What is electric charge?

In 1600 B.C a scientist Gilbert finds out electric charge. The convention
was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed a glass
rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He
rubbed sealing wax with fur and called the charges on the sealing wax
negative.
There are two types of electric charge positive and negative. Like
charges repel and opposite charges attract each other. The SI unit of
electric charge is Coulomb (C).
The charge on the element is the fundamental basic of universe.
q = ne
e = 1.60217733× 10−9 C
Where n = 1, 2, 3…
Statement
According to Benjamin Franklin’s
Two bodies set to be electrical charged bodies when the forces of
attraction and repulsion are exist between them are called electric
charge.
In modern definition
The deficiency of electron in an element makes the body electrical
charged body is called electric charge.
Electrification
The method of charging anybody electrically is called electrification.
Electric force
The force which holds the negative and positive charges to gather to
make up atoms and molecules is called electric force.

State and explain coulomb’s law.

Each charge exerts a force of attraction or repulsion on another
charge. Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736 - 1806) observed the
quantitative nature of these forces. He started his experiment
observations in mathematical form called coulombs law in 1784 A. D.
Statement
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them.
Mathematical Form
If q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r then the electric force
between the charges

𝑭 ∝ 𝒒𝟏 𝒒 𝟐 (1)
𝟏
𝑭 ∝ 𝒓𝟐 (2)

Combining (1) and (2), we have

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭∝
𝒓𝟐
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 𝟐
𝒓
Where k is the constant of proportionality called electrostatic constant
Torsional Balance
Torsional Balance is a device which used Charles Coulomb to perform
his experiment. Torsional Balance was made in 1785 to the Paris
Academy of Sciences.
Dependence of k
Its value depends upon the nature of medium between the charges
and the system of units. For free space
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐
Where 𝜀𝑜 another constant called permittivity of free space and its value
is
2
𝜀𝑜 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 ⁄
𝑁𝑚2
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒 × 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
𝟐
𝒌 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎 ⁄ 𝟐
𝒄
So the electric force between the charge
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
Vector form of Coulomb law
Coulomb force is mutual force. It means that if q1 exerts a force on q2
then q2 also exerts an equal and opposite force on q1
Let
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 (3)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 (4)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Where

𝑟̂21 is a unit vector direction from q1 to q2

𝑟̂12 is a unit vector direction from q2 to q1?
From figure, we get

𝑟̂21 = −𝑟̂12
Hence equation (3) becomes
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = (−𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 )
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = − 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟐𝟏
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = −𝑭
⃗ 𝟏𝟐
Hence coulombs law is accordance with newton’s third law of motion.
Effect of medium
If an insulating medium is placed between the charges. Then it will
reduce the electrostatic force as compared to free space by a factor 𝜀𝑟
called relative permittivity whose value varies upon nature of dielectric.
Thus in the presence of dielectric the Coulomb force becomes
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭′ =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝒓𝟐
1 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭′ =
𝜺𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
 𝑭
𝑭′ =
𝜺𝒓
For vacuum the value of 𝜺𝒓 is 1 while for air the value of 𝜺𝒓 is 1.0006
Relative Permittivity (𝜺𝒓 )
Relative permittivity can be defined as the ratio of electrostatic force
between the charges in vacuum to the force when the medium
between the charges is dielectric.
Define field and it type.
Field
The region or space on any scalar or vector quantity is known as field.
Scalar Field
The field around a scalar quantity where each point represents the
same scalar is known as scalar field.
Example
Temperature Field and Pressure Field
Vector Field
The field around vector quantity where each point represents the same
vector is known as vector field.
Example
Electric field, magnetic field, gravitational field and velocity field
Electric Field
The region or space around an electric charge in which it exerts force
on another charges is known as electric field.
Source Charge
The charge which is used to generate an electric field in a given region
is called source charge.
Test charge
The charge which is used to test the electric field of the source charge
is known as test charge.
It is nearly small positive charge. It is represents with (qo)
Electric Filed Strength or Intensity
The force exerted per unit test charge is called electric field intensity. It
is represented by 𝐸⃗

𝐹
𝐸⃗ = (I)
𝑞𝑜
Electric field intensity at any point is defined as “the force express by
the unit positive test charge placed at that point.” The SI unit of electric
field intensity is N/C or V/m.
Electric Field Intensity of point charge
According to coulomb’s law the force experienced by test charge qo
placed in the field of a charge q is given by
𝐾𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐹= (II)
𝑟2
Put value of F from (II) in (I)

𝑘𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐸= 2
𝑟 × 𝑞𝑜
𝑘𝑞
𝐸= 2
𝑟
In vector form

𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 2
𝑟̂
𝑟
Where 𝑟̂ is a unit vector directed from q to qo

To find electric field for a group of P point charges then

𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸1 +𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯

Define electric field line and sketch field lines in different cases.
Also write down characteristics of electric field line.
Electric Field line
The path along which a unit positive charge moves in an electric field is
called electric field line.
Electric field patterns
In order to draw the electric field lines, we place positive test charge qo
at equal distances from field charge q at different places.
Electric field line due to a positive point charge
Electric field line due to a positive point charge +q repels the positive
test charge qo. The electric lines of forces are radially directed outward.
Electric field line due to a negative point charge
The electric field created by negative charges –q attracts the positive
test charge qo. The electric lines of forces are directed radially inward.
Electric field line for like charges
For two similar positive charges of equal magnitudes, the field lines are
curved and middle region shows no field line.
Electric field lines for unlike charges
Electric field lines for unlike charges are starts from positive and end
on negative.
Electric field lines for two oppositely charged parallel plates
In this case the field is uniform in the middle region where field lines
are equally spaced as shown in figure.
Properties of Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines start from positive charge and end on negative
charge.
The tangent to the field line at any point gives direction of electric field
line at that point.
No two electric field lines cross each other.
The lines are closer where field is stronger and are farther apart where
field is weaker.
Define Electric Potential Difference and Absolute Potential.
Concept of electric potential difference
The idea of electric potential difference is introduced to describe
electric field. Consider a unit positive charge qo allowed to move in an
electric field due to two oppositely charged parallel plates.
The charge qo gain K.E, while moving along the direction of electric
field. In order to move it against the direction of electric field, we should
apply some external force F equal and opposite to F=qoE to keep
electrostatic equilibrium. In this case, it gains P.E.
Let
WAB is the work done by the force in carrying the positive charge qo
from A to B, then the change in its P.E,
∆𝑈 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵
Or 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵
Where 𝑈𝐴 is the potential energy of charged particle at point A and
𝑈𝐵 is the potential energy of charged particle at point B.
Electric potential difference or potential difference
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to
another point in an electric field is called potential difference.
Mathematically, if A and B be two points in electric field then,
𝑊𝐴𝐵
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞𝑜
Where 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 are electric potentials at point A and B.
∆𝑈
∆𝑉 =
𝑞𝑜
Relation between electric potential difference and potential energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑞𝑜 ∆𝑉
Unit
SI unit of potential difference is volt.
Volt
If one joule work is done in carrying a unit positive charge from one
point to another keeping electrostatic equilibrium then the potential
difference is said to be one volt.
 1joule
1Volt =
1 coulomb
Absolute Potential or Electric Potential
Electric Potential at a point is define as the work done in bringing unit
positive charge from infinity to that point.
𝑊𝐴𝐵
As ∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑜

𝑊𝐴𝐵
Or 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞𝑜

If point A is at infinity, 𝑉𝐴 ≈ 𝑉∞ ≈ 0
𝑊𝐴𝐵
So 𝑉𝐵 − 0 =
𝑞𝑜

In general,
𝑊𝐴𝐵
𝑉=
𝑞𝑜
Where V is the absolute potential
Both potential and potential difference are scalar quantities, because
W and 𝑞𝑜 are scalars.
Derive a relation for the electric potential at a certain point due to
a point charge.
Electric potential at a point due to a point charge
Electric potential at a point due to a charge q is the work done in taking
a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping electrostatic
equilibrium.
Expression for electric potential
Let a unit positive charge is moved from point B to A against the
1
electric field due to point charge q. As 𝐸 ∝ which shows that E varies
𝑟2
inversely with square of distance. So we take two points A and B very
close to each other in the radial field, such that E is nearly constant
between these two points.
Let
rA = distance of point A from charge q
rB = distance of point B from charge q
Then, ∆r = rA − rB __________ (1)
rA +rB
Distance of midpoint of A and B from charge q = r =
2

The magnitude of electric intensity at midpoint is,

1 𝑞
𝐸= ___________ (2)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
Since the points A and B are very close to each other, therefore we
can make approximation that
rA ≈ rB ≈ r

Therefore 𝑟 2 = 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 ___________ (3)

Putting value of 𝑟 2 in equation (2), we get
1 𝑞
𝐸= _____________ (4)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝑩

The potential difference between points A and B is the work done in

moving the unit positive charge from B to A against electric field, i.e.
∆𝑉 = −𝐸∆𝑟
Or 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = −𝐸∆𝑟 __________ (5)
Putting value of
∆r and E from equation (1)and (4)in equation (5), we get
1 𝑞
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = − (r − r )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝑩 A B

1 𝑞
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = (r − r )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝑩 B A

𝑞 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

𝑞 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = ( − )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

𝑞 1 1
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) _________ (6)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝐵

Absolute potential or potential at A

In order to calculate the absolute potential or potential at A, point B is
assumed to lie at infinity, so that
𝑉𝐵 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝐵 = ∞
1 1
Thus = =0
𝑟𝐵 ∞

Putting it in equation (6), we get

 𝑞 1
𝑉𝐴 − 0 = ( − 0)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴
Or
1 𝑞
𝑉𝐴 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴
In general, electric potential Vr at a distance r from q is given by
1 𝑞
𝑉𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟