1 CHAPTER 1

2COMPANY PROFILE

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF COMPANY

Incorporated in 1990, Sentiss is committed to providing the best quality pharmaceutical products
primarily in the Ophthalmic, ENT and Inhalation segments. Over the past 25 years, by exhibiting
commitment and showcasing our winning culture, Sentiss has evolved tremendously and is
recognized as the third best Ophthalmic Company (IMS 2015) in Russia. Sentiss’ footprint on the
world map is a testimony to its quality philosophy and practice of product differentiation. Sentiss
strives to be a global leader in its core segment and continues to expand its operations in Russia,
CIS, Europe, USA and Indian markets.
Sentiss has a quality workforce of 700+ people across multiple geographies. Sentiss is recognized as
one of the Top 100 Great Places to Work in India in 2015. Since its inception in 1990, we have been
continuously evolving and has crossed several milestones during this journey. Sentiss Research
Centre (SRC) filed 50 patent applications out of which 9 patents have been granted till end of Q2
2016.
We strongly believe that our products reflect our commitment to providing the
best quality. Our state-of-the-art infrastructure is compliant with the most
stringent regulatory standards. In line with our motto — “Best quality, On time,
Every time”, we have been constantly working to achieve manufacturing
excellence and improve our efficiency throughout the supply chain to better
serve our customers.

Our scientific expertise and knowledge enables implementation of world-class

technologies to manufacture a wide range of products.

1
1.2 MAJOR PRODUCTS

Ophthalmic Products
Ophthalmics is Sentiss’ core competency and we have been serving markets
worldwide with quality products. We cater to widespread diseases like Dry Eye
(a problem which causes insufficient tear production) and complex diseases like
Glaucoma (permanent damage to the optic nerve which leads to loss of vision).
Sentiss also provides ocular nutrition products (to prevent or delay the onset of
eye diseases), as well as mydriatic products (to help doctors in diagnosis).

ENT Products
Sentiss focuses on ENT products which are developed to treat ear infections like
acute otitis media and otitis externa.

OTC Products
The over-the-counter product portfolio is another focus area for Sentiss to
establish an extensive presence in all markets. Along with marketing various CE
marked medical devices in Europe, we also have various products in Russia and
India that cater to segments like ophthalmic and gastroenterology . We have
done significant work on herbal products and are working towards developing a
portfolio that caters to ophthalmic, metabolic and other lifestyle diseases.

1. Dancil® Eye -Ear Drops

2
 Composition:

Each ml contains: Active substance Ofloxacin – 3.0 mg Auxiliary substances Benzalkonium

Chloride, Sodium Chloride, Edetate Disodium, Hypromellose, Sodium Hydroxide, Hydrochloric
Acid, Water for injection.

Trade Name:

Dancil® eye – ear drops

Composition:

Each ml contains:
Active substance:
 Ofloxacin – 3,0 mg

 Auxiliary substances

 Benzalkonium Chloride, Sodium Chloride, Edetate Disodium, Hypromellose, Sodium

Hydroxide, Hydrochloric Acid, Water for injection.
Pharmacotherapeutic Group:

Antimicrobial agent – fluoroquinolone

Indications:
 Infectious diseases of eye adnexa and anterior segment of the eye caused by microorganisms
sensitive to ofloxacin in adults and children aged 1 year and older

 Prevention of infection in eye surgery.

Ear infections

Ofloxacin is indicated for the treatment of the following conditions in adults and children in the age
of 15 years and older:

 Otitis externa caused by Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus.

 Chronic purulent otitis media, including with perforation of the tympanic membrane caused by
Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or Staphylococcus aureus.

 Acute otitis media with inserted tympanostomy tube, caused by Haemophilus influenzae,
Moraxella catarrhalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Dosage and Administration:

Infectious diseases of the eyes:

 For treatment of bacterial corneal ulcer recommended dose of ofloxacin for adults and children
aged 1 year and older – 1-2 drops of 0.3 % solution in affected eye (or both eyes) every 30 minutes

3
 during waking hours, and then – through 4 and 6 hours after falling asleep, during 2 days. Starting from 3
days of treatment and during the next 4-6 days solution can be instilled by 1-2 drops every hour during
waking hours, and then – 1-2 drops 4 times a day for another 3 days or until a clinical cure.

 For treatment of conjunctivitis, blepharitis, keratoconjunctivitis, keratitis, meibomitis,

dacrocystitis and prevention of infections in ophthalmic after eye injury and surgery ofloxacin in the
form of eye drops normally used only during wakefulness. For adults and children aged 1 year and older
the recommended dose of ofloxacin – 1-2 drops of 0.3% solution in affected eye (or both eyes) every 2-4
hours (while awake) for 2 days, then – 1-2 drops 4 times a day for no more than 5 days. Ear infections
Children 15 years and older and adults:
 Otitis externa: 10 drops into affected ear, 1 time a day for 7 days.

 Acute otitis media with inserted tympanostomy tube: 5 drops into affected ear 2 times a day for
10 days.

 Chronic purulent otitis media with perforation of the tympanic membrane: 10 drops into
affected ear 2 times a day for 14 days.
Before instillation, to avoid the development of vertigo (possible when using a cold solution) warm
the bottle in hands for 1-2 minutes. Instillation produced in the position of the patient lying on his
side. After instillation patient must maintain this position for 5 minutes to facilitate the passage of
solution through the external auditory canal. If necessary instillation in the other ear, make the same
actions.

Contraindications:

Hypersensitivity (including to other quinolones), nonbacterial eye adnexa disease and anterior
segment eye nonbacterial otitis media, pregnancy, lactation period, the age under 1 year for use in
ophthalmology, under 15 years – for otolaryngology.

Warning and precautions:

As during treatment with other antibiotics, prolonged use may result in overgrowth of non-
susceptible organisms. If worsening infection occurs, or if clinical improvement is not noted within
a reasonable period, discontinue use and institute alternative therapy.

Soft contact lenses should not be worn during the treatment. Rigid contact lenses are to be removed
before instillation and set again in 20 minutes after instillation. Preparation should not be injected
subconjunctival or into anterior chamber eye. Patient should wear sunglasses (due to possible
development of photophobia) and avoid prolonged exposure to bright light.

4
 Adverse Effects:

After instillation into eye may cause transient stinging or discomfort, conjunctival hyperemia,
contact conjunctivitis, keratitis, foreign body sensation in the eye, blurred vision, swelling of the
face or periorbital area, pain in the eye, photophobia, itching, lacrimation and a sense of dry eyes

Rarely catatony, dizziness, nausea and headache occur. Also described rare cases of hemorrhagic
conjunctivitis with edema of eyelid

Local reactions (allergic reactions, mild pain and hyperemia of the tympanic membrane) in the
application of ofloxacin in the form of ear drops at otitis externa develop in 16.8 % of patients.

1% of patients reported of pain in the ear, a sense of ringing in the ears, transient hearing loss,
external appearance and otitis media.

Drug Interaction:

No information available related to interaction with medicinal products.

Over Dosage:

In case of topical application of excessive doze of Dancil® eyes should be washed out with pure
water of a room temperature. There is no data of systemic signs of overdose.

Packaging:

Eye drops 0.3 %. 5 ml into dropper-vial with screw-on cap. Each vial packed in unit carton along
with Instructions for Use.

Storage Conditions:
 Store at a temperature of up to 25 ºC in a place, protected from light. Do not freeze.

 Keep away from reach of children.

Shelf-Life:
 2 years from the date of manufacturing

 30 days after opening the vial

 Do not use after expiration date, specified on package

5
 3CHAPTER 2
4INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

HVAC INTRODUCTION
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor and vehicular
environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles
of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. "Refrigeration" is sometimes added to the
field's abbreviation, as HVAC&R or HVACRor "ventilation" is dropped, as in HACR (as in the
designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).

Heating ventilation and air conditioning is the key to ensuring that the pharmaceuticals products
manufactured by an industry are of good quality.It ensures that there are all the necessary favourable
conditions for successful manufacturing.A basic working HVAC systemworks as explained below:
First, the system collects fresh air from outside the plant from where it is filtered using a filter .Here,
the cooling coil gets rid of excessive humidity and takes it out through the drainage system.The
filtered air goes through the supply duct and further filtration is done through the air handling unit.
The air handling unit then supplies the filtered air to different rooms within the manufacturing
plant.The air supplied to each room is determined by the temperature and humidity that is required
in the room. In addition to the air handling unit , air is additionally filtered through the High
Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) system which guarantee upto 99.995% efficiency.

6
The core functions of an HVAC system include the following:
1.Controlling micro-organisms, particles in the air and dust.A working HVAC system has tp
primarily control dust,which is eliminated through filtration.Dust can be a cause of contamination in
the manufacturing process if not taken care.Airborne particles that are found in the air can also
interfere with the manufacturing process and result in contamination.Micro-organisms are also a
potential threat to the successful processing of pharmaceuticals since the environment in the plant
should be sterile .All these are eliminated through the HEPA systems.

2.Maintaining the right temperature in the production spaces .Temperature is very

important key in any pharmaceutical industry if the temperature is not well controlled,it
may cause micro bacteria to grow in the spaces or on workers, which may affect their
health adversely

3. Maintaining the right pressure in the room. In the pharmaceutical industry ,there
areas and surfaces that must be kept cleaner at all times. These areas must therefore, be
kept at a positive pressurization at all times. The air flow at these areas should be more
at the opening areas. The HVAC system ensures that positive pressurization is achieved
by keeping the air flower into the clear spaces more than the air that exits at the same
time. This ensures that there is no chance or space for the growth of micro-organisms.

4. Maintaining the right relative humidity. Controlling the moisture in the

manufacturing spaces is achieved by the installation of desiccant dehumidifiers. Having
the right humidity levels in the space is key to manufacturing stable drugs. The correct
relative humidity is usually needed to ensure that tablets are well manufactured.

HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family homes, apartment
buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to large industrial and office buildings such
as skyscrapers and hospitals, vehicles such as cars, trains, airplanes, ships and submarines, and in
marine environments, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

BMS systems are “Intelligent” microprocessor based controller networks installed to
monitor and control a buildings technical systems and services such as air conditioning,
ventilation, lighting and hydraulics.
More specifically they link the functionality of individual pieces of building equipment
so that they operate as one complete integrated system.
• Now installed in every major building or facility with the availability of direct
integration into all other building services such as security, access control, CCTV, fire,
Lifts and other life and safety systems.

7
• Current generation BMS systems are now based on open communications protocols
and are WEB enabled allowing integration of systems from multiple system vendors
and access from anywhere in the world.

Characteristics
Building management systems are most commonly implemented in large projects with extensive
mechanical, HVAC, and electrical systems. Systems linked to a BMS typically represent 40% of a
building's energy usage; if lighting is included, this number approaches to 70%. BMS systems are a
critical component to managing energy demand. Improperly configured BMS systems are believed
to account for 20% of building energy usage, or approximately 8% of total energy usage in the
United States.[1][2]
In addition to controlling the building's internal environment, BMS systems are sometimes linked to
access control (turnstiles and access doors controlling who is allowed access and egress to the
building) or other security systems such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) and motion detectors.
Fire alarm systems and elevators are also sometimes linked to a BMS, for monitoring. In case a fire
is detected then only the fire alarm panel could shut off dampers in the ventilation system to stop
smoke spreading and send all the elevators to the ground floor and park them to prevent people from
using them.
Building management systems have also included disaster-response mechanisms (such as base
isolation) to save structures from earthquakes. In more recent times, companies and governments
have been working to find similar solutions for flood zones and coastal areas at-risk to rising sea-
levels. One such example is the SAFE Building System by Arx Pax Labs, Inc.,[3]which is designed to
float buildings, roadways, and utilities in a few feet of water. The self-adjusting floating
environment draws from existing technologies used to float concrete bridges and runways such
as Washington’s SR 520 and Japan’s Mega-Float.[4]
A list of systems that can be monitored or controlled by a BMS are shown below:

 Illumination (lighting) control

 Electric power control
 Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)
 Security and observation
 Access control
 Fire alarm system
 Lifts, elevators etc.
 Plumbing
 Closed-circuit television (CCTV)
 Other engineering systems
 Control Panel
 PA system
 Alarm Monitor
 Security Automation

Benefits
 Possibility of individual room control
 Increased staff productivity
 Effective monitoring and targeting of energy consumption
 Improved plant reliability and life
 Effective response to HVAC-related complaints
 Save time and money during the maintenance

8
  Occupancy sensors allow automatic setback override during unoccupied periods as well as
adaptive occupancy scheduling.
 Lighting controls reduce unnecessary artificial lighting via motion sensors and schedules as
well as by controlling daylight harvesting louvers
 Controllers save water and energy by controlling rainwater harvesting and landscape
irrigation

2.2 APPLICATION
• “Free cooling” during moderate temperatures (chiller
bypass).
• Thermal storage—isolation of storage tank
• Water source heat pump pre cooler with isolation
• Heating potable hot water (instantaneous heater)
Waste heat recovery from condenser water
 Hospitals
 Clean rooms
 Universities
 Laboratories
 Office ventilation
 Retail
 Hotels
 Data centres
 Server rooms

9
 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW

. HVAC
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor and vehicular
environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.
HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles
of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. "Refrigeration" is sometimes added to the
field's abbreviation, as HVAC&R or HVACRor "ventilation" is dropped, as in HACR (as in the
designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).
Heating ventilation and air conditioning is the key to ensuring that the pharmaceuticals products
manufactured by an industry are of good quality.It ensures that there are all the necessary favourable
conditions for successful manufacturing.A basic working HVAC systemworks as explained below:
First, the system collects fresh air from outside the plant from where it is filtered using a filter .
Here, the cooling coil gets rid of excessive humidity and takes it out through the drainage
system.The filtered air goes through the supply duct and further filtration is done through the air
handling unit. The air handling unit then supplies the filtered air to different rooms within the
manufacturing plant.The air supplied to each room is determined by the temperature and humidity
that is required in the room. In addition to the air handling unit , air is additionally filtered through
the High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) system which guarantee upto 99.995% efficiency.
The core functions of an HVAC system include the following:
1.Controlling micro-organisms, particles in the air and dust.A working HVAC system has tp
primarily control dust,which is eliminated through filtration.Dust can be a cause of contamination in
the manufacturing process if not taken care.Airborne particles that are found in the air can also
interfere with the manufacturing process and result in contamination.Micro-organisms are also a
potential threat to the successful processing of pharmaceuticals since the environment in the plant
should be sterile .All these are eliminated through the HEPA systems.

10
2.Maintaining the right temperature in the production spaces .Temperature is very
important key in any pharmaceutical industry if the temperature is not well controlled,it
may cause micro bacteria to grow in the spaces or on workers, which may affect their
health adversely

3. Maintaining the right pressure in the room. In the pharmaceutical industry ,there
areas and surfaces that must be kept cleaner at all times. These areas must therefore, be
kept at a positive pressurization at all times. The air flow at these areas should be more
at the opening areas. The HVAC system ensures that positive pressurization is achieved
by keeping the air flower into the clear spaces more than the air that exits at the same
time. This ensures that there is no chance or space for the growth of micro-organisms.

4. Maintaining the right relative humidity. Controlling the moisture in the

manufacturing spaces is achieved by the installation of desiccant dehumidifiers. Having
the right humidity levels in the space is key to manufacturing stable drugs. The correct
relative humidity is usually needed to ensure that tablets are well manufactured.

HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family homes, apartment
buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to large industrial and office buildings such
as skyscrapers and hospitals, vehicles such as cars, trains, airplanes, ships and submarines, and in
marine environments, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

Overview
The three major functions of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are interrelated, especially
with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable
installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can be used in both domestic and
commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, and maintain pressure
relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room
air distribution

Heating

11
Heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat (i.e. warmth) for the building. This can be
done via central heating. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water,
steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large
building. The heat can be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation

Central heating unit

Heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of heat
source is electricity, normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire (see Nichrome).
This principle is also used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are often
used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems.
The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s in Japan and the United States.[13] Heat pumps can
extract heat from various sources, such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from
the ground. Initially, heat pump HVAC systems were only used in moderate climates, but with
improvements in low temperature operation and reduced loads due to more efficient homes, they are
increasing in popularity in cooler climates.

Distribution
In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms. Most modern
hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the
distribution system (as opposed to older gravity-fed systems). The heat can be transferred to the
surrounding air using radiators, hot water coils (hydro-air), or other heat exchangers. The radiators
may be mounted on walls or installed within the floor to produce floor heat.
The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as hydronics. The heated water can also
supply an auxiliary heat exchanger to supply hot water for bathing and washing.
Air
Warm air systems distribute heated air through duct work systems of supply and return air through
metal or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an evaporator
coil for air conditioning. The air supply is normally filtered through air cleaners to remove dust and
pollen particles.

Dangers
The use of furnaces, space heaters, and boilers as a method of indoor heating could result in
incomplete combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete
combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various
contaminants and the outputs are harmful byproducts, most dangerously carbon monoxide, which is
a tasteless and odorless gas with serious adverse health effects.
Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be lethal at concentrations of 1000 ppm (0.1%).
However, at several hundred ppm, carbon monoxide exposure induces headaches, fatigue, nausea,
and vomiting. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin in the blood, forming carboxyhemoglobin,
reducing the blood's ability to transport oxygen. The primary health concerns associated with carbon
monoxide exposure are its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral effects. Carbon monoxide can cause
atherosclerosis (the hardening of arteries) and can also trigger heart attacks. Neurologically, carbon
monoxide exposure reduces hand to eye coordination, vigilance, and continuous performance. It can
also affect time discrimination

Ventilation
Ventilation is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or remove
any combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon dioxide, and to
replenish oxygen. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air with the outside as well as
circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining

12
acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided
into mechanical/forced and natural types

Mechanical or forced ventilation

Mechanical, or forced, ventilation is provided by an air handler (AHU) and used to control indoor
air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or
replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates more energy is required to remove excess
moisture from ventilation air.
Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and sometimes
humidity. Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan
speed and exhaust vent size) and noise level. Direct drive fans are available for many applications,
and can reduce maintenance needs.
Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing the
perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants.
Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by circulating
the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor.

Natural ventilation

Ventilation on the downdraught system, by impulsion, or the 'plenum' principle, applied to schoolrooms (1899)
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without using fans or other
mechanical systems. It can be via operable windows, louvers, or trickle vents when spaces are small
and the architecture permits. In more complex schemes, warm air is allowed to rise and flow out
high building openings to the outside (stack effect), causing cool outside air to be drawn into low
building openings. Natural ventilation schemes can use very little energy, but care must be taken to

13
ensure comfort. In warm or humid climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural
ventilation might not be possible. Air conditioning systems are used, either as backups or
supplements. Air-side economizers also use outside air to condition spaces, but do so using fans,
ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate.
An important component of natural ventilation is air change rate or air changes per hour: the hourly
rate of ventilation divided by the volume of the space. For example, six air changes per hour means
an amount of new air, equal to the volume of the space, is added every ten minutes. For human
comfort, a minimum of four air changes per hour is typical, though warehouses might have only
two. Too high of an air change rate may be uncomfortable, akin to a wind tunnel which have
thousands of changes per hour. The highest air change rates are for crowded spaces, bars, night
clubs, commercial kitchens at around 30 to 50 air changes per hour.
Room pressure can be either positive or negative with respect to outside the room. Positive pressure
occurs when there is more air being supplied than exhausted, and is common to reduce the
infiltration of outside contaminants.
Airborne diseases
Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis,
the common cold, influenza and meningitis. Opening doors, windows, and using ceiling fans are all
ways to maximize natural ventilation and reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation
requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.

Air conditioning
An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and humidity
control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because
open windows would work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions.
Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat exchanger
section, creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can usually
be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about 10%.
Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed
through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as water, air, ice,
and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system
in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling
system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).

TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING

6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONERS

1. CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING:
Of all the different types of air conditioners, this is the most common type of cooling
system as it is the most preferable for larger homes due to its ability to cool efficiently.
Central air conditioners circulate cool air through supply and return ducts. Supply ducts
and registers, which are in the wall or floors, carry cooled air into the home. Then, once
the air becomes warm it circulates back into the supply ducts and registers where it will
then be transported back to the air conditioner.

Installing a central air conditioning system requires a lot of planning and preparation as
sizing is crucial to the functionality of the system. If you install a system that is of the
wrong size, even if it’s energy efficient, you’ll find that your utility costs are more than
they should be.

14
2. DUCTLESS, MINI-SPLIT AIR
CONDITIONER:
Ductless, mini-split systems are most common in parts of the home that have been
retro-fitted. Like central air conditioning systems, these systems have an outdoor
compressor/condenser and an indoor handling unit.
If you’re looking to cool individual rooms your house, this system might be just for
you. Many ductless, mini-split systems can have as many as four indoor handling units,
which are all connected to the outdoor unit.

Each zone has its own thermostat, allowing you to adjust the temperature for each room
accordingly. This is especially advantageous if you’re wanting to cool only a particular
part of the house that is being used.

3. WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER:

Think of a window air conditioner as a compact unit, cooling only one particular room.
Also known as a “unitary unit,” this system is installed in the window of a room.

Window units cool a room be emitting the warm air out the back of it and blowing cool
air into it. These types of units are best for those who live in small spaces. It would not
be ideal for a larger home as you will discover that it doesn’t cool efficiently in that
kind of environment.

4. PORTABLE AIR CONDITIONER:

Portable air conditioners are considered as the next generator of window units. This
type of air conditioning unit takes in air from the room and cools it, then directs it back
into the room. The unit then vents any warm air outside by means of an exhaust hose
that is installed in a window.

Like window air conditioning units, portable air conditioners are designed to cool only
one room. They’re easy to install, versatile, and an affordable option. You’ll find that
the portability of your air conditioner makes staying cooling on a hot summer day that
much easier.

5. HYBRID AIR CONDITIONERS:

Like hybrid cars, hybrid heat pump systems alternate between burning fossil fuels and
using electricity to run. The system intelligently chooses between the two energy
sources in order to save money and energy. You won’t have to be held hostage by rising
energy prices.

In the summer, your heat pump works as it normally does, pulling heat from your home
and distributing it outdoors. In the winter, your hybrid heat pump system works in
reverse, pulling heat from the outside environment and distributing it into your home. If
you remember the Second Law of Thermodynamics from high school, you know that

15
heat gets transferred from a hot object to a cold object. When the refrigerant drops
below the outside temperature, the heat from the outdoors gets transferred to your heat
pump’s coils and thus into your refrigerant. Now, the extracted heat can be turned into
warm, conditioned air for your home.

6. GEOTHERMAL HEATING & COOLING

Geothermal energy is sustainable, energy efficient, and has a long lifespan. Since the
ground temperature below us remains a fairly consistent 55 degrees no matter how hot
or cold it is in the atmosphere, geothermal technology is able to extract the heat from
below and transfer it into your home. A geothermal coil (”loops” or “wells”) is installed
deep in the ground and can be used to heat and cool your home. In the winter, heat is
extracted from the earth; in the summer, heat is extracted from your home and
distributed back into the ground.

Refrigeration cycle

A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil,
4) compressor
The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool.

 The system refrigerant starts its cycle in a gaseous state. The compressor pumps the
refrigerant gas up to a high pressure and temperature.
 From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a condensing coil or condenser)
where it loses energy (heat) to the outside, cools, and condenses into its liquid phase.
 An expansion valve (also called metering device) regulates the refrigerant liquid to flow at
the proper rate.
 The liquid refrigerant is returned to another heat exchanger where it is allowed to
evaporate, hence the heat exchanger is often called an evaporating coil or evaporator. As the
liquid refrigerant evaporates it absorbs energy (heat) from the inside air, returns to the
compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the process, heat is absorbed from indoors and transferred
outdoors, resulting in cooling of the building.

The refrigerant begins as a cool vapor and heads to the first

component: the compressor. The compressor is widely
considered the engine of the refrigeration cycle; it consumes the
most power out of the HVAC system’s components and forces the
refrigerant through the system. In the process of being

16
compressed the cool, gaseous refrigerant is turned to a very hot
and high-pressure vapor.

After compression, the refrigerant moves to the next component

in the refrigeration cycle: the condenser.

The condenser’s job is to cool the refrigerant so that it turns from

a gas into a liquid, or condenses. This happens when warm
outdoor air is blown across the condenser coil that is filled with
hot, gaseous refrigerant. This allows heat to transfer from the
refrigerant to the cooler outdoor air, where the excess heat is
rejected to the atmosphere. The condenser coils wind through the
condenser to maximize the surface area of the piping, and
effectively, the heat transfer to the air. The refrigerant turns from a
vapor into a hot liquid due to the high pressure and reduction in
temperature.

17
The refrigerant is now approaching the expansion device as a hot,
high-pressure liquid. The expansion device is responsible for
quickly driving the pressure of the refrigerant down so it can boil
(evaporate) more easily in the evaporator — and that’s it! The
expansion device has one sole purpose: to reduce refrigerant
pressure. Because the pressure drops so rapidly at the expansion
device, the refrigerant turns into a combination of a cold liquid
and vapor.

Now that the refrigerant is a cold mix of liquid and gas (vapor), it
begins to move through the evaporator. The evaporator is
responsible for cooling the air going to the space by boiling
(evaporating) the refrigerant flowing through it. This happens
when warm air is blown across the evaporator as cold refrigerant
moves through the evaporator coil. Heat transfers from the air to
the refrigerant, which cools the air directly before it is vented to
the space. Like the condenser coil, the evaporator coil also winds
through the evaporator to maximize heat transfer from the
refrigerant to the air. The low-pressure liquid refrigerant is easily
boiled by the warm air blown across the evaporator and heads
back to the compressor as a cool gas/vapor.

Free cooling
Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal
thermal energy storage so that the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common
storage mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of
small-diameter, heat-exchanger-equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storages are hybrids,
using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the
circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because the storage acts as a heat
sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed to charging) mode, causing the temperature to
gradually increase during the cooling season.
Some systems include an "economizer mode", which is sometimes called a "free-cooling mode".
When economizing, the control system will open (fully or partially) the outside air damper and close
(fully or partially) the return air damper. This will cause fresh, outside air to be supplied to the
system. When the outside air is cooler than the demanded cool air, this will allow the demand to be
met without using the mechanical supply of cooling (typically chilled water or a direct expansion
"DX" unit), thus saving energy. The control system can compare the temperature of the outside air
vs. return air, or it can compare the enthalpy of the air, as is frequently done in climates where
humidity is more of an issue. In both cases, the outside air must be less energetic than the return air
for the system to enter the economizer mode.

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Dehumidification
Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the
evaporator operates at a temperature below the dew point, moisture in the air condenses on the
evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and
removed by piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside.
A dehumidifier is an air-conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It
is often employed in basements which have a higher relative humidity because of their lower
temperature (and propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open
chiller cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a humidifier
increases the humidity of a building.

Maintenance
All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with internal
air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauzy material, and must be replaced or washed as
conditions warrant. For example, a building in a high dust environment, or a home with furry pets,
will need to have the filters changed more often than buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to
replace these filters as needed will contribute to a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted
energy, shortened equipment life, and higher energy bills; low air flow can result in iced-over
evaporator coils, which can completely stop air flow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can
cause overheating during a heating cycle, and can result in damage to the system or even fire.
Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both must be
kept clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is also
necessary to regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will eventually
result in harm to the compressor, because the condenser coil is responsible for discharging both the
indoor heat (as picked up by the evaporator) and the heat generated by the electric motor driving the
compressor.

Energy efficiency
Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the
systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and has
more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. Additionally,
improvements to the HVAC system efficiency can also help increase occupant health and
productivity. In the US, the EPA has imposed tighter restrictions over the years. There are several
methods for making HVAC systems more efficient.

Heating energy
In the past, water heating was more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard in the
United States. Today, forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more popular.
Some benefits of forced air systems, which are now widely used in churches, schools and high-end
residences, are

 Better air conditioning effects

 Energy savings of up to 15-20%
 Even conditioning

A drawback is the installation cost, which can be slightly higher than traditional HVAC systems.
Energy efficiency can be improved even more in central heating systems by introducing zoned
heating. This allows a more granular application of heat, similar to non-central heating systems.
Zones are controlled by multiple thermostats. In water heating systems the thermostats control zone
valves, and in forced air systems they control zone dampers inside the vents which selectively block
the flow of air. In this case, the control system is very critical to maintaining a proper temperature.

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Forecasting is another method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for heating
energy that should be supplied to the building in each time unit.

Air filtration and cleaning

Air handling unit, used for heating, cooling, and filtering the air
Air cleaning and filtration removes particles, contaminants, vapors and gases from the air. The
filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Air cleaning and
filtration should be taken in account when protecting our building environments.

Clean air delivery rate and filter performance

Clean air delivery rate is the amount of clean air an air cleaner provides to a room or space. When
determining CADR, the amount of airflow in a space is taken into account. For example, an air
cleaner with a flow rate of 100 cfm (cubic feet per minute) and an efficiency of 50% has a CADR of
50 cfm. Along with CADR, filtration performance is very important when it comes to the air in our
indoor environment. Filter performance depends on the size of the particle or fiber, the filter packing
density and depth and also the air flow rate.
ADVANTAGES OF HVAC SYSTEM

With the advent of green technologies, new HVAC systems have become sustainable and
environmentally-friendly while being both energy and cost efficient. Here are some of the
benefits of a great HVAC system:

Energy Conservation
While the upfront costs for an efficient HVAC system may seem considerably higher than
separate heating and cooling equipment, the long-term financial advantages of an HVAC
unit become evident almost immediately. The main reason for this is that an HVAC unit
possesses both heating and cooling capability in a single unit, resulting in immediate
savings on construction space, power usage and installation fees. Also, HVAC systems run
on renewable energy sources such as wind or solar, enabling you to take full advantage of
alternative-energy savings.
Better Air Quality
The air quality in enclosed spaces can get notoriously poor as it tends to circulate
constantly without being refreshed with new air. However, with the installation of an
HVAC system, not only is the outside air in the system filtered, the inside air also gets
cleansed, clearing out germs and allergens.
Proper Moisture Regulation
Moisture regulation is important for both building and personal health. Too much moisture
can result in mold and mildew growth, and too little creates discomfort and heat loss. With
an HVAC system, moisture regulation is part of the system’s operation, ensuring that an
optimal moisture level is regulated and consistent.

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 Air Handling Unit

The definition of air handling unit from ANSI/AHRI Standard 430-2009 states that it is "A
factory-made encased assembly consisting of a fan or fans and other necessary equipment
to perform one or more of the functions of circulating, cleaning, heating, cooling,
humidifying, dehumidifying and mixing of air...."

The AHU is used to control the following parameters of the space.

 Temperature
 Humidity
 Air Movement
 Air Cleanliness

Draw-Through or Blow-Through

There are basically two types of air handling unit that are in used and they are the "Draw-
Through" or "Blow-Through".

In the Draw-Through type, the fan pulls the air through the mixing box, filters and cooling
coil before discharging it from the fan outlet to the space to be conditioned or to the ducting
network. The design can be vertical or horizontal. In this case, the section before the fan
has negative pressure.

In the Blow-Through type, the fan blows the air through the mixing box, filters and
cooling coil before discharging them to the space being conditioned or the ducting system.
In this case, the section after the fan has positive pressure.

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An air handling unit where (1) is the supply air (2) fan section, (3) vibration isolator, (4) cooling coil, (5) filter and
(6) mixed air duct.

Components of Air Handling Unit

Here are some of the air handling unit components that may be contained in the equipment.

Housing

The housing that contains all the other components of an AHU is usually make of metal,
some are painted to prevent corrosion.

In sections where the fans and the coil are located, 1-2 inches of polyurethane foam or PU
is used to insulate them to prevent the condensation on the panel. Drain pan is also used as
a precaution in the event of condensation of water.

Fan

Centrifugal fan is used to circulate the air to the various parts of the sections in the
building. The typical types of fan available are Backward Inclined, Backward Curved,
Forward Curved and Airfoil.

The selection of the fan will depend on the air volume and the static pressure required of
the system. Usually, the designer of the system will use a specialized software to do this
selection.

In order to reduce the effect of vibration on the panel, the motor and the fan are usually
installed on the vibration isolator except when the drive assembly is external to the fan
casing.

In recent years, the use of variable air volume (VAV) system is becoming more popular as
the volume of the air being discharged can be varied depending on the load condition. If the
load is high, the fan speed will be higher and if the load is lower, the speed of the fan will
be lower.

The speed of the fan is varied by using frequency inverter instead of conventional motor
such as PSC motor. Frequency inverter provides better control of the fan speed as a whole
range of fan speed from super low to super high can now be utilized based on the load
conditions required.

This technology has enabled better use of energy and is in tandem with the move to go for
greener energy.

Cooling Coil

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Cooling Coil is used to cool and dehumidify the air. Both DX (direct expansion) cooling
and CW (chilled water) cooling coils are available for use depending on the system design.

These coils are arranged in rows with different fin spacing. Aluminium fins and copper
tubes are used in the design of the coils. The corrosion resistance hydrophilic fins are also
used due to its lower cost and lower resistance to the air velocity.

Filters

Filters are to remove particles and contaminants of various sizes from the air. The type of
air filter being used will very much depend on the application of the system.

Panel Filter is a flat and rectangular in shape and provides a minimum low efficiency
filtration which is acceptable to the air conditioning industry. The high velocity filter is
arranged vertically whereas the low velocity filter is arranged in V shape. Typical air
velocity that moves through the filters is in the range of 2-3 m/s.

HEPA Filter is very efficient and is able to achieve efficiencies up to 99.97%, removing
minute particles and airborne bacteria from the air. It is usually used in clean room
applications such as semiconductor production floor, operating theaters and critical
processes.

Electrostatic Filter is used to remove particles from the air by using highly charged
electrodes that ionized the air. Bag Filter is able to remove dust particles and is thrown
away after use. Roll Filter is used for high velocity filtration where the used part is rolled
up automatically/manually.

Humidifiers

During winter, the humidity level of the air can be low hence causing discomfort to the
occupants. The humidity of the air is increased by using the humidifiers. Here are the
commonly used humidifiers:

Spray Type has a header and spray nozzles that spray water with a pressure of 15 psi or
more.

Steam Pan Type has a pan and a heating coil to heat up the water of the pan. The
evaporation of water caused by the heating will increase the humidity level of the
surrounding air.

Steam Grid Type has tiny holes on the pipe to distribute the steam that flows through it. In
this case, the water that is heated up to produce the steam to be supplied to the grid is
conditioned to prevent odor being discharged to the room.

Mixing Box

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This box has air inlets that is attached to the dampers. This is the place where the outside
air and the return air are mixed to provide the correct proportion of air to be distributed to
the space that is to be conditioned.

Air handler

An air handling unit; air flow is from the right to left in this case. Some AHU components shown are
1 – Supply duct
2 – Fan compartment
3 – Vibration isolator ('flex joint')
4 – Heating and/or cooling coil
5 – Filter compartment
6 – Mixed (recirculated + outside) air duct

A rooftop packaged unit or RTU

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to regulate and
circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. An air handler is
usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling elements, filter racks or chambers,
sound attenuators, and dampers Air handlers usually connect to a ductwork ventilation system that
distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs
discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and from the space served without ductwork.
Small air handlers, for local use, are called terminal units, and may only include an air filter, coil,
and blower; these simple terminal units are called blower coils or fan coil units. A larger air handler
that conditions 100% outside air, and no recirculated air, is known as a makeup air unit (MAU).
An air handler designed for outdoor use, typically on roofs, is known as a packaged unit (PU)
or rooftop unit (RTU).

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Construction
The air handler is normally constructed around a framing system with metal infill panels as required
to suit the configuration of the components. In its simplest form the frame may be made from metal
channels or sections, with single skin metal infill panels. The metalwork is normally galvanized for
long term protection. For outdoor units some form of weatherproof lid and additional sealing around
joints is provided.
Larger air handlers will be manufactured from a square section steel framing system with double
skinned and insulated infill panels. Such constructions reduce heat loss or heat gain from the air
handler, as well as providing acoustic attenuation.Larger air handlers may be several meters long
and are manufactured in a sectional manner and therefore, for strength and rigidity, steel section
base rails are provided under the unit.
Where supply and extract air is required in equal proportions for a balanced ventilation system, it is
common for the supply and extract air handlers to be joined together, either in a side-by-side or
a stacked configuration.

Components
The major types of components are described here in approximate order, from the return duct (input
to the AHU), through the unit, to the supply duct (AHU output).

Filters
Air filtration is almost always present in order to provide clean dust-free air to the building
occupants. It may be via simple low-MERV pleated media, HEPA, electrostatic, or a combination of
techniques. Gas-phase and ultraviolet air treatments may be employed as well.
Filtration is typically placed first in the AHU in order to keep all the downstream components clean.
Depending upon the grade of filtration required, typically filters will be arranged in two (or more)
successive banks with a coarse-grade panel filter provided in front of a fine-grade bag filter, or other
"final" filtration medium. The panel filter is cheaper to replace and maintain, and thus protects the
more expensive bag filters
The life of a filter may be assessed by monitoring the pressure drop through the filter medium at
design air volume flow rate. This may be done by means of a visual display using a pressure gauge,
or by a pressure switch linked to an alarm point on the building control system. Failure to replace a
filter may eventually lead to its collapse, as the forces exerted upon it by the fan overcome its
inherent strength, resulting in collapse and thus contamination of the air handler and downstream
ductwork.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF HEPA FILTER
HEPA stands for High-Efficiency Particulate Air. Thus it is a filter which is generally
included as a part of air purifying machines or vacuum cleaner to entrap minute dust
elements or microorganism. HEPA air purifier not only trap the dust particles but they also
prevent them from spreading other bacteria and viruses which can damage our organs.

True HEPA air purifier is approximately 99.97% successful in trapping particles as small as
0.3 microns. Thus, it is the most efficient filter found these days in vacuum cleaners which
let us breathe in fresh and pure air. It is also considered as the luxury home stuff.

HEPA air purifier was initially manufactured by the nuclear industry to capture hazardous
radioactive particles. But now it is majorly used in all vacuum cleaners and air purifiers.

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The invention of HEPA Filter
The fiber-like filters were first used during the Manhattan Project to trap exceptionally
hazardous minute radioactive particles. Slowly and gradually the HEPA air purifier
developed basically for industrial use. Later on, they are now commonly used in residential
apartments and commercial offices to clean the large and small dust particles.

WORKING OF HEPA FILTER

The basic type of filter works as a strainer which has small holes to capture large particles
like dust, dirt, and hairs, but the small particles cannot be captured with the help of basic
filters.

Thus, HEPA air purifier was introduced mainly to trap the smaller particles from the air.
HEPA filter in the vacuum cleaners makes use of two diverse types of machinery.

First, the outer layer works as a basic filter which acts as a strainer to prevent the big dust
particles. Secondly, the inner layers which materialize similar to a folded material with
opaque glass fiber mat finish.

This layer does not work like a strainer; instead, it traps the particles in different
techniques. The heavy particles which move slowly and gradually stick to the fiberglass
(Diffusion). Lightweight particles travel faster either have a collision straight with fibers
(impact) or get fascinated by them while passing (Interception).

26
This diagram shows the three methods the HEPA filters use to catch dirt and dust.

Types of HEPA Filter

An ideal HEPA filter for the best air purifier is the one that captures 99.97% of minute dust
particles as minute as 0.3 microns. Only a real HEPA Filter can achieve the above-
mentioned objective. Thus, this way you can adjudicate whether your filter is a true HEPA
Filter or not.

HEPA Filter is classified with A to E stickers depending on their efficiency. Type A is

considered to be the least efficient and Type E the most efficient appropriate for defense-
grade applications. Vacuum Cleaners generally have Type A filters which work efficiently
within our house.

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Advantages of HEPA Filter
 It captures both large and small particles in the air, thus, giving fresh and clean
air.
 Highly recommended for the individuals suffering from asthma and allergies.
 They are available in different sizes and budget to match your requirements
 It has a higher level of work efficiency. It captures around 99.97% of minute
dust.

Disadvantages of HEPA Filter

 HEPA Filters cannot be cleaned or washed to remove the dust particles. They
can just be replaced which can be quite an expensive task.
 HEPA Filters are tremendously delicate and hence could damage easily while
cleaning, installing or moving the purifier to do the cleaning. Hence it needs
utmost care while using.
 Replacing HEPA filters which are of branded quality will shell out your huge
money.
 Some HEPA Filters can even produce ozone or ions which could be harmful

Heating and/or cooling elements

Air handlers may need to provide heating, cooling, or both to change the supply air temperature, and
humidity level depending on the location and the application. Such conditioning is provided by heat
exchanger coil(s) within the air handling unit air stream, such coils may be direct or indirect in
relation to the medium providing the heating or cooling effect.
Direct heat exchangers include those for gas-fired fuel-burning heaters or a refrigeration evaporator,
placed directly in the air stream. Electric resistance heaters and heat pumps can be used as
well. Evaporative cooling is possible in dry climates.
Indirect coils use hot water or steam for heating, and chilled water for cooling (prime energy for
heating and cooling is provided by central plant elsewhere in the building). Coils are typically
manufactured from copper for the tubes, with copper or aluminium fins to aid heat transfer. Cooling

28
coils will also employ eliminator plates to remove and drain condensate. The hot water or steam is
provided by a central boiler, and the chilled water is provided by a central chiller. Downstream
temperature sensors are typically used to monitor and control "off coil" temperatures, in conjunction
with an appropriate motorized control valve prior to the coil.
If dehumidification is required, then the cooling coil is employed to over-cool to that the dew
point is reached and condensation occurs. A heater coil placed after the cooling coil re-heats the air
(therefore known as a re-heat coil) to the desired supply temperature. This process has the effect of
reducing the relative humidity level of the supply air.
In colder climates, where winter temperatures regularly drop below freezing, then frost coils or pre-
heat coils are often employed as a first stage of air treatment to ensure that downstream filters or
chilled water coils are protected against freezing. The control of the frost coil is such that if a certain
off-coil air temperature is not reached then the entire air handler is shut down for protection.

Humidifier

Humidification is often necessary in colder climates where continuous heating will make the air
drier, resulting in uncomfortable air quality and increased static electricity. Various types of
humidification may be used:

 Evaporative: dry air blown over a reservoir will evaporate some of the water. The rate of
evaporation can be increased by spraying the water onto baffles in the air stream.
 Vaporizer: steam or vapor from a boiler is blown directly into the air stream.
 Spray mist: water is diffused either by a nozzle or other mechanical means into fine
droplets and carried by the air.
 Ultrasonic: A tray of fresh water in the airstream is excited by an ultrasonic device forming
a fog or water mist.
 Wetted medium: A fine fibrous medium in the airstream is kept moist with fresh water from
a header pipe with a series of small outlets. As the air passes through the medium it entrains the
water in fine droplets. This type of humidifier can quickly clog if the primary air filtration is not
maintained in good order.

Mixing chamber

In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers commonly have provisions to allow the
introduction of outside air into, and the exhausting of air from the building. In temperate climates,
mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with warmer return air can be used to approach the
desired supply air temperature. A mixing chamber is therefore used which has dampers controlling
the ratio between the return, outside, and exhaust air.

Blower/fan
Air handlers typically employ a large squirrel cage blower driven by an AC induction electric
motor to move the air. The blower may operate at a single speed, offer a variety of set speeds, or be
driven by a variable-frequency drive to allow a wide range of air flow rates. Flow rate may also be
controlled by inlet vanes or outlet dampers on the fan. Some residential air handlers in USA (central
"furnaces" or "air conditioners") use a brushless DC electric motor that has variable speed
capabilities.[1] Air handlers in Europe and Australia and New Zealand now commonly use backward
curve fans without scroll or "plug fans". These are driven using high efficiency EC (electronically
commutated) motors with built in speed control.
Multiple blowers may be present in large commercial air handling units, typically placed at the end
of the AHU and the beginning of the supply ductwork (therefore also called "supply fans"). They are
often augmented by fans in the return air duct ("return fans") pushing the air into the AHU.

Balancing

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Un-balanced fans wobble and vibrate. For home AC fans, this can be a major problem: air
circulation is greatly reduced at the vents (as wobble is lost energy), efficiency is compromised, and
noise is increased. Another major problem in fans that are not balanced is longevity of the bearings
(attached to the fan and shaft) is compromised. This can cause failure to occur long before the
bearings life expectancy.
Weights can be strategically placed to correct for a smooth spin (for a ceiling fan, trial and error
placement typically resolves the problem). Home / central AC fans or other big fans are typically
taken to shops, which have special balancers for more complicated balancing (trial and error can
cause damage before the correct points are found). The fan motor itself does not typically vibrate.

Controls

Controls are necessary to regulate every aspect of an air handler, such as: flow rate of air, supply air
temperature, mixed air temperature, humidity, air quality. They may be as simple as an
off/on thermostat or as complex as a building automation system using BACnet or Lon Works for
example.
Common control components include temperature sensors, humidity sensors, sail
switches, actuators, motors, and controllers.

Vibration isolators
The blowers in an air handler can create substantial vibration and the large area of the duct system
would transmit this noise and vibration to the occupants of the building. To avoid this, vibration
isolators (flexible sections) are normally inserted into the duct immediately before and after the air
handler and often also between the fan compartment and the rest of the AHU. The rubberized
canvas-like material of these sections allows the air handler components to vibrate without
transmitting this motion to the attached ducts.
The fan compartment can be further isolated by placing it on a spring suspension, which will
mitigate the transfer of vibration through the floor.

SELECTION OF AHU

A basic definition of an air handling unit (AHU) might be “a box with a fan, coils, and
filters.” From there it gets considerably more complicated. Proper selection of an air
handler requires answering myriad questions ranging from “what capabilities are
required?” to “will it fit?” Only after establishing these basic project constraints can the art
of evaluating and selecting an AHU begin.

Before starting this process, it’s important to realize that there will not be a “perfect”
selection for any AHU as many competing criteria, not the least being cost, will force
compromises. It is the engineer’s job to balance and prioritize all of the decisions related to
performance, efficiency, maintainability, and space constraints to select a unit that has the
lowest lifecycle cost for a given application.

This article provides general information and guidance on the selection of various AHU
components, starting with a brief description of the major categories of AHUs. While much
of the discussion in the remainder of the article relates primarily to large AHUs, the general
considerations can be applied to any size.

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Types of AHUs

Fan coils/blower coils are the smallest and simplest category of AHU and, as the names
imply, they typically consist of little more than a fan and a heat transfer coil(s). To keep the
coils from getting dirty too quickly, a simple filter is also included. They generally have
simple controls and serve a single temperature zone. While they have their applications,
they are typically less efficient than larger AHUs and have difficulty providing tight
temperature and humidity control.

Packaged AHUs are very common in smaller buildings and commercial applications,
particularly as rooftop units. Packaged units generally contain fans, coils, filters, and
dampers in a single casing. Often the casing includes its own air conditioning compressors
and means for heating such as gas burners, electric heating coils, or heat pump coils. They
often serve single temperature zones, but large variable air volume (VAV) AHUs serving
multiple terminal boxes (zones) are available. Because of their compactness and lower
initial costs, packaged units have a reputation for being inefficient and maintenance
intensive, but performance and reliability are improving. They are available in sizes from a
few thousand cfm to more than 30,000 cfm, but their standardization can be limiting in
some applications.

Modular AHUs allow users to select individual components housed in modules having
consistent construction and cross sections. The user can select the type of casings, fans,
filters, coils, and accessories from a variety of different options. Modules are assembled at
the factory or can be shipped individually and assembled on-site. Modular units generally
allow great flexibility and can meet most air processing requirements.

Custom AHUs are available in nearly any configuration that a user might require. They
generally have the highest quality construction and are most commonly used in institutional
or industrial applications where high flow rates, very close control, and harsh conditions
exist. They may also be applied in irregular spaces that would not conform to a modular
line. Custom units can be configured to include virtually any combination of air processing
components. They also can include walkways and service areas within them and can even
accommodate space for skid-mounted equipment like pumps or heat exchangers. They are

31
the most costly of all of the types of units discussed, but can be expected to have the
longest lifespan.

Anatomy of an AHU

Casing and construction: A quality AHU can last more than 30 years with proper
maintenance. Double-walled construction is now standard for all but the smallest units, but
the application of the insulation between the walls also is important. Injected foam
insulation with no through-metal connections (no thermal bridging) is available from a
variety of manufacturers and generally has better thermal and acoustical performance than
fiberglass insulation. If the unit is to be installed outdoors, extra insulation is recommended
and corrosion-resistance should be a top priority.

Mixing box: Most AHUs supply some percentage of outside air for ventilation. The mixing
box is the place where outside air is combined with return air from the building. Control
dampers are used to proportion the incoming airstreams and relief air.

Filters: Air filters remove contaminants from the airstream and significantly improve air
quality (IAQ). Rating systems for air filters, such as ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2007 Method
of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle
Size, define the mean efficiency reporting value (MERV) providing a comprehensive and
consistent indication of a filter’s capture performance with a range of particle sizes.

Newer rating systems, such as the European Committee for Standardization EN779:2012,
rate air filters based not only their ability to capture particles, but also on their predicted
annual energy use. It is expected that a similar approach will adopted in the United States
in the coming years.

The lifecycle cost of filters should be carefully considered during the design and
subsequent purchasing of the filters. Overall, the first cost of filters can be as little as 4% of
the lifecycle cost of the filters when considering energy use, changeout, and disposal costs.
It’s also extremely important not to skimp on access space. If an AHU is difficult to access
and filters are difficult to reach, they won’t get changed, and the unit will use excessive
energy and underperform.

32
 Supply and return fans:
Fans are the heart of any AHU and can represent a significant portion of the building’s total
annual energy usage. The supply fan pushes or pulls the air through filters and coils and
then distributes it through ductwork directly to spaces or to terminal boxes. Not all AHUs
require a return fan, but units serving multiple spaces or using air-side economizers
typically require a fan to return air to the AHU and to relieve air from the building.

AHUs in which the supply fan is installed after the heating and cooling coils are referred to
as draw-through units since the supply fan draws the air through the unit.

In blow-through AHUs, the supply fan is located prior to the coils. This arrangement allows
fan heat: which can be significant—to be removed from the airstream without having to
subcool the supply air as is necessary for draw-through units. Although much less common
than draw-through, blow-through units do have applications, particularly in healthcare.
They also are seeing increased application in low-temperature air systems.

Fan selection

There are many types of fans applied to air handlers; the primary differences among them
relate to blade configuration and whether the fan wheel is fully housed or open. (An open
wheel arrangement is referred to as a plenum fan.)

The energy required for any fan is a function of the amount of air to be moved together
with the air pressure the fan must generate. ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2010, Energy
Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, provides maximum fan
power restrictions on HVAC systems based on the flow rate and a variety of factors related
to application and filtration level. Future versions of Standard 90.1 will be incorporating a
minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG) as described in AMCA 205-2010. Fans more than 5
hp will be required to have a minimum FEG of 67 and will need to operate within 10% of
their peak efficiency. (This may not apply to packaged units, which are certified in their
entirety.

33
 A critical part of any fan selection is acoustic
performance. It’s always important to know the maximum acceptable noise level on a
project. Proper selection and specifying of fans and AHU casing can reduce the need for
silencers and other costly noise mitigation techniques. Because the best way to reduce fan
sound is to reduce the fan power, efficient fans frequently have the best acoustic
performance.

Coils: Coils are used to heat, cool, and dehumidify air. The heat source can be from hot
water, steam, electric-resistance, or hot refrigerant vapor (as with a heat pump). Cooling
and dehumidification can be provided via expansion of refrigerant (referred to as Direct
eXpansion, or DX), or indirectly through the circulation of chilled water or glycol. In dry
climates, cooling also can be effected by spray coils that reduce the dry bulb temperature of
the air, but increase the air’s humidity.

Access: Access sections are frequently omitted from AHUs either through designer
oversight or intentionally due to space or budget restrictions. But skimping on access can
prove shortsighted as each component within an air hander will require routine service,
repair, or replacement many times over the life of the unit. Coils must be cleaned frequently
to maintain proper heat transfer, and they must be accessible from front and back to do so.
The more difficult it is to reach a component, the less likely maintenance will be
performed, which will result in lower overall efficiency and reduced longevity.

Humidifiers: There are numerous methods for delivering humidification, including steam,
ultrasonic dispersion, infrared heating, and atomization of water. Careful consideration is
necessary to determine which method is best suited for a given project, but humidifiers in
general are maintenance intensive. They must therefore be installed in easily accessible
locations since serious damage and IAQ issues can arise if humidifiers are not operating
properly for extended periods.

Codes and standards

34
The International Building Code (IBC) and International Mechanical Code (IMC) provide
requirements for, among other things, equipment location, disposal of condensate, and
minimum outside air quantity. Energy efficiency requirements for individual components
and packaged units are provided within the International Energy Conservation
Code (IECC), ASHRAE 90.1, and California Energy Commission’s Title 24. Each state and
locality determines the applicability of these codes and standards.

There is significant pressure to go beyond code-minimum performance, and many

mandates are in place for federal projects requiring new buildings to operate with much less
energy than minimally code-compliant ones. The U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED
rating system requires new buildings to have at least 10% less annual energy costs than a
code-compliant building and awards points based on incremental savings above 10%.
The International Green Construction Code (IgCC) and ASHRAE Standard 189.1 also
tighten energy performance and are being increasingly adopted by states and localities.

Multiple organizations provide standards for the testing, rating, and installation of AHUs
and associated components. Some examples of these include Air Movement and Control
Assn. (AMCA), International, Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration
Institute (AHRI), ASHRAE, and Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National
Assn. (SMACNA). These organizations produce testing and rating standards that can be
used by manufacturers and specifiers to gauge performance.

Large institutional users typically have their own standards in addition to codes to ensure
consistency and ease of maintenance for air handling equipment.

Emerging trends in AHUs

Although much of the technology in AHUs has remained relatively unchanged for decades,
some relatively new components and practices are being incorporated that can be useful in
the right application.

Direct-drive fans couple the fan wheel directly to the motor shaft and are typically applied
with variable-frequency drives (VFD). This eliminates the drive losses associated with belts
and can result in higher efficiency and lower overall noise.

Fan arrays use multiple small, direct-drive fans in lieu of a single large fan. Applied
properly, the fan array can reduce the overall space required for the AHU while providing
redundancy and energy-efficient operation. Depending on the number of fans, they can be
controlled in unison by one or more VFDs. Like so many other things related to AHUs,
care must be taken when applying a fan array to ensure the goals of the project are met as
efficiently as possible.

Energy recovery is increasingly applied in AHUs and may be required by energy codes in
certain applications having high percentages of outdoor air.

Energy recovery enables incoming air to exchange heat and moisture with building exhaust
air via desiccant-coated wheels or special materials in a flat-plate, counter-flow
arrangement. Successful application is dependent on many factors, most importantly
climate. It is generally easiest and most cost effective to apply when dedicated outside air
units are used.

35
Dedicated outside air units are increasingly being applied in lieu of traditional air units
that mix outdoor air and return air. For many climates, the toughest part of an AHU’s job is
treating outdoor air. Coils must be sized to handle to most extreme ambient temperatures.
In humid climates, dehumidification requires air to be cooled below the mixed air’s
dewpoint even if the occupancy of the building might not require such low temperatures to
meet space temperature setpoints. Additionally, the mixing dampers and their associated
control sequences in AHUs are common modes of failure, which together with sensor drift
can result in over-ventilation (higher energy use) or under-ventilation (poor IAQ).

A better approach for many buildings is consolidating all of the outdoor air treatment into
dedicated AHUs that supply 100% outdoor air. Treated air (dehumidified or humidified)
from these units can be supplied directly to occupied spaces or can be injected into mixing
boxes into other AHUs dedicated to temperature control.

While the addition of dedicated outdoor AHUs might at first sound like a far more
expensive approach, their use may add little to the overall cost of a job as they can allow
simplification of other AHUs.

Condensate collection from cooling coils can save a considerable amount of water and
money. The air conditioning process removes water from the air, which is then typically
sent to a drain. Humid climates, including much of the eastern half of the United States, are
generally good candidates for recovery of condensate. The recovered water may be
collected in a cistern together with rainwater or grey water, or may be used as make-up for
cooling towers.

UVC lights (ultraviolet light in the C band) reduce the growth of bacteria, mold, and algae
on coils and drain pans. Keeping coils clean and free from deposits improves heat transfer
and can contribute to overall IAQ, particularly in critical environments such as hospitals.
The UVC emitters must provide proper coverage of the wet side of the child water coil, and
care must be taken to ensure that plastic and rubber components within the AHU are not
exposed to the ultraviolet light as they will be degraded. Additionally, the emitters require
periodic replacement as they lose output power and efficacy within a few years.

Commissioning is a must for all AHUs, regardless of size and complexity. Although the
commissioning process is far from new, it has only achieved widespread use in HVAC
systems in the past decade with the increased adoption of sustainability rating systems
which require it.

AHUs that aren’t completely commissioned are almost guaranteed to not operate properly.
Periodic re-commissioning is also necessary since sensors and dampers drift over time.
Better yet is continuous commissioning in which the HVAC system’s key parameters are
baselined and continuously metered and monitored to give an early indication of lagging
performance.

Training is also an important component of commissioning. System operators must be

properly trained to understand all operating modes of each piece of equipment. Training
materials must be left on-site so that new personnel can come up to speed easily.

Energy use comparison

As a final note related to the energy use of AHUs, a comparative annual energy simulation
was made for a typical new office building meeting or in some cases improving upon

36
minimum prescriptive requirements of ASHRAE 90.1-2007 (see Table 1). The building is
175,000 sq ft and is located in Richmond, Va. The HVAC system is comprised of four large
VAV AHUs, each supplying 32,000 cfm to single-duct terminal boxes with hot water
reheat.

All systems in the model are held constant except for the AHUs. The base case represents a
decent AHU meeting ASHRAE 90.1 while the Alternate Case uses an improved FEG,
premium efficiency motor, and a static pressure reduction of 0.5 in. wc—easily achievable
through careful AHU and duct system design.

The results show a total energy reduction of nearly 2% for the building and an energy cost
reduction of greater than 3%, which could earn the project at least one incremental LEED
point for credit EA1 – Optimize Energy Performance.

Conclusion

The preceding information is necessarily general and is no way a comprehensive guide to

proper selection and application of AHUs. Every project carries with it a unique set of
criteria which must be balanced to arrive at the best (not perfect) solution. Design engineers
will do well to organize these criteria early in a project and economic analysis is usually
required to support the ultimate path forward.

Each individual component within an AHU must be selected with a combination of

research, analysis, and experience. By keeping energy efficiency and maintainability firmly
in mind throughout the selection process, it is less likely there will be regrets when project
is complete.

Even the best AHUs and installations, however, require a strong commitment from the
building’s operators to keep them running well. Preventive maintenance programs together
with continuous commissioning will help ensure the lowest possible ownership cost for any
system.

37
BOILER
A boiler is a closed vessel which is used to convert the water into high pressure steam.
The high pressure steam so generated is used to generate power.

Working Principle of a Boiler

The boiler works on the same principle as the water is heated in a closed vessel and due to
heating, the water changes into steam. This steam steam possesses high pressure kinetic
energy.The boiler contains water. The water is heated to its boiling temperature by the use
of heat from the furnace. Due to heating of water, it gets converted into high pressure
steam. The steam generated is passed through the steam turbines. As the high pressure
steam strikes the turbine, it rotates the turbine. A generator is attached to the turbine and the
generator also starts to rotate with the turbine and produces electricity.

Different Types of Boiler

Boilers can be classified in different basis but here I am discussing the only important
basis of boiler classification.
1. According to the Contents in the Tubes
According to the contents in the tubes, the boilers can be classified as fire tube boiler
and water tube boiler.
(i) Fire Tube Boiler:

38
 In fire tube boiler the fire or hot gas are present inside the tubes and water surrounds
these fire tubes. Since fire is inside the tubes and hence it is named as fire tube boiler.
The heat from the hot gases is conducted through the walls of the tube to the water.
 The examples of the fire tube boiler are: simple vertical boiler, Cochran
boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Locomotive boiler, Scotch marine boiler and
Velcon boiler.
(ii). Water Tube Boiler:
In water tube boilers, the water is present inside the tubes and the fire or hot gases
surrounds these water tubes.
 The examples of water tube boilers are: La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Stirling
boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.
2. According to the Number of Tubes
According to the no of tubes, the boilers are classified as single tube boiler and
multitubular boilers.
(i). Single Tube Boilers: The boilers which contain one fire tube or water tube are called as
single tube boiler.

 The examples of single tube boilers are Cornish boiler and simple vertical
boiler.
(ii). Multitubular Boiler: The boilers which has two or more water tube or fire tubes are
called multi tubular boilers.

 Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox

boilers are multitubular boilers.
3. According to the Position of the Furnace
According to the position of the furnace, the steam boilers are classified as internally
fired boilers and externally fired boilers.

(i). Internally Fired Boilers: The boilers in which the furnace is located inside the
boiler shell are called internally fired boilers.
 Among all the fire tube boilers, most of the boilers are internally fired boilers.
(ii). Externally Fired Boilers: In externally fired boilers, the furnace is located outside
the boiler shell. In this the furnace is arranged underneath in brick work setting.
 Water tube boilers are always externally fired boilers.
4. According to the Axis of the Shell
According to the axis of the shell, the boilers are classified as vertical boilers and
horizontal boilers.

(i). Vertical Boilers: the in which the axis of the shell is vertical are called vertical
boilers.
 Examples of vertical boilers are: simple vertical boiler and Cochran boiler.
(ii). Horizontal Boilers: when the axis of the shell in a boiler is found horizontal than it is
called as horizontal boiler.

 Lancashire boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler and locomotive boilers are
examples of horizontal boilers.
39
 5. According to the Methods of Circulation
of Water and Steam
According to the method of circulation of water and steam, the steam boilers are
divided into natural circulation boilers and forced circulation boilers.

(i). Natural Circulation Boilers: In natural circulation boilers, the circulation of water
takes place naturally by the convection currents that set ups during the heating of water.
 In most of the boilers there is a natural circulation of water such as Lancashire
boiler, Cochran boiler etc.
(ii). Forced Circulation Boilers: In this type of steam boilers, the water circulation
takes place with the help of a centrifugal pump driven by some external power. Here
the circulation is forced by some external agency.
 Forced circulation is used in high pressure boilers such as
La-Mont boiler, Loeffler boiler, Benson boiler etc.
6. According to the use
According to the use, the boilers are classified as stationary boilers and mobile boilers

(i). Stationary Boilers: These are the boilers which are stationary and cannot be moved
from one place to another. Once they are installed, cannot be transported to other
destination.
 These boilers are used in power plants and in industrial
process works.
(ii). Mobile Boilers: these are the steam boilers which can be moved from one place to
another.
 Locomotive and marine boilers are mobile boilers.
Boiler Mountings and Accessories
The various boiler mountings and accessories that are used in
steam boilers are water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valves, stop
valve; blow off cock, feed check valve, fusible plug, air pre-heater, super
heater, economiser and feed pump. The boiler mounting and accessories are used
in steam boilers for its proper, efficient and satisfactory working. In this
article we will discuss about the functions of each of them.
Boiler Mountings and accessories.

40
 The different boiler mountings and accessories that are installed on the steam boiler are
as follows
Boiler mountings

1. Water level indicator (Water level gauge)

2. Pressure gauge
3. Safety valves
4. Stop valve
5. Blow off cock (Blow off valve)
6. Feed check valve
Boiler accessories

1. Air pre-heater
2. Super heater
3. Economiser
4. Feed pump
The function of various boiler mountings and accessories
are:

1. Water Level Indicator

 It is fitted in front of the boiler and generally present
two in number.
 It is used to indicate the water level inside the boiler. It shows the instantaneous
level of water that is present inside the steam boiler
which is necessary for its proper working.
2. Pressure gauge
 It is also present in front of the boiler.
 It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the
boiler.
 The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourden type
41
 3. Safety Valves
 Safety valves are attached to the steam boiler chest.
 It is used to prevent explosion due to excessive internal
pressure. When the internal pressure inside the boiler exceeds its working
pressures than the safety valves blow off the steam and maintains the internal
pressure.
 Generally two safety valves are present on a boiler.
Also Read: Difference Between Fire Tube Boiler and Water Tube Boiler
4. Stop Valve (steam stop valve)
 It is usually fitted on the highest part of the boiler with
the help of a flange.
 The main function of the stop valve is
1. To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main
steam pipe.
2. To completely shut off the steam supply when required.
5. Blow Off Cock
 It is fitted at the bottom of the boiler drum.
 The functions of blow off cock is
1. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the scale, mud and sediments which gets
collected at the bottom of the boiler.
6. Feed Check Valve
 It is non-return valve and fitted to a screwed spindle to
regulate the lift.
 It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water
level of the boiler. A boiler must have its spindle lifted before the pump is
started.
 It regulates the supply of water which is pumped into the
boiler by feed pump.
7. Fusible Plug
 It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or firebox.
 Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace when the
water level in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit. This avoids the explosion
that may takes place because of the overheating of the furnace plate.
Also Read: Lancashire Boiler Construction, Working with Diagram
Boiler accessories: the boiler accessories are the integral
parts of the boiler. They are used in the boiler to improve its efficiency.
1. Air preheater
 It is used to recover heat from the exhaust gases.
 It is installed between the economiser and the chimney.
2. Super heater
 It is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace.
 A super heater is an important accessory used in the boiler.
Its main function is to increase the temperature of saturated steam without
raising its pressure.
3. Economiser
 It is used to heat the feed water by the utilization of heat
from the hot fuel gases before it leaves the chimney.
 A economiser improves the economy of the steam boilers.
4. Feed pump

42
 It is used to deliver water to the boiler.

COOLING TOWER
A cooling tower is a specialized heat exchanger in which air and
water are brought into direct contact with each other in order to
reduce the water's temperature. As this occurs, a small volume of
water is evaporated, reducing the temperature of the water being
circulated through the tower.
Water, which has been heated by an industrial process or in an air-conditioning condenser, is pumped to
the cooling tower through pipes. The water sprays through nozzles onto banks of material called "fill,"
which slows the flow of water through the cooling tower, and exposes as much water surface area as
possible for maximum air-water contact. As the water flows through the cooling tower, it is exposed to
air, which is being pulled through the tower by the electric motor-driven fan.
When the water and air meet, a small amount of water is evaporated, creating a cooling action. The
cooled water is then pumped back to the condenser or process equipment where it absorbs heat. It will
then be pumped back to the cooling tower to be cooled once again. Cooling Tower
Fundamentals provides a level of basic cooling tower knowledge and is a great resource for those
wanting to learn more.

TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS

Not all towers are suitable for all applications. Cooling towers are designed and manufactured in several
types, with numerous sizes available. Understanding the various types, along with their advantages and
limitations, is important when determining the right tower for a project. The product list provides an
overview of towers to help you determine which is right for your application.

43
Crossflow cooling towers:
In crossflow towers the water flows vertically through the fill while the air flows horizontally, across the
flow of the falling water.
Because of this, air does not have to pass through the distribution system, permitting the use of gravity
flow hot water distribution basins mounted at the top of the unit above the fill.
These basins are universally applied on all crossflow towers.

Counterflow cooling towers:

Counterflow towers are designed so that air flows vertically upward, counter to the flow of falling water
in the fill.
Because of this vertical airflow, it is not possible to use the open, gravity-flow basins typical in crossflow
designs. Instead, counterflow towers use pressurized, pipe-type spray systems to spray water onto the top
of the fill.
Since air must be able to pass through the spray system, the pipes and nozzles must be farther apart so as
not to restrict airflow.

44
INDUCED DRAFT VS. FORCED DRAFT
Induced draft cooling towers have fans that are typically mounted on top of the unit and pull air through
the fill media. Conversely, air is pushed by blowers located at the base of the air inlet face on forced draft
towers.

Marley MD Induced Draft Cooling Tower

45
Marley MCW Forced Draft Cooling Tower

CHILLER
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption
refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat exchanger to cool equipment,
or another process stream (such as air or process water). As a necessary by-product, refrigeration
creates waste heat that must be exhausted to ambience, or for greater efficiency, recovered for
heating purposes Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial,
industrial, and institutional facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled, or
evaporatively cooled. Water-cooled systems can provide efficiency and environmental
impact advantages over air-cooled systems

Use in air conditioning

A liquid (glycol based) chiller with an air cooled condenser on the rooftop of a medium size commercial
building.
In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils, in air
handlers or other types of terminal devices which cool the air in their respective space(s). The water
is then recirculated to the chiller to be recooled. These cooling coils transfer sensible heat and latent
heat from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A
typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 and 2000 tons, and at least one
manufacturer can produce chillers capable of up to 5,200 tons of cooling Chilled water temperatures
can range from 35 to 45 °F (2 to 7 °C), depending upon application requirementsWhen the chillers

46
for air conditioning systems are not operable or they are in need of repair or replacement,
emergency chillers may be used to supply chilled water. Rental chillers are mounted on a trailer so
that they can be quickly deployed to the site. Large chilled water hoses are used to connect between
rental chillers and air conditioning systems.[5]

Use in industry
In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is pumped through process or
laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled cooling of products, mechanisms
and factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They are often used in the plastic industries,
injection and blow molding, metal working cutting oils, welding equipment, die-casting and
machine tooling, chemical processing, pharmaceutical formulation, food and beverage processing,
paper and cement processing, vacuum systems, X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power
generation stations, analytical equipment, semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are
also used to cool high-heat specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals,
hotels and campuses.
Chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where a single chiller serves multiple cooling
needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each approach has its
advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both centralized and decentralized chillers,
especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some applications or points of use, but not
all.
Decentralized chillers are usually small in size and cooling capacity, usually from 0.2 to 10 short
tons (0.179 to 8.929 long tons; 0.181 to 9.072 t). Centralized chillers generally have capacities
ranging from ten tons to hundreds or thousands of tons.
Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial, and
institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled, or evaporatively cooled.
Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which improve the chillers'
thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This is due to heat rejection at or
near the air's wet-bulb temperature rather than the higher, sometimes much higher, dry-bulb
temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer higher efficiencies than air-cooled chillers but
lower than water-cooled chillers.
Water-cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by
a separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the
atmosphere.
Air-cooled and evaporative cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and operation. Air-
cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically circulated directly through
the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere. Evaporative cooled machines are
similar, except they implement a mist of water over the condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling,
making the machine more efficient than a traditional air-cooled machine. No remote cooling tower
is typically required with either of these types of packaged air-cooled or evaporatively cooled
chillers.
Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for
cooling, replace or supplement cooling towers. The deep water source cooling system in Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, is an example. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to
cool city buildings via a district cooling system. The return water is used to warm the city's drinking
water supply, which is desirable in this cold climate. Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used
for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectiveness is
possible.

Vapor-compression chiller technology

A vapor compression chiller typically uses one of four types of
compressor: Reciprocating compression, scroll compression, screw-driven compression,
and centrifugal compression are all mechanical machines that can be powered by electric

47
motors, steam, or gas turbines. They produce their cooling effect via the reverse-Rankine cycle, also
known as vapor-compression. With evaporative cooling heat rejection, their coefficients of
performance (COPs) are very high; typically 4.0 or more.
COP

Current vapor-compression chiller technology is based on the "reverse-Rankine" cycle known

as vapor-compression. See the attached diagram which outlines the key components of the
chiller system.

Diagram showing the components of a water-cooled chiller

Key components of the chiller:
Refrigeration compressors are essentially a pump for refrigerant gas. The capacity of the
compressor, and hence the chiller cooling capacity, is measured in kilowatts input (kW), Horse
power input (HP), or volumetric flow (m3/h, ft3/h). The mechanism for compressing refrigerant
gas differs between compressors, and each has its own application. Common refrigeration
compressors include reciprocating, scroll, screw, or centrifugal. These can be powered by
electric motors, steam turbines, or gas turbines. Compressors can have an integrated motor from
a specific manufacturer, or be open drive--allowing the connection to another type of
mechanical connection. Compressors can also be either Hermetic (welded closed) or
semihermetic (bolted together).
In recent years, application of variable-speed drive (VSD) technology has increased efficiencies
of vapor compression chillers. The first VSD was applied to centrifugal compressor chillers in
the late 1970s and has become the norm as the cost of energy has increased. Now, VSDs are
being applied to rotary screw and scroll-technology compressors.
Condensers can be air-cooled, water-cooled, or evaporative. The condenser is a heat exchanger
which allows heat to migrate from the refrigerant gas to either water or air. Air cooled
condenser are manufactured from copper tubes (for the refrigerant flow) and aluminium fins
(for the air flow). Each condenser has a different material cost and they vary in terms of
efficiency. With evaporative cooling condensers, their coefficients-of-performance (COPs) are
very high; typically 4.0 or more.
The expansion device or refrigerant metering device (RMD) restricts the flow of the liquid
refrigerant causing a pressure drop that vaporizes some of the refrigerant; this vaporization
absorbs heat from nearby liquid refrigerant. The RMD is located immediately prior to the
evaporator so that the cold gas in the evaporator can absorb heat from the water in the
evaporator. There is a sensor for the RMD on the evaporator outlet side which allows the RMD
to regulate the refrigerant flow based on the chiller design requirement.
Evaporators can be plate type or shell and tube type. The evaporator is a heat exchanger which
allows the heat energy to migrate from the water stream into the refrigerant gas. During the
state change of the remaining liquid to gas, the refrigerant can absorb large amounts of heat
without changing temperature.

48
How absorption technology works
The thermodynamic cycle of an absorption chiller is driven by a heat source; this heat is usually
delivered to the chiller via steam, hot water, or combustion. Compared to electrically powered
chillers, an absorption chiller has very low electrical power requirements - very rarely above
15 kW combined consumption for both the solution pump and the refrigerant pump. However,
its heat input requirements are large, and its COP is often 0.5 (single-effect) to 1.0 (double-
effect). For the same tonnage capacity, an absorption chiller requires a much larger cooling
tower than a vapor-compression chiller. However, absorption chillers, from an energy-
efficiency point of view, excel where cheap, low-grade heat or waste heat is readily available.
[6]
In extremely sunny climates, solar energy has been used to operate absorption chillers.
The single-effect absorption cycle uses water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the
absorbent. It is the strong affinity that these two substances have for one another that makes the
cycle work. The entire process occurs in almost a complete vacuum.

1. Solution Pump : A dilute lithium bromide solution (63% concentration) is collected in

the bottom of the absorber shell. From here, a hermetic solution pump moves the
solution through a shell and tube heat exchanger for preheating.
2. Generator : After exiting the heat exchanger, the dilute solution moves into the upper
shell. The solution surrounds a bundle of tubes which carries either steam or hot water.
The steam or hot water transfers heat into the pool of dilute lithium bromide solution.
The solution boils, sending refrigerant vapor upward into the condenser and leaving
behind concentrated lithium bromide. The concentrated lithium bromide solution
moves down to the heat exchanger, where it is cooled by the weak solution being
pumped up to the generator.
3. Condenser : The refrigerant vapor migrates through mist eliminators to the condenser
tube bundle. The refrigerant vapor condenses on the tubes. The heat is removed by the
cooling water which moves through the inside of the tubes. As the refrigerant
condenses, it collects in a trough at the bottom of the condenser.
4. Evaporator : The refrigerant liquid moves from the condenser in the upper shell down
to the evaporator in the lower shell and is sprayed over the evaporator tube bundle.
Due to the extreme vacuum of the lower shell [6 mm Hg (0.8 kPa) absolute pressure],
the refrigerant liquid boils at approximately 39 °F (4 °C), creating the refrigerant
effect. (This vacuum is created by hygroscopic action - the strong affinity lithium
bromide has for water - in the Absorber directly below.)
5. Absorber : As the refrigerant vapor migrates to the absorber from the evaporator, the
strong lithium bromide solution from the generator is sprayed over the top of the
absorber tube bundle. The strong lithium bromide solution actually pulls the
refrigerant vapor into solution, creating the extreme vacuum in the evaporator. The
absorption of the refrigerant vapor into the lithium bromide solution also generates
heat which is removed by the cooling water. Now the dilute lithium bromide solution
collects in the bottom of the lower shell, where it flows down to the solution pump.
The chilling cycle is now completed and the process begins once again.

Industrial chiller technology

Industrial chillers typically come as complete, packaged, closed-loop systems, including the
chiller unit, condenser, and pump station with recirculating pump, expansion valve, no-flow
shutdown, internal cold water control. The internal tank helps maintain cold water temperature
and prevents temperature spikes from occurring. Closed-loop industrial chillers recirculate a
clean coolant or clean water with condition additives at a constant temperature and pressure to
increase the stability and reproducibility of water-cooled machines and instruments. The water
flows from the chiller to the application's point of use and backIf the water temperature
differentials between inlet and outlet are high, then a large external water tank would be used to
store the cold water. In this case the chilled water is not going directly from the chiller to the
application, but goes to the external water tank which acts as a sort of "temperature buffer." The

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cold water tank is much larger than the internal water goes from the external tank to the
application and the return hot water from the application goes back to the external tank, not to
the chiller
The less common open loop industrial chillers control the temperature of a liquid in an open
tank or sump by constantly recirculating it. The liquid is drawn from the tank, pumped through
the chiller and back to the tank. In industrial water chillers is the use of water cooling instead of
air cooling. In this case the condenser does not cool the hot refrigerant with ambient air, but
uses water that is cooled by a cooling tower. This development allows a reduction in energy
requirements by more than 15% and also allows a significant reduction in the size of the chiller,
due to the small surface area of the water-based condenser and the absence of fans.
Additionally, the absence of fans allows for significantly reduced noise levels.
Most industrial chillers use refrigeration as the media for cooling, but some rely on simpler
techniques such as air or water flowing over coils containing the coolant to regulate
temperature. Water is the most commonly used coolant within process chillers, although coolant
mixtures (mostly water with a coolant additive to enhance heat dissipation) are frequently
employed.

Industrial chiller selection

Important specifications to consider when searching for industrial chillers include the total life
cycle cost, the power source, chiller IP rating, chiller cooling capacity, evaporator capacity,
evaporator material, evaporator type, condenser material, condenser capacity, ambient
temperature, motor fan type, noise level, internal piping materials, number of compressors, type
of compressor, number of fridge circuits, coolant requirements, fluid discharge temperature,
and COP (the ratio between the cooling capacity in RT to the energy consumed by the whole
chiller in KW). For medium to large chillers this should range from 3.5 to 7.0, with higher
values meaning higher efficiency. Chiller efficiency is often specified in kilowatts
per refrigeration ton (kW/RT).
Process pump specifications that are important to consider include the process flow, process
pressure, pump material, elastomer and mechanical shaft seal material, motor voltage, motor
electrical class, motor IP rating and pump rating. If the cold water temperature is lower than
−5 °C, then a special pump needs to be used to be able to pump the high concentrations of
ethylene glycol. Other important specifications include the internal water tank size and
materials and full load current.
Control panel features that should be considered when selecting between industrial chillers
include the local control panel, remote control panel, fault indicators, temperature indicators,
and pressure indicators.
Additional features include emergency alarms, hot gas bypass, city water switchover, and
casters.
Demountable chillers are also an option for deployment in remote areas and where the
conditions may be hot and dusty

Refrigerants
A vapor-compression chiller uses a refrigerant internally as its working fluid. Many refrigerants
options are available; when selecting a chiller, the application cooling temperature requirements
and refrigerant's cooling characteristics need to be matched. Important parameters to consider
are the operating temperatures and pressures.
There are several environmental factors that concern refrigerants, and also affect the future
availability for chiller applications. This is a key consideration in intermittent applications
where a large chiller may last for 25 years or more. Ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global
warming potential (GWP) of the refrigerant need to be considered. ODP and GWP data for

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 some of the more common vapor-compression refrigerants (noting that many of these
refrigerants are highly flammable and/or toxic)

Types of Refrigerants

The most common types of refrigerants in use nowadays are presented

below:

- halocarbons or freons.

- azeotropic refrigerants.
- zeotropic refrigerants.
- inorganic refrigerants like carbon dioxide, ammonia, water and air.
- hydrocarbon refrigerants.

Halocarbons are generally synthetically produced. Depending on whether

they include chemical elements hydrogen (H), carbon (C), chlorine (Cl) and
florine (F) they are named after as follows:

CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons): R11, R12, R113, R114, R115

HCFCs (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons): R22, R123
HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons): R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP)

In general, all refrigerants are characterised by two numbers: Ozone

Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP).

ODP values range from 0 to 1: the closest the ODP value is to 1, the more
harmful the refrigerant is for the ozone layer.CFCs are generally
characterised by a big ODP value, because they contain chlorine, which is
accused of heavily contributing to the Ozone Depletion phenomenon. As a
result, CFCs have been phased out of use nowadays.

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Chart with typical refrigerants ODP values

GWP values range from 0 to several thousands: the bigger the GWP value
is, the more harmful the refrigerant is for the global warming effect. In
general, inorganic refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide are
characterised by small GWP values. In general, HCFCs have also been
phased out since 2005, and only the chlorine free (zero ozone depletion)
HFCs are allowed for use nowadays.

Zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures

Azeotropic mixtures are mixtures of two or more refrigerants whose

vapour and liquid phases retain identical compositions over a wide range of
temperatures. Typical examples of azeotropic mixtures can be seen below:

R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115

R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13

A zeotropic mixture mixture is one whose composition in liquid phase

differs to that in vapour phase. The word zeotropic is a combination of
Greek words zeo (meaning boiling) and tropi (meaning change)

Consequently, unlike azeotropic refrigerants, zeotropic refrigerants

do not boil at constant temperatures.

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Typical examples of zeotropic mixtures can be seen below:

R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)

R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%,
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)

Many hydrocarbon gases like R170 (ethane), R290 (propane), R600 (butane),
R600a (isobutane) have successfully been used as refrigerants in industrial,
commercial and domestic applications.

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 CHAPTER 4
DESIGNING AND FABRICATION

4.1. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

In this experiment a cuboids shape set-up is used which is made up of mild steel. The
dimensions of container are 600 mm × 300 mm and height of bottom stand is 100 mm.
The effect of different profile such as rough and smooth plate, when an unconfined jet

54
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

55
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPES

6.1. CONCLUSIONS

6.2. FUTURE SCOPES

56
 REFERENCES

Journals
[1] Ning, X., and Lovell, M. R., (2002), ― the Sliding Friction Characteristics of
Unidirectional Continuous FRP Composites, ASME J. Tribol., 124(1), pp. 5-13.

[2] Barnes, M., (2001), ―Stresses in Solenoids, J. Appl. Phys., 48(5), pp. 2000–
2008.
Books
[3] Jones, J., (2000), Contact Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK, Chap. 6.
Conferences
[4] Lee, Y., Korpela, S. A., and Horne, R. N., (1982), Structure of Multi-Cellular
Natural Convection in a Tall Vertical Annulus, Proc. 7th International Heat
Transfer Conference, U. Grigul et al., eds., Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 2, pp.
221–226.
Thesis
[5] Tung, C. Y., (1982), Evaporative Heat Transfer in the Contact Line of a
Mixture, Ph.D. thesis, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.
Website
[6] Smith, R., (2002), Conformal Lubricated Contact of Cylindrical Surfaces
Involved in a Non-Steady Motion, from web site
http://www.cas.phys.unm.edu/rsmith/homepage.html accessed on 12/08/2007.

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 APPENDIX

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