SUBJECT:

ENSAYOS DESTRUCTIVOS

TEACHER:
FRANCISCO ESTRADA

TEAM 6:
 DAVILA MENDO ADRIANA ROCIO
 MARTÍNEZ NUÑEZ SERGIO
 NOLASCO RODRIGUEZ JESUS ARMANDO
 TORRES ROSAS ANTHONY JAIR

“un Universitario muy Superior"

ALTAMIRA, TAMAULIPAS ENERO-ABRIL DEL 2019

Contenido
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 3

Glossary .................................................................................................................. 4

Applications of Buckling Test................................................................................... 4

Theoretical framework ............................................................................................. 5

Buckling terminology ............................................................................................ 6

Columns............................................................................................................... 7

Buckling under tensile dead loading .................................................................... 9

Constraints, curvature and multiple buckling ....................................................... 9

Various forms of buckling................................................................................... 10

Buckling Testing Standards. .................................................................................. 11

ASTM Standards: .............................................................................................. 11

Procedure .............................................................................................................. 12

Example ................................................................................................................ 15

Criteria for acceptance and rejection ..................................................................... 21

Requirements, safety considerations and / or conditions to perform the test. ....... 22

Materials, tools and equipment.............................................................................. 23

Bibliography........................................................................................................... 24

2
Introduction
In science, buckling is a mathematical instability that leads to a failure mode.

When a structure is subjected to compressive stress, buckling may occur. Buckling

is characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of a structural member. This may
occur even though the stresses that develop in the structure are well below those
needed to cause failure of the material of which the structure is composed. As an
applied load is increased on a member, such as a column, it will ultimately become
large enough to cause the member to become unstable and it is said to have
buckled. Further loading will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable
deformations, possibly leading to complete loss of the member's load-carrying
capacity. If the deformations that occur after buckling do not cause the complete
collapse of that member, the member will continue to support the load that caused it
to buckle. If the buckled member is part of a larger assemblage of components such
as a building, any load applied to the buckled part of the structure beyond that which
caused the member to buckle will be redistributed within the structure.

In a mathematical sense, buckling is a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of

static equilibrium. At a certain point, under an increasing load, any further load is
able to be sustained in one of two states of equilibrium: a purely compressed state
(with no lateral deviation) or a laterally-deformed state.

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Glossary
Buckling of columns: When a slender structural member is loaded with an increasing
axial compression force, the member deflects laterally and fails by combined
bending and compression rather than by direct compression alone. This
phenomenon is called buckling.

Critical load of a structure: is the load which creates the borderline between stable
and unstable equilibrium of the structure or is the load that causes buckling of the
structure.

Lateral torsional buckling of beams: Lateral torsional buckling is a phenomenon that

occurs in beams which are subjected to vertical loading but suddenly deflect and fail
in the lateral and rotational

Directions Stiffness: is a qualitative measure of the resistance to elastic deformations

produced by a material

Extensometer: Precision instrument with which the deformations of the pieces

subjected to tensile or compression efforts are measured, differences of expansion
of the metal tests

Eccentric load: Load applied to a column or pile that is not symmetric about the
central axis producing a bending moment. Also called eccentric force.

Applications of Buckling Test

Buckling is in the construction and architecture, since it is a critical point to analyze
for the design of buildings, constructions, or structures, this implies its use goes from
the construction of industrial plants, structures of buildings, maritime structures, etc.

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Theoretical framework
There are two major categories leading to the sudden failure of a mechanical
component: material failure and structural instability, which is often called buckling.
For material failures you need to consider the yield stress for ductile materials and
the ultimate stress for brittle materials.

Those material properties are determined by axial tension tests and axial
compression tests of short columns of the material. The geometry of such test
specimens has been standardized. Thus, geometry is not specifically addressed in
defining material properties, such as yield stress. Geometry enters the problem of
determining material failure only indirectly as the stresses are calculated by analytic
or numerical methods.

The load at which buckling occurs depends on the stiffness of a component, not
upon the strength of its materials. Buckling refers to the loss of stability of a
component and is usually independent of material strength.

Thus in practice, Euler column buckling can only be applied in certain regions and
empirical transition equations are required for intermediate length columns. For very
long columns the loss of stiffness occurs at stresses far below the material failure.

5
Buckling terminology

The topic of buckling is still unclear because the keywords of “stiffness”, “long” and
“slender” have not been quantified. Most of those concepts were developed
historically from 1D studies. You need to understand those terms even though finite
element analysis lets you conduct buckling studies in 1D, 2D, and 3D.

As we learned in the previous lectures, structures may fail in a variety of ways,

depending on the materials, load and support conditions. We had two primary
concerns: (1) the strength of structure, (i.e. its ability to support a given load without
excessive stress) or (2) the stiffness of a structure, (i.e. its ability to support a given
load without excessive deformation). We will now consider the stability of a structure
its ability to support a given load without experiencing a sudden change in its
configuration or shape. A column is a straight, slender member subjected to an axial
compressive load. Such members are commonly encountered in trusses and in the
framework of buildings, but may also be found in machine linkages, machine
elements and optical systems.

If a compression member is relatively short, it will remain straight when loaded and
the load-deformation relations previously presented will apply. However, if the
member is long and slender, buckling will be the principle mode of failure. Instead of
failing by direct compression, the member bends and deflects laterally and we say
the member has buckled.

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To illustrate the phenomenon of buckling in an elementary manner consider the
following idealized structure. The member is sized such that the design stress, σ =
P/A, is less than the allowable stress for the material and the deformation, δ = PL/AE
is within the given specifications. We may conclude that the column has been
properly designed. However, before the design load is reached, the column may
buckle and become sharply curved – clearly an indication that the column has not
been properly designed.

Columns

The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross
section is called the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter
lambda, λ). This ratio affords a means of classifying columns and their failure mode.
The slenderness ratio is important for design considerations. All the following are
approximate values used for convenience.

If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity (centroid) of its cross
section, it is called an axial load. A load at any other point in the cross section is
known as an eccentric load.

The buckling mode of deflection is considered a failure mode, and it generally occurs
before the axial compression stresses (direct compression) can cause failure of the
material by yielding or fracture of that compression member. However, intermediate-
length columns will fail by a combination of direct compressive stress and bending.

The theory of the behavior of columns was investigated in 1757 by mathematician

Leonhard Euler. He derived the formula, the Euler formula, that gives the maximum

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axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal
column is one that is perfectly straight, made of a homogeneous material, and free
from initial stress.

The formula derived by Euler for long slender columns is this

where

F , maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),

E , modulus of elasticity,

I , smallest area moment of inertia (second moment of area) of the cross section of
the column,

L, unsupported length of column,

K , column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end
support of the column, as follows.

KL is the effective length of the column

A demonstration model illustrating the different "Euler" buckling modes. The model
shows how the boundary conditions affect the critical load of a slender column.
Notice that the columns are identical, apart from the boundary conditions

8
Buckling under tensile dead loading

Usually buckling and instability are associated with compression, but buckling and
instability can also occur in elastic structures subject to dead tensile load.

An example of a single-degree-of-freedom structure is shown in image, where the

critical load is also indicated. Another example involving flexure of a structure made
up of beam elements governed by the equation of the Euler's elastica is shown in
image. In both cases, there are no elements subject to compression. The instability
and buckling in tension are related to the presence of the slider, the junction between
the two rods, allowing only relative sliding between the connected pieces.

Elastic beam system showing buckling under tensile dead loading.

Constraints, curvature and multiple buckling

Buckling of an elastic structure strongly depends on the curvature of the constraints

against which the ends of the structure are prescribed to move. (In fact, even a
single-degree-of-freedom system may exhibit a tensile (or a compressive) buckling
load as related to the fact that one end has to move along the circular profile labeled
Ct

9
Various forms of buckling

Buckling is a state which defines a point where an equilibrium configuration becomes

unstable under a parametric change of load and can manifest itself in several
different phenomena. All can be classified as forms of bifurcation.

In Euler buckling, when the applied load is increased by a small amount beyond the
critical load, the structure deforms into a buckled configuration which is adjacent to
the original configuration. For example, the Euler column pictured will start to bow
when loaded slightly above its critical load, but will not suddenly collapse.

In structures experiencing limit point instability, if the load is increased infinitesimally

beyond the critical load, the structure undergoes a large deformation into a different
stable configuration which is not adjacent to the original configuration. An example
of this type of buckling is a toggle frame (pictured) which 'snaps' into its buckled
configuration.

10
Curves showing the material strength and elastic buckling limits of compression
members where N is the axial load and λ is the normalized member slenderness.

Buckling Testing Standards.

ASTM E9-89a (2000)

These test methods cover the apparatus, specimens, and procedure for axial-load
compression testing of metallic materials at room temperature.

The values stated in inched-pound units are to be regarded as the standard.

ASTM Standards:

 B 55 test methods for tension testing wrought and cast aluminum and
magnesium alloy products
 E 4 practices for force verification of testing machines
 E 6 terminology relating of methods of mechanical testing
 E 83 Practice for verification and classification of extensometer
 E 111 test method for young’s modulus, tangent modulus, and chord modulus

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  E 171 specification for standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
flexible barrier materials
 E 177 Practice for use of the terms precision and bias in ASTM test methods
 E 2109 practice for compression test of metallic materials at elevated
temperatures with conventional or rapid hearting rates and strain rates
 E 251 Test method for performance characteristics of metallic bonded
resistance strain gages.

ASTM E9 Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at Room Temperature.

Defines testing techniques for compression testing of metals. Using these

techniques, the parameters of compressive yield strength, compressive ultimate
strength, and compressive modulus can all be determined on a variety of geometries
of metallic materials.

Procedure
1. Specimen Measurement—Measure the width and thickness, or the diameter
of the specimen with a micrometer along the gage section. Specimen
dimensions greater than 0.10 in. (2.5 mm) should be measured to the nearest
0.001 in. (0.02 mm), and those less than 0.10 in. (2.5 mm) should be
determined to the nearest 1 % of the dimension being measured. Calculate
the average cross-sectional area of the specimen gage section.
2. Cleaning—Clean the ends of the specimen and fixture bearing blocks with
acetone or another suitable solvent to remove all traces of grease and oil.
3. Lubrication—Bearing surface friction can affect test results. Friction has been
successfully reduced by lubricating the bearing surfaces with TFE
fluorocarbon sheet, molybdenum disulfide, and other materials.
4. Specimen Installation—Place the specimen in the test fixture and carefully
align the specimen to the fixture to ensure concentric loading. Also, check
that the specimen loading/ reaction surfaces mate with the respective
surfaces of the fixture. If the fixture has side supports, the specimen sides
should contact the support mechanism with the clamping pressure

12
 recommended by the fixture manufacturer, or as determined during the fixture
verification tests. If screws are used to adjust side support pressure, it is
recommended that a torque wrench be utilized to ensure consistent pressure.
4.1 Transducer Attachment—If required, attach the extensometer or other
transducers, or both, to the specimen gage section. The gage length must
be at least one half or preferably one diameter away from the ends of the
specimen.
5. Load-Strain Range Selection—Set the load range of the testing machine so
the maximum expected load is at least one third of the range selected. Select
the strain or deflection scale so that the elastic portion of the load-versus-
strain or loadversus-deflection plot on the autographic record, is between 30°
and 60° to the load axis.
6. Strain Measurements—Devices used for measuring strain shall comply with
the requirements for the applicable class of extensometer described in
Practice E 83. Electrical strain gages, if used, shall have performance
characteristics established by the manufacturer in accordance with Test
Methods E 251.
7. Testing Speed—For testing machines equipped with strain-rate pacers, set
the machine to strain the specimen at a rate of 0.005 in./in.·min (m/m·min).
For machine with load control or with crosshead speed control, set the rate
so the specimen is tested at a rate equivalent to 0.005 in./in.·min (m/m·min)
strain-rate in the elastic portion. A rate of 0.003 in./in.·min (m/m·min) can be
used if the material is strain-rate sensitive.
7.1 For machines without strain-pacing equipment or automatic feedback control
systems, maintain a constant crosshead speed to obtain the desired average
strain-rate from the start of loading to the end point of the test. The average
strain-rate can be determined from a time-interval-marked load-strain record,
a time-strain graph, or from the time of the start of loading to the end point
of test as determined from a time-measuring device (for example,
stopwatch). It should be recognized that the use of machines with constant

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 rate of crosshead movement does not ensure constant strain rate throughout
a test.
7.2 It should also be noted that the free-running crosshead speed may differ from
the speed under load for the same machine setting, and that specimens of
different stiffnesses may also result in different rates, depending upon the
test machine and fixturing. Whatever the method, the specimen should be
tested at a uniform rate without reversals or sudden changes. The test rate
must also be such that the rate of load change on the specimen being tested,
will be within the dynamic response of the measuring systems. This is of
particular importance when testing short specimens of high-modulus
materials.
8. Test Conduct—After the specimen has been installed and aligned, and the
strain- or deflection-measuring transducer installed, activate the recording
device(s) and initiate the test at the prescribed rate. Continue the test at a
uniform rate until the test has been completed as stated below.
8.1 Ductile Materials—For ductile materials, the yield strength or yield point, and
sometimes the strength at a strain greater than the yield strain, can be
determined. The conduct of the test to determine either the onset of yielding
or the compressive strength or both is the same. Materials without sharp-
kneed stress-strain diagrams will require that the strain or deflection at yield
be initially estimated, and the specimen tested sufficiently beyond the initial
estimation to be sure the yield stress can be determined after the test . For
materials, exhibiting a sharp-kneed stress-strain curve or a distinctive yield
point, the test can be terminated either after a sharp knee or after the drop
in load is observed.
8.2 Brittle Materials—Brittle materials that fail by crushing or shattering may be
tested to failure.
9 Number of Specimens—Specimen blanks shall be taken from bulk materials
according to applicable specifications. The number of specimens to be tested
should be sufficient to meet the requirements as determined by the test
purpose, or as agreed upon between the parties involved. The larger the

14
 sample, the greater the confidence that the sample represents the total
population. In most cases, between five and ten specimens should be
sufficient to determine the compressive properties of a sample with
reasonable confidence.
10 Precautions:
10.1 Buckling—In compression tests of relatively long, slender
specimens that are not laterally supported, the specimens may
buckle elastically and fly from the test setup. A protective device
should be in place to prevent injury.
10.2 Shattering Fracture—Some materials may fail in a shattering
manner which will cause pieces to be expelled as shrapnel. A
protective device should be in place to prevent injury.

Example
The physicist and mathematician Leonhard Euler first derived a series of equations
to determine the deformation of columns under loads. The following procedure
attempts to verify one of these buckling equations for steel columns.Euler
determined the following expression for determining the critical load.

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APPARATUS

 Specimen holders.

 Deformation measurement.

 Lateral load device with weight.

16
PROCEDURE

1. The device was set up in vertical position.

2. The thrust piece with V notch into attachment socket and fasten with clamping
screw was inserted.

3. Long thrust piece with V notch into the guide bush of load cross-bar was
inserted and was been hold firmly.

4. The S2 rod specimen with edges in the v notch was inserted.

5. The load cross-bar was clamped on the guide column in such a manner that
there was still approximately 5mm for the top thrust piece to move.

6. The rod specimen was aligned in such a manner that it’s buckling direction
points in the direction of the lateral guide columns.

7. The rod specimen with low, non-measurable force was retightening.

8. The measuring gauge was aligned to the middle of the rod specimen using
the supporting clamps. The measuring gauge was set at a right angle to the
direction of buckling.

9. The measuring gauge was pretighten to 10mm deflection with the adjustable
support.

10. The rod specimen load was slowly subjected using the load nut.

11. The deflection was recorded from the measuring gauge. The deflection was
read and recorded at every 0.25mm up to 1mm.

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Theory

A long-column straight beam with a rectangular cross section is subjected to a

compressive axial load. As long as the beam remains straight, it can be analysed by
the theories of tension or compression loads; however, if the deflection become
suddenly large and leads to catastrophic failure, the buckling theory has to be
applied for the analysis. According to the theory, the critical (or Euler) buckling load
Pcr, critical stress cr, and slenderness ratio L/r can be calculated by the following
formulas:

where:

E is the modulus of elasticity.

I is the moment of initial of the beam, I = b h3 / 12. b is the width of the beam and h
is the thickness of the beam.

L is the length of the beam.

A is the cross section area of the beam, A = bh.

r is the radius of gyration about the axis of bending.

𝜋2 ×21.0×104 ×106.6
For the first specimen(S3)P = =613.72N
6002

𝜋2 ×21.0×104 ×106.6
For the second specimen (S6) P = =522.94N
6502

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Results

Table 1: specimen (S6)

Force (N) Deflection

(mm)

400 0.15

450 0.19

500 0.27

550 0.38

600 0.50

650 0.65

700 0.87

750 1.24

800 1.65

Graph1: specimen (S6)

specimen (S6)
900
800
700
600
Force (N)

500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Deflection (MM)

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Table 2: specimen (S3)

Defection
Force (N) (mm)

100 0

200 0.06

300 0.19

400 0.42

450 0.62

Graph 2: specimen (S3)

specimen (S3)
500
450
400
350
300
Force (N)

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Deflection (MM)

20
 𝑃
Then, the stress on the beam can be calculated using critical load as𝜕 =
𝐴

*Cross sectional area = 20 × 4 = 80mm

522.94
𝜕= = 6.54 MPa for specimen (S6)
80

613.72
𝜕= = 7.67MPa for specimen (S3)
80

The error within this experiment was grossly inaccurate and exhibited unacceptable
error. The main source of error was due to poor testing technique. Evenwith proper
technique, however, persistent and large error was still present. There main error
was due to ill conditioned test samples and poorly calibrated equipment. The
samples had experienced buckling many times previous to this test, and the
clampswere not aligned to place the force parallel along the beam

Criteria for acceptance and rejection

For the evaluation and acceptance of concrete, the measure of the resistance to
simple compression has been taken as a basis, since it is the most widely used due
to its economy and easy realization; This test has been practiced since ancient times
by means of cylindrical test pieces of 15 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height. Due to
many studies on specimens of different dimensions, the resistances obtained on the
cylinders of 15 × 30 cm proved to be very close to those for which the mixtures had
been designed thus establishing these dimensions as standard for the control or
verification of the concrete.

21
Requirements, safety considerations and / or conditions
to perform the test.

The load cross arm can drop of the clamping screws are loosened!
A drop could damage parts of the testing machine located underneath the cross
arm.

Carefully support the cross arm by hand when loosening the clamping screws!

Before removing a rod specimen make sure that the clamping screws are tightened
securely! Pay attention to the top thrust piece when removing the rod specimen!

The hazards mentioned do not apply when the test device is set up horizontally.

Caution when working with brittle materials!

The rod specimen could break suddenly in this case. Pieces of specimen could fly
around and cause injuries!

This hazard is not posed with original G.U.N.T. rod specimens, since they are made
of ductile material.
Do not overload device!

The maximum testing force is 20 000 N. Overloads can occur if attempts are made
to force a loaded rod specimen in the direction opposite that of deflection.

Never deflect more than max. 6 mm, since there is a risk or plastic deformation and
damage to the rod specimen.

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Materials, tools and equipment
The materials necessary to carry out this buckling test are:

• Test tubes.

• Devices to support the specimens.

• Vernier

• Dial indicator with a magnetic base.

• Ruler.

• Buckling testing machine.

• Computer with Windows XP operating system, data capture card and program key.

• TextExpert.NET Software. It is software that is supplied together with the test

machine. It controls the tests that are carried out in the test machine, capturing the
data through the corresponding ports and performing the processing of the same.

• Elements of connection between the computer and the teste machine.

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Bibliography
https://wenku.baidu.com/view/c89df5c608a1284ac850434e.html

http://repositorio.uta.edu.ec/jspui/handle/123456789/3031

https://www.redalyc.org/html/707/70732641005/

http://www.ciencias.holguin.cu/index.php/cienciasholguin/article/view/1020/1113

https://wp.optics.arizona.edu/optomech/wp-
content/uploads/sites/53/2016/10/OPTI_222_W16.pdf

http://repositorio.uta.edu.ec/jspui/handle/123456789/3031

https://www.clear.rice.edu/mech403/.../FEA_Buckling_analysis.pdf

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