces or complex shapes are desired, small pieces can be spliced
together with core splicing adhesives is called splicing.
9. What is bonding pressure?

Adhesives such as the phenolics and some others actually require more than
atmospheric pressure in order to prevent excessive porosity. Most of the core materials
alone cannot withstand compressive bonding loads exceeding a few atmospheres and
consequently are not fit to be used with any adhesive system requiring higher bonding
pressures.
10. What is fillet forming?

In order to achieve a good attachment to an open cell core, the adhesive must have a
unique combination of surface tension, surface wetting and controlled flow during early
stages of cure. Controlled flow prevents the adhesive from flowing down the cell wall
and leaving a low strength top skin attachment and an overweight bottom skin
attachment.
11. What is adaptability?

In case of contoured parts, the adhesive must also be a good gap-filler without
appreciable strength penalty, since tolerance control of details is much more difficult to
achieve on contoured parts than on flat panels.
12. What is meant by flexure modulus.

The applied stress on a test specimen in flexure to the corresponding strain in the
outermost fibres of the specimen within the elastic limit is called flexure modulus.
13. What are the aspects must be considered in designing sandwich structures?
(a)The sandwich is a composite structure.
(b)The material used may be anisotropic
(c)The core has sufficient shear modulus.
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14. What is the purpose of the attachment of core with facings?

(a) Act as single unit under deflection.
(b) Prevent separation and relative motion between the components
Have sufficient strength to force failure in either the core or the facings at only the
ultimate load.
15. Write short notes on: Polyvinyl chloride

Closed-cell polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foams are one of the most commonly used core
materials for the construction of high Performance sandwich structures. Although,
they are a chemical hybrid of PVC and polyurethane, they tend to be referred to
simply as ‘PVC foams’.
16. What are the needs of design guide lines in sandwich construction?
Requirements of thick facings to withstand the tensile, compressive and shear stresses
induced are by the design loads. Adequate strength of the core to withstand shear
stresses induced is by the design loads. Adequate compressive strength of the core to
resist crushing by design loads acting normal to the panel facings or by compressive
stresses induced through flexure. A requirement of thick core which is having sufficient
shear modulus is to prevent overall buckling of the sandwich under load.
17. What is the property of toughness?

In the area of sandwich core-to–facing bonds, toughness refers to the resistance shown
by the adhesive towards loads, which act to separate the facings from core under either
static or dynamic conditions. Greater toughness in the bond line usually equates to
greater durability and thus to longer service life.
18. Define: Foam.

The use of foam as a structural core continues to be extensive. Recent developments in
the technology of foam injection have increased the use of these materials. The most
novel of these methods is the use of a cold-cavity die, in which the foam is injection
moulded in a single production step. This is one of the core materials.
19. What are the types of honeycomb? Paper honeycomb

Aluminium honeycomb, Glass fibre reinforced plastic honeycomb, Aramid paper
honeycomb, Carbon fibre honeycomb, Kevlar honeycomb and Kevlar paper honeycomb.
Unit-5
1. Explain the difference between fibres and whiskers.

Fibre A fibre is characterised geometrically not only by its very high length to diameter
ratio but by its near crystal sized diameter.
Whiskers A whisker has essentially the same near-crystal-sized diameter as a fiber but
generally is very short and stubby, although the length-to-diameter ratio can be in the
hundreds. Thus a whisker is an even more obvious example of the crystal –bulk-material-
property-difference paradox.
2. Distinguish between open mould and close mould processes.

Open mould process: It is done in open structure.
• Spray lay up
• Hand lay up
• Filament winding
• SMC
• Expansion tool moulding
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• Contact moulding
Closed mould processes
It is done in a closed structure.
• Compression moulding
• Vacuum bag
• Injection moulding
• Resin transfer
3. What is meant by sizing of glass fibres?

The filaments are cooled rapidly and coated with a sizing such as starch, gelatine, oil etc.
to avoid damage to the fibres. The sizing imparts strand integrity, resin compatibility,
adhesion properties, etc. to the final product.
4. What is vacuum bag moulding?

A process in which a lay-up is cured under pressure by drawing a vacuum in the space
between the lay-up and a flexible sheet placed over it and sealed at the edges.
5. Define: Roving.
A Collection of bundles with continuous filaments either as untwisted strands or as
twisted yarns is called roving.
6. What is prepregs?
It is impregnated with resin and partly cured. A combination of mat, fabric or non-
woven material with resin advanced to B-stage, ready for curing.
7. What is meant by knitting?

A method of constructing fabric by interlocking series of loops of one or more yarns is
called knitting.
8. State the process of injection moulding.

Method of forming a plastic to the designed shape by forcing the heat softened plastic
into a relatively cool cavity under pressure.
9. Give brief notes on: filament winding.

A fabrication process in which continuous filament is treated with resin and wound
onto a removable mandrel in a present pattern is called filament winding.
10. State the definition of fibre glass.

An individual filament made by drawing molten glass. A continuous filament is a glass
fibre of great of indefinite length.
11. What is facing failure?
The sandwich panel failure caused by the facing failing in compression, tension or local
buckling is called facing failure.
12. Explain the term: Facing.

One of the two outer layers, which have been bonded to the core of a sandwich, is called
facing.
13. What is meant by cure?

To change the properties of a thermosetting resin irreversibly by chemical reaction,
i.e., condensation, ring closure, or addition. Cure may be accomplished by addition of
curing (cross-linking) agents, with or without catalyst, and with or without heat and
pressure.
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14. Define the term: Creep.

The time dependent part of strain resulting from an applied stress and also referred to as
the change in dimension of a material under load over a period of time is called creep.
15. What is creel?

A framework arranged to hold tows, rovings or yarns so that many ends can be
withdrawn smoothly and evenly without tangling.
16. What is ‘chopped strands’?

Short strands cut from continuous filament strands of reinforcing fibre, not held
together by any means.
17. What is the function of caul plate?

Smooth metal plates, free of surface defects, same size and shape as that of a composite
lay-up, used immediately in contact with the lay-up during the curing process to transmit
normal pressure and to a smooth surface on the finished laminate.
18. What are the characteristics of carbon fibre?

Reinforcing fibre known for its light weight, high strength and high stiffness produced
by pyrolysis of an organic precursor fibre in an inert atmosphere at temperature above
1000ºC can also be graphitised by heat-treating above 2500ºC.
19. What is the function of bleeder cloth?

A material used to allow the escape of gases and excess resin during cure cycle. It is
removed after completion of curing cycle.
20. What are the desired properties of the matrix?

 Reduced moisture absorption.
 Low shrinkage.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and
eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
 Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than
fibre).
 Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
16 Marks Important Questions

Unit 1
1. Obtain an expression for E1 , E2, and G12 in terms of material properties with respect to
principal material directions using mechanics of material approach.
2. What are the advantages of composite material? And explain its area of
application?
3. Show the reduction of anisotropic material stress-strain equations to those of

monoclinic material stress-strain equations.
4. Explain the Hooke’s law for different materials?
5. Explain monoclinic material with compliance and stiffness matrices.
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6. Find the following for a 60° angle lamina Figure of graphite/epoxy. Use the properties
of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina.
1. Transformed compliance matrix
2. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
3. Global strains
4. Local strains
5. Local stresses
6. Principal stresses
7. Maximum shear stress
8. Principal strains
9. Maximum shear strain
Unit-2
1. Describe stress strain relations for a lamina of arbitrary orientation.

2. Explain the elasticity approach to find four elastic moduli
3. Derive the experimental characterization of lamina.
4. Derive the upper and lower bound modulus.
5. Find the in-plane shear modulus of a glass/epoxy lamina with a 70% fibre volume
fraction. Use properties of glass and epoxy. Find the longitudinal elastic modulus, the
major and minor Poisson’s ratio.
Unit-3
1. Derive the governing differential equation for a laminated unidirectional anisotropic

plate.
2. Explain failure theory used for anisotropic materials.
3. Explain all the failure theories for the laminates briefly.
4. Explain the types of laminates.
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properties of graphite/epoxy. Assume that each lamina has a thickness of 5 mm.
Unit-4
1. What are the materials used for sandwich construction.

2. Write short notes on the failure modes of sandwich panels.
3. Explain basic design concept of sandwich construction.
4. Obtain an expression for the flexural modulus of a
a. Sandwich plate with different face thickness.
b. Sandwich plate with different face thickness and material.
5. Explain the cell configuration in honeycomb cores?
6. Explain the two methods of honey comb core manufacturing.
7. Explain the honeycomb processes.
Unit-5
1. What are the functions and desirable properties of resins?

2. Write short notes on vacuum bag moulding and continuous pultrusion.
3. Explain with neat sketches the production of carbon fibres.
4. What are the commercial forms of fibres?
5. Explain open and closed mould processes.
6. Explain any two methods of glass fibre manufacturing with neat sketch.
7. Explain the applications of resins.
8. Write about the Netting Analysis.
Model Question Paper and University Question Papers
PART A (10 X 2 = 20 Marks)

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
1. What are the advantages of composites?
2. Explain difference between fibers and whiskers?
3. Name any four aircraft using composites and parts in which used.
4. What are natural axes?
5. What are the assumptions made in netting analysis?
6. What is meant by failure envelope?
7. Explain the function and desirable properties of resins used in FRP.
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8. For a composite Ef = 100 Gpa, Em 10 Gpa. Calculate the percentage increase

in load carrying capacity of a uniaxial bar when the fibre increased from 70 to 80%.
9. What is the difference between open mould and closed mould process?
10. Explain sandwich construction. Give example for face and core material.
PART B (5 X 16 = 80 Marks)
11. (a)Determine E1 & E2 for lamina using macro - mechanics where 1 and 2 are arbitrary axis
(16)
(OR)
(b) What are the advantage and disadvantages of composites? (16)
12 (a) Using machines of material approach obtain expressions for E1, E2, G12 , ?12 and show
their relations with Vf (16)
( OR )
(b) In a built up aluminium alloy I-section shown in fig.1. One flange was removed and
replaced by steel angle of same dimensions. Calculate the change in rivet shear for a shear load
of 10000N. The rivets have 4mm diameter and 20mm spacing. EAl = 70 Gpa. (16)
13 (a) Derive the governing differential equation for an unidirectional anistropic plate and
reduce if to orthotropic plates and isotropic plates. (16)
(OR)
(b) List down the boundary conditions used for the analysis of laminated plate (both simply
supported and fixed edges) obtain the expression for the maximum deflection of a simply
supported orthotropic plate subjected to uniformly distributed load of intensity. (16)
14 (a) For the following laminate configuration compute the stiffness matrices. No of layers 4,
Each layer is 1mm thickness 0? / - 45 / 45? / 90?.E1 = 40 Gpa, E2 = 8 Gpa G12 > 4 Gpa. ?12 =
0.25 (16)
(OR)
(b) A composite laminate has 3 layers with fibre orientation 0? / 90? / 0?. Top layer an bottom
layer thickness is 2mm (each and middle layer thickness is 3 mm. Given Nx = 50 N/m, Ny =
200 N/m Nxy = 300 N/m Mx = 1000N, My = 1000 N & Mxy = 500N compute the strain and
curvature. E1 = 180 Gpa, E2 = 15 Gpa, G12 = 7 Gpa, ?12 = 0.28. (16)
15 (a) Describe any two methods for production of fibers (16)
( OR )
(b) Explain any two methods, one under open mould process and one under closed mould
process.
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Composite Materials and Structures

Introduction- Advantages and application of composite materials, reinforcements and

A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined

Ceramic fibres improve vastly in performance when a fine metal outline is

compressive strength rather than tensile strength. It is important property is it is high

Silicon Carbide Fibres

Quartz and Silica Fibres

• Actual strength of materials is in several magnitudes lower than the theoretical

Four fibre factors contribute to the mechanical performance of a composite

How is the mechanical advantage of composite measured?

Stiffness is defined as the resistance of a material to deflection,

 Fatigue resistance is the resistance to the lowering of mechanical properties such

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess

the chopped fibre composites form particularly when a premixed or moulding

Table.1.1 Comparison of thermoplastics and thermosets

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in

Examples for composite materials

• The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well

Fig.1.4 Composite used for different part of B- 737 aircraft

Fig 1.5 Composites used in Tejas Aircraft

Fig 1.6 Usage of Composites in Tejas

Table.1.2 The components used on Airbus series of aircraft

Aircraft Type Components Made of Composite Materials

Table.1.3 Weight of composites used in different Airbus

Table.1.4 The components used on Boeing series of aircraft

Table.1.5 Weight of composites used in different Boeing

≈1150 lb. Horizontal Stabilizer

Comparison with Metals

Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibres can be

Particulate Reinforced Composites (PRC)

Classification Based On Matrices

These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.

Fig.1.7 Usage of Composites in Various Domains

Fig.1.8 Particulate Composites

Fig. 1.9 Flake Composites

Fig.1.10 Fibre Composites

whether the polymer matrix is thermoset or thermoplastic, the tape is stored in a

Fig.1.12 Usage of Composites in Space Shuttle

Generalized Hook’s Law (Stress-strain Relation)

Fig1.10 Elements 3-dimensional stress. All stresses have positive sense.

These nine components can be organized into the matrix:

Since the displacement, the strain can hence be rewritten as,

The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationships can be summarized as,

Engineering Shear Strain

We can rewrite as,

For yz and xz simultaneously,

Introducing a new term,

Now, by partial differentiation of Equation,

Because the differentiation does not necessarily need to be in either order,

Thus Generalized Hook’s Law was derived.

Elastic Constants for anisotropic material

Fig 1.13 Types of materials axes

Monoclinic Material (STIFFNESS AND COMPLIANCE MATRIX DERIVATION)

Elastic Constants for isotropic material:

The compliance matrix reduces to

Elastic Constants for Orthotropic material:

The compliance matrix can be written as,

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS FOR LAMINA WITH ARBITRARY ORIENTATION

Fig. 1.12 Lamina with Arbitrary Orientation

From elementary mechanics of materials the transformation equations for expressing

For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following

Use the properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from above problem,