18th National Civil Engineering Summit 2017

OUTLINE

UNDERSTANDING EARTHQUAKES AND PREPARING FOR IT

By

Carlos M. Villaraza, FASEP

I. Basic Seismology

II. Earthquake Engineering

A. Definition of Terms
B. Physical Effects of Earthquakes
C. Active Fault Lines in the Philippines

III. Soil-Structure Interaction

IV. ASCE 94 & 97

VI. NSCP 2010 & ASCE 7-05

VII. Site Specific Seismicity Study

*About the Author

Carlos M. Villaraza is a Structural-Earthquake Engineering Consultant. He has forty years of extensive

experience in structural engineering design, seismic design parameter studies and seismic risk analyses. He has
been involved in the review of the earthquake provisions of the National Structural Code of the Philippines since
1987 and Chairman of the NSCP 2010 General Requirements and Loads & Actions, a member of the APEC
Informal Network on earthquake provisions for the Harmonization of Building Codes in the APEC Region and
the review of ISO provisions covering lateral loads and general loading conditions.
He has been a lecturer to various private and government agencies both local and international on earthquake
engineering such as the Kindgdom of Bhuttan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Qatar, and Canada. He has several
published papers both local and international.
He has assisted in the post-earthquake assessment of structures in the Philippines since 1990, in the Taiwan Chi-
chi Earthquake 1999, and the Tohoku Earthquake 2011.
A graduate of B.S. Civil Engineering from the University of Santo Tomas – Manila (1976), he received his Post
Graduate Diploma in Earthquake from the International Institute for Seismology and Earthquake Engineering in
Japan (1986).

WEBSITE: www.goeseedphil.com
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INTRODUCTION TO SEISMOLOGY

Basic Seismology

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Seismicity of
an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are
measured using observations from seismometers. The moment magnitude (Mw) is the most common scale on which
earthquake magnitudes larger than 5 are reported. Earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 are measured mostly on the
local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter scale. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified
Mercalli scale or the PHIVOLCS scale in the Philippines.

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground.
When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a
tsunami. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at
ground level directly above the hypocenter.

Fault Types

Tectonic earthquakes occur where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to
drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. Once the fault has locked, continued
relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and stored strain energy in
the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen
sufficiently to break through the asperity, releasing the stored energy. Energy is
released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of
the fault surface, and cracking of the rock.

There are three main types of fault: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and
reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in
the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal
faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent
boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a
convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the
fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of
strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have
components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.

Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate boundaries are associated with
the most powerful earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.
Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms can produce major earthquakes up
to about magnitude 8. Earthquakes associated with normal faults are generally less than
magnitude 7.

Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes, while those with a
focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed 'mid-focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes.

Measuring and Locating Earthquakes

Earthquakes are recorded by seismometers. The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by
numbers on the Moment Magnitude Scale (formerly Richter Scale).
Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel through rock with different velocities:

• Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves)

• Transverse S-waves (both body waves)
• Surface waves — (Rayleigh and Love waves)
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In the Earth's interior, P waves travel much faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1.7 : 1). The differences in
travel time from the epicentre to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources
of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.

In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to 13 km/s.
The velocity of S-waves ranges from 2–3 km/s in light sediments and 4–5 km/s in the Earth's crust up to 7 km/s in
the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth's
mantle.

Comparison of Moment Magnitude Scale with Richter Scale

Moment Typical Maximum In 1935, Charles Richter and Beno Gutenberg developed the
Magnitude Modified Mercalli Intensity local magnitude (ML) scale (Richter scale) with the goal of
quantifying medium-sized earthquakes (between magnitude 3.0
1.0 – 3.0 I and 7.0) in Southern California. This scale was based on the
ground motion measured by a particular type of seismometer at a
3.0 – 3.9 II - III
distance of 100 km from the earthquake's epicenter. Because of
4.0 – 4.9 IV - V this, larger earthquakes will tend to have a local magnitude of
around 7.
5.0 – 5.9 VI - VII
The moment magnitude (Mw) scale was introduced in 1979 by
6.0 – 6.9 VII - VIII Caltech seismologists T.C. Hanks and H. Kanamori to address
these shortcomings while maintaining consistency. Thus, for
7.0+ IX or higher medium-sized earthquakes, the moment magnitude values are
similar to Richter values.
Table 1. Approximate comparison
between Mw and MMI. Magnitude scales differ from earthquake intensity, which is the
perceptible shaking, and local damage experienced during a
quake. The shaking intensity at a given spot depends on many factors, such as soil types, soil sub-layers, depth, type
of displacement, and range from the epicenter. Magnitude scales are used to estimate the energy released with one
number the size of the quake. Table 1 compares the moment magnitude with the modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.

INTRODUCTION TO BASIC EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

INVESTIGATION for ASSESSING SEISMIC HAZARDS

PURPOSE : to demonstrate absence of seismic hazards or adequately define the seismic hazards so that suitable
recommendations for mitigation can be developed.

Scope of Investigation for GEOTECHNICAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

1. The screening investigation

2. The quantitative evaluation of the seismic hazard

Screening Investigation

1. Preliminary design information

2. History of prior site development
3. Seismic history of the area
4. Aerial photographs and geologic maps
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5. Special study maps

6. Topographic maps
7. Building codes or other regulatory specifications

Quantitative Evaluation

1. Geologic mapping
2. Subsurface exploration
3. Laboratory testing
4. Engineering and geologic analyses
5. Report preparation

MAIN FACTORS GOVERNING LIQUEFACTION

1. Earthquake intensity and duration

2. Groundwater table
3. Soil type
4. Soil relative density, Dr
5. Particle size gradation
6. Placement conditions (depositional environment)
7. Drainage condition
8. Confining pressures
9. Particle shape
10. Aging and cementation
11. Historical environment
12. Building load

CONDITIONS MOST SUSCEPTIBLE TO LIQUEFACTION

1. Site that is close to the epicenter.

2. Site that has a groundwater table close to the ground surface.
3. Sand with uniform gradation, rounded soil particles, very loose, recently deposited with no cementation
between soil grains, and no prior preloading or seismic shaking.

EARTHQUAKE SPECTRA AND DESIGN

INTRODUCTION TO RANDOM VIBRATION

A system is vibrating if it is moving back and forth in some way. If

this motion is unpredictable then the system is said to be in random
vibration. The subject of random vibrations is concerned with finding
out how the average characteristic of the motion of a randomly
excited system depends on the statistics of the excitation and the
dynamic properties of the vibrating system (mass, stiffness, and
damping).

Figure 1. Possible time history for Figure 1 shows part of a possible time history for a system in random
system in random vibration. vibration. A non-random time history is termed as deterministic and is
in fact a sine wave (Figure 2).
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The concept of a random variable is closely related to the conducting

Figure 2. Waveform for steady state
deterministic vibration.
of an experiment. If an experiment is performed repeatedly under the
same conditions and the measured results are identical, then the items
measured are said to be deterministic. However, if the numerical
results vary, the items are random. An event is a collection of
observations in the sample space. The collection of data from an
experiment is the first step in any study. Both graphic and numerical
measures are used by engineers to interpret randomness of the results
of an experiment.

RESPONSE SPECTRUM

From the seismological point of view, one of the most important

measures of an earthquake is its magnitude. It gives very important
information to structural engineers as well through when interpreted
regarding its effects on structures. The effect of the magnitude need
also to be correlated to the distance of the structure from the source
and the ground conditions at the site affects the structure as well.

The three components of ground motion recorded by strong motion

accelerograph provide a complete description of an earthquake at the
point. The most important features of this time history record are the
amplitude, the frequency content and the duration. From these three
important features, the response spectrum can be determined. Figure
Figure 3. Average acceleration
3 shows the average spectral shapes of strong ground motions at sites
spectra for different site conditions
with different soil conditions. The stiffest ground is classified into
(Seed et al … 1974).
Group 1 and the softest ground into Group 4. Figure 3 shows that the
dominant period of spectrum for Group 1 is the shortest and that for Group 4 is the longest among the groups.

1994 and 1997 UBC Earthquake Design Development

Introduction
It is of importance for the Filipino engineers to know the development of the Reference Code of the NSCP which is
the UBC or the ASCE 7. The philosophy behind these referral Codes will help in the further development of our
own Seismic Code Provisions.

The basic premise of the provisions of the UBC 94 were the following:

Earthquake Damage to Structure

Minor None
Moderate Some damage to non-structural elements
Major Maybe severe damage, but not collapse.
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• Seismic zones in U.S.

Zones Damage to Structure MMI* Scale

0 No Damage -----
1 Minor V, VI
2 Moderate VII
3 Major VII
4 Major -----

*MMI = Modified Mercalli Intensity scale of 1933.

Base Shear Terms UBC 94

• Z = seismic zone factor. Zone Z

o Effective peak ground accelerations with 10% probability of
being exceeded in 50 yrs. 0 0
o Given as a percentage of acceleration due to gravity. 1 .075
o Doesn't account for building dynamic properties or local soil
2A .15
conditions.
• I = importance factor. 2B .20
o '94 UBC Table 16-K. 3 .30
I = 1.25 for essential and hazardous facilities.
4 .40
I = 1.0 all others.
• C = dynamic response spectrum value.

o Where S = site coefficients:

Listed in '94 UBC Table 16-J, 4 basic types:

Type Brief Description S

S1 Rock 1.0
S2 Stiff soil > 200' 1.2
S3 Soft-to-medium 1.5
S4 > 40' soft clay 2.0
* Without a sufficient geotechnical investigation to determine soil profile at building
location, use S3.

• Rw = structural system coefficient. Judgement factor that accounts for building ductility and damping.

Base Shear Terms UBC 97

• 1997 UBC static lateral method considers both horizontal movement and vertical ground movement. The
vertical component may be taken as zero, however, when using the allowable stress design procedure.
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Zone Z
• Z = seismic zone factor. 0 0
o Effective peak ground accelerations with 10% probability of being
1 .075
exceeded in 50 yrs.
o Given as a percentage of acceleration due to gravity. 2A .15
For Zone 4, Z = .4, horizontal ground acceleration is 2B .20
predicted at .4g at bedrock.
o Doesn't account for building dynamic properties or local soil 3 .30
conditions. 4 .40
o Table 16.I Z values as given below:

• I = importance factor.

I = 1.25 for essential and hazardous facilities.

I = 1.0 all others.

• T = building's fundamental period of vibration.

• Ca and Cv = seismic dynamic response spectrum values.

o Accounts for how the building and soil can amplify the basic ground acceleration or velocity.
o Ca and Cv are determined from respectively '97 UBC tables 16-Q and 16-R as a function of Z,
underlying soil conditions, and proximity to a fault.

• Soil profile type:

The soil layers beneath a structure effects the way that structure responds to the earthquake motion. The
soil profile types are:

Description Type
Hard Rock SA
Rock SB
Very dense soil and soft rock SC
Stiff soil SD
Soft soil SE
See '97 UBC 1629.3.1 SF

* In the absence of a geotechnical site investigation, use SD. This is in accordance with '97 UBC 1629.3.

• R = response modification factor. A judgment factor that accounts for building ductility, damping, and
over-strength.

o Structural systems with larger R = better seismic performance.

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o In '97 UBC Table 16-N, R range from 2.8 (light steel frame bearing walls with tension bracing) to
8.5 (special SMRFS of steel or concrete and some dual systems).
o For bearing wall systems where the wall elements resist both lateral and vertical loads:
• Wood shear panel buildings with 3 or less stories: R = 5.5
• Masonry shear walls: R = 4.5.

• Nv and Na = near source factors that are applicable in only seismic zone 4. They account for the very large
ground accelerations that occur near the seismic source (the fault).

o Nv is generally used with Cv for structures located < 15km from the fault.
o Na is used with Ca for structures located < 10 km from the fault.
o Both Na and Nv are based upon the type of seismic source, A-C. This source type, and location of
fault, must be established using approved geotechnical data like a current USGS survey.

Performance Based Design in the Context of NSCP 2010

Introduction

Experience in the Philippines has shown that building structures designed in accordance with the earthquake load
provisions of the NSCP and detailed for ductility have performed well in the past earthquakes. Investigation and
evaluation of building failures after the 16 July 1990 Luzon Earthquake tend to indicate:

• Improper ductility design;

• High concrete-steel ratio and poor materials property;
• The near-source factor effect of vertical acceleration not considered.

In the conventional methods of seismic design, the objectives are for life safety (strength and ductility) and damage
control (serviceability drift limits). The design criteria are defined limits on stresses and member forces.

Performance-based design is a more general design philosophy in which the design criteria are expressed in terms of
achieving stated performance objectives when the structure is subjected to stated levels of seismic hazard. The
performance targets may be a level of stress not to be exceeded, a load, a displacement, a limit state or a target
damage state.

PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN

The performance-based design (PBD) concept implies the definition of multiple target performance levels which are
expected to be achieved, or at least not exceeded, when the structure is subjected to earthquake ground motion of
specified intensity.

To achieve these targets, the designer has to be aware of the uncertainties involved in both structural performance
and seismic hazard estimations. The ability to assess seismic demands and capacities with a reasonable degree of
certainty is important.
Seismic hazard estimation is governed by several factors. Some of these are the following:

Site Classification. Ground motion records can show distinct amplitudes at sites with different geologic
characteristics. See Table 2.1 which taken from the NSCP 2010.
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Table 2.1 Soil Profile Types

The Vs30 is based on the wave propagation theory that ground motion depends on the density and shear wave
velocity of near-surface media. Density has relatively little variation with depth.

Site Amplification. It is a parameter ratio for a given site category to a reference category (usually rock).
Amplification factors are a convenient to account for the effects of site conditions. Site condition remains crudely
represented with amplification factors. Since amplification factors are very sensitive to the reference site condition,
the application of the amplification factor models must appropriately consider the site condition corresponding to the
reference motion.

Soil-Foundation-Structure Interaction. The response of a structure to earthquake shaking is affected by interactions

between the structure, the foundation and the geologic media underlying and surrounding the foundation. The soil-
foundation-structure interaction seismic analysis evaluates the collective response of these systems to a specified
free field ground motion. The deformation and movement of the foundations of a building can significantly affect
the seismic response of structures.

PBD METHODOLOGY

The general methodology for performance based design may include

various approaches. In one approach, traditional force-based analysis is
conducted and, after the design is completed, the deformation and
damage may be estimated and checked against established displacement
limits. Other approaches may start by establishing the displacement or
drift associated with a certain performance, proportion the structure and
then conduct the response analysis.

A fundamental question in performance based design is the validation of

selected performance levels, the parameters used to define minimum
performance, and the seismic hazard definitions. In the case of three
performance levels (serviceability, damage control and life safety or
Figure 1. Typical Performance
collapse prevention), three corresponding structural characteristics
Curve.
(stiffness, strength and deformation capacity) dominate the performance
as illustrated in Fig. 1.
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NSCP 2010 CODE PHILOSOPHY

It is very important to understand the purpose of the NSCP 2010 which is to provide minimum load requirements for
the design of buildings, towers and other vertical structures, and minimum standards and guidelines to safeguard life
or limb, property and public welfare by regulating and controlling the design, construction, quality of materials
pertaining to the structural aspects of all buildings and structures within this jurisdiction.

The provisions of the code apply to the alteration, repair and maintenance of buildings, towers and other vertical
structures. Special structures are referred to special state of practice literature but the provisions of the code are the
minimum requirements where applicable.

With the above purpose as the guiding principle, it will be clearer to interpret the guidelines in other sections of the
NSCP 2010.

The NSCP 2010 is quite specific on the appropriate seismic ground motion to be used. Structures and portions
thereof shall, as a minimum, be designed and constructed to resist the effects of seismic ground motions as provided
in this section.

DESIGN BASIS GROUND MOTION is that ground motion that has a 10 percent chance of being exceeded in 50
years as determined by a site-specific hazard analysis or may be determined from a hazard map. A suite of ground
motion time histories with dynamic properties representative of the site characteristics shall be used to represent this
ground motion. The dynamic effects of the Design Basis Ground Motion may be represented by the Design
Response Spectrum.

DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM is an elastic response spectrum for 5 percent equivalent viscous damping used to
represent the dynamic effects of the Design Basis Ground Motion for the design of structures. This response
spectrum may be either a site-specific spectrum based on geologic, tectonic, seismological and soil characteristics
associated with a specific site.

Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be established based on the seismic zone and proximity of the site to
active seismic sources, site soil profile characteristics and the structure's importance factor.

Alternative lateral-force procedures using rational analyses based on well-established principles of mechanics may
be used in lieu of those prescribed in these provisions.

CONCLUSIONS

There is general agreement that future seismic design needs to be based on defined multiple performance objectives
and associated earthquake hazard levels. However, much research and development remain to be done before such a
design methodology can be implemented. There are several sources of uncertainties inherent in performance-based
design process.

The recent popularity of PBD has brought many state-of-the-art analysis and design techniques into the mainstream
of earthquake engineering practice. It has opened the door for a multi-disciplinary approach to seismic design which
involving developers, building officials engineers and earth-scientists. These are very positive developments which
are bound to improve the quality of earthquake resistant construction.

References:

1. R. Dobry et al. "Simplified Procedures for Estimating the Fundamental Period of a Soil Profile", Bulletin of
the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 66, No. 4, (August 1976). pp1293 - 1321.
2. D.J. Dowrick. Earthquake Resistant Design, John Wiley &'Sons, (Great Britain, 1977).
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3. M. Novak. "Soil-Structure Interaction", Lecture Notes, International Institute of Seismology and

Earthquake Engineering, (Japan, 1987).
4. Y. Ohsaki. "Effects of Local Soil Conditions Upon Earthquake Damage", Proceedings, International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.''.
5. Y. Ohsaki & O. Sakaguchi. "Major Types of Soil Deposits in Japanese City Areas", Research Report 72.03,
(University of Tokyo, 1972). 6. J.P. Wolf. Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction, Prentice-Hall
6. R.R. Craig, Jr. "Structural Dynamics: An Introcduction to Computer Methods", John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
(Canada, 1981).
7. G.C. Hart. "Uncertainty Analysis, Loads, and Safety in Structural Engineering", Prentice-Hall, Inc., (New
Jersey).
8. C. Lomnitz & E. Rosenblueth (Editors). "Seismic Risk and Engineering Decisions", Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, (The Netherlands, 1976).
9. D.E. Newland. "An Introduction to Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis", Longman Group Limited,
(London, 1975).
10. C.M. Villaraza. "Simulation of Strong Ground Motion Based on the Accelaration Response Spectrum,"
International Institue of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering (Japan, 1987).
11. V. Bertero and Y. Bozorgnia. Earthquake Engineering: From Engineering Sesimology to Performance-Based
Engineering, CRC Press (New York), 2004.
12. F. Naeim, H. Bhatia, and R. Lobo. Performance Based Seismic Engineering,
13. National Structural Code of the Philippines 2010 (6 th Edition).
14. Applied Technology Council. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, ATC-40 (1996).
15. R. Hamburger. A Framework for
Performance Based Earthquake Resistive Design, EERC-CUREe Symposium in Honor of Vitelmo V.
Bertero, (Berkeley, California), 1997.