Chapter 4 System of Complex Number PDF

Topic X Complex
1 Numbers
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the properties of the complex numbers;
2. Present the complex numbers by geometrical figures;
3. Change the complex numbers to polar form;
4. Compare the differences between the real valued functions and the
complex valued functions; and
5. Differentiate the various elementary functions of the complex
numbers.
X INTRODUCTION
In mathematics, complex numbers are the extension of the real numbers obtained
by adjoining an imaginary unit, denoted as i, which satisfies:
i 2 =−1
Every complex number can be written in the form of x + iy, where x and y are real
numbers called the real part and the imaginary part of the complex number
respectively.
This topic will introduce you to complex numbers and their algebraic operations.
2 X TOPIC 1 COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Complex numbers were first introduced in the 16th century as a result of trying to
solve equations which had no real solutions. The equation
x2 + 1 = 0
has no real solution, since there does not exist a real number x such that x² = –1, or
equivalently we cannot take the square root of –1. Euler, a Swiss mathematician
in 1777, introduced the number i with the property i2= –1 to represent the
imaginary unit of the complex number. As an example, −4 can be written as:
−4 = ( 4 )( )
−1 = 2 −1 = 2i
Definition of complex number:
A complex number is expressed in the form a + i b, where a and b are real

numbers. The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C. Two complex
numbers a + i b and c + i d are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
NOTE: A complex number can be written either in the form of a + ib or a + bi.
1.1.1 Algebra of complex numbers

The basic concepts of algebra of complex numbers are the same as those of real
numbers.
Figure 1.1: Concepts of algebra of complex numbers.

TOPIC 1 COMPLEX NUMBERS W 3
(a) SUM AND DIFFERENCE
Sum : ( a + bi ) + (c + di ) = ( a + c ) + ( b + d ) i
Difference : ( a + bi ) ă (c + di ) = (a ă c ) + (b ă d ) i
Example 1.1 (3 + 2i ) + (−1 − 4i ) = (3 − 1) + i (2 − 4) = 2 − 2i
Example 1.2 (3 + 2i ) − (−1 − 4i ) = (3 + 1) + i (2 + 4) = 4 + 6i
(b) PRODUCT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Product of Complex Numbers

(a + b i ) (c + di ) = ac + ad i + bic bd 12
= ac + i (ad + bc) bd (−1)
= (ac − bd ) + (bc + ad )i
Example 1.3 (−1 + i )(2 + i ) = −2 − i + 2i + i 2 = −3 + i
Example 1.4 i (3 − 2i ) = 3i − 2i 2 = 3i − 2(−1) = 3i + 2
(c) QUOTIENT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Quotient of Complex Numbers

a + b i a + b i c − d i ac + bd + bci − adi
= . = ,
c + d i c + d i c−d i c2 − d 2 i2
=
ac + bd
+
(b c − a d )i
c +d
2 2
c2 + d 2
if c + d ≠ 0 .
2 2
Example 1.5
6 + 2i − ( 1 + 3i ) 5−i (5 − i )( −3 − i ) 5( −3) − 5i + 3i + i 2 −16 − 2i
= = = =
−1 + i − 2 −3 + i ( −3 + i )( −3 − i ) 10 10
i i (1 − i ) i − i2 1 + i
Example 1.6 = = =
1 + i (1 + i )(1 − i ) 2 2
Note: i2 = – 1
1.1.2 Properties of Complex Numbers

As in the case of real numbers, complex numbers satisfy the five axioms of field.
For ∀z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C , the following properties hold:
1. Commutative Law
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 and z1 z2 = z2 z1
2. Associative Law
(z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3) and (z1 z2) z3 = z1 (z2 z3)
3. Distributive Law
z1 (z2 + z3) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 and (z1+z2) z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3
4. Identity
z + 0 = z = 0 + z and z.1 = z = 1.z, where 0 = 0 + i 0 and 1 = 1 + i 0
The identity with respect to addition 0 and identity with respect to

multiplication 1 satisfy the property 0 ≠ 1.
5. Inverse
Every complex number z has an inverse with respect to addition (–z) and if z
z ≠ 0, there exists an inverse with respect to multiplication z–1 satisfying the
properties z + (–z) = 0 = (–z) + z and z =1= z–1 z.
The system of complex numbers is capable of providing all the possible solutions
of a polynomial equation. In contrast, the system of real numbers could not do so.
Figure 1.2: Properties of complex numbers
1.1.3 Quadratic Formula

The concept of obtaining the formula for quadratic equations which generates
complex roots is the same as in the case of quadratic equation which gives rise to
real solutions.
Suppose a, b and c are real coefficients and consider the following quadratic
equation:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0)
Dividing throughout by a ≠ 0 and completing squares we obtain:
2 2
b ⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ c
x + x+⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ − ,
2
a ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠ a
2 2
⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ c
⎜x+ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ −
⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎝ 2 a ⎠ a
b 2 − 4ac
2
b ⎛ b ⎞ c
x+ =± ⎜ ⎟ − =±
2a ⎝ 2a ⎠ a 2a
and then we obtain the Quadratic Formula as follows:

Quadratic Formula:
(i) If the discriminant b 2 > 4ac , the formula gives two distinct real roots.
(ii) If b 2 = 4ac , then the formula gives one repeated root.
(iii) If b 2 < 4ac , then we obtain
−b + i 4ac − b 2 −b − i 4ac − b 2
x1 = and x2 =
2a 2a
A closer look reveals that one root is the conjugate of the other i.e. x1 = x2 .
Hence, if z = a + ib , then its conjugate is z = a − ib . We shall look more closely
at what is meant by conjugate later in this topic.
Example 1.7
What are the roots of 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0 ?
−2 ± 4 − 12 −2 ± −8 −2 ± 8 −1 −2 ± 2 2 −1 −1 ± i 2
x= = = = =
6 6 6 6 3
where −1 = i . Hence
−1 + i 2 −1 − i 2
x1 = and x2 =
3 3
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Write the following in the form of a + ib , where a and b are real.
(a) –i (b) 4(5+i) (c) (2–i) (3+i) (d) (2–i)2
(e) (3 + 2i ) − (ei − π )
2. Solve the following and express the solution in the form of a + ib

where a and b are real.
(a) x 2 + 6 = 0 (b) x 2 + 2 x = 1 (c) x2 + x + 1 = 0
(d) x 4 + 6 x 2 + 3 = 0 (e) 3 x 2 + x = 1 .
3. Simplify the following:

2 − 7i i 2+i
(a) (b) (c)
π −i 7−i 4i
4. Obtain the real and imaginary parts of the following:

2 − 7i
(a) (b) i (2 − i ) (c) (3 + 2i ) − i (1 − 4i )
π −i
5. Find the values of x and y given that

5 x + i (3 − y ) + ( x + 1) + i (2 y − 1) = (3 + 2i )(1 − i ) .
1.2 COMPLEX PLANES

A complex plane is a geometric representation of complex numbers by Cartesian
coordinates (x and y). The horizontal axis (x-axis) is the real part and the vertical
axis (y-axis) is the imaginary part of a complex number or function. A complex
plane also known as Argand plane or Argand diagram.
In this topic, we shall introduce the concept of complex plane to explain the
representation of complex numbers in a plane.
1.2.1 Argand Diagrams

The number z = x + i y = f(x, y) can be represented by a position vector in an xy-
plane. When a complex number is drawn on an xy-plane referred to as complex
plane, the resulting diagram is known as an Argand diagram.
Suppose we want to plot the complex number –2 + 3i, 2 + 2i and –4 –3i. Then,
the desired plots are as in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Complex Plane
The Cartesian plane will be referred to as the complex plane and is usually known
as the z-plane.
1.2.2 Complex Conjugates
Definition 1.2
The complex conjugate of z = a + b i is denoted by z and is defined as
z = a + ib = a − ib .
Table 1.1: Properties of Complex Conjugates

(a) z = z if and only if z is a real z+z
(f) Re (z) =
number. 2
(b) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 z−z
(g) Im (z) =
2i
(c) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 (h) z=z
zz = z
2
⎛ z1 ⎞ z1 (i)
(d) ⎜ ⎟ = , ( z2 ≠ 0)
⎝ z2 ⎠ z2
(e) z1 z2 = z1 z2 z1 z1 z2 z1 z2
(j) = = , z2 ≠ 0
z2 z2 z 2 z2 2
Example 1.8
Prove property z1 z2 = z1 z2
Proof
Let z1 = a1+b1i and z2= a2+b2i . Then,
z1 z 2 = (a1 + b1i )(a2 + b2i ) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i

= ( a1a2 − b1b2 ) − ( a1b2 + b1a2 )i
Conversely,
z1 z 2 = (a1 − b1i )(a2 − b2i ) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) − (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i
Hence, z1 z2 = z1 z2
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Prove property (d).

1.2.3 Absolute Values
Definition 1.3
Absolute Value or modulus of a complex number z = a + bi denoted by z is
defined as:
z = a 2 + b 2 = [Re( z )]2 + [Im( z )]2
By this,
2
i ⎛1⎞ 1 1
= 02 + ⎜ ⎟ = =
0 =0 2 ⎝2⎠ 4 2,
,
and
3 − 4i = (3) 2 + (−4) 2 = 9 + 16 = 5
In the following box some properties of absolute value of a complex number

which are useful in solving problems involving complex numbers are stated.
(a) z = z = −z
z = z z = x2 + y2
2
(b)
(c) (i) Re ( z ) ≤ z
(ii) Im( z ) ≤ z
(d) z1 z2 = z1 z2
z1 z
(e) = 1 , ( z2 ≠ 0)
z2 z2
Proof (c) (i)
From (b), z = x 2 + y 2 = ⎡⎣ Re ( z ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣Im ( z ) ⎤⎦ , then

2 2 2
⎡⎣ Re ( z ) ⎤⎦ ≤ z or Re ( z ) ≤ z
2 2
Proof (d)
2
By using the formula z 1 = z z , we obtain
2 2 2
z 1z 2 = (z 1 z 2 )(z 1z 2 ) = (z 1 z 2 )(z 1z 2 ) = (z 1 z 1 )(z 2 z 2 ) = z 1 z 2
Example 1.9
1 − z2
Let z1 = 1+ i , z2 = 2 – 2 i . Evaluate .
z1 − 1
Solution
1 − z2 −1 + 2i −1 + 2i i
= = × = −i − 2 = 5
z1 − 1 −i −i i
or using property (e), we obtain,

1 − z2 −1 + 2i −1 + 2i (−1) 2 + 22
= = = = 5
z1 − 1 −i −i 1
The distance between two points with coordinates z1 = (a1 , b1 ) and z2 = (a2 , b2 )
Is given by:
( a1 − a2 ) + ( b1 − b2 )
2 2
z1 − z2 = a1 − a2 + (b1 − b2 )i =
This fact is important to illustrate curves in a plane. Note the set of all numbers z
satisfying the equation:
z − z0 = r
where z0 is a fixed complex number and r is a positive constant. This set consists
of all points z of distance r from z0 . Let z = x + iy and z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then:
( x − x0 ) + ( y − y0 ) ( x – x0 ) + ( y − y0 )
2 2
z1 − z0 = = r and
2 2
= r2 .
Lastly, we see that the equation represents a circle with centre z0 and radius r as
illustrated in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: A circle with centre z0 and radius r
Example 1.10
Illustrate the set of points z satisfying the following equations:
(a) z + 2 = z −1 , (b) z –1 = Re( z ) + 1
Solution:
(a) Substituting z = x + iy , we obtain x + iy + 2 = x + iy –1 , i.e.
( x + 2) 2 + y 2 = ( x − 1) 2 + y 2 ,
4 x + 4 = −2 x + 1
x = −1/ 2
and y is any arbitrary real number.
The required set is then:
⎧ 1 ⎫
⎨ z = − + iy : y ∈ R ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭
1
The equation represents a straight line parallel with the y-axis and unit to
2
the left of it.
(b) As in (a) x + iy − 1 = x + 1 , i.e. ( x − 1) 2 + y 2 = ( x + 1) 2 or y 2 = 4 x is a

quadratic equation.
The sketch of (a) and (b) are as in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1..5: Sketch of (a) and (b)
SELF CHECK 1.2
Write the set of points satisfying the equation z − 1 = Im( z ) + 1 .
1.2.4 Vector Representations

A complex number can be represented as a vector in a complex plane. We shall
now use the concept of line segment and angle of inclination for vectors in a
complex plane.
It should be remembered that the length of any side of a triangle is less than or
equal to the sum of the other two sides. If we apply this fact to the triangle in
Figure 1.6 with vertices at 0, z1 and z1 + z2 we will obtain an important law
connecting the modulus and sum of complex numbers.
Triangle Inequality: For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 we have
| z1 + z2 | ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
and
| z 2 | – | z 1 | ≤ | z 2 – z1 |
Figure 1. 6: Vector Addition
The second inequality states that the difference in length of any two sides of a
triangle is less than or equal to the length of the third side. This is shown in
Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Vector Difference

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Prove 2.3.1(c) and (d).

2. Let z = 3–2i , plot z , –z , z , − z in the complex plane.
7+i
3. Find the values of
1− i
(
, (1 − 3i ) 4i + 3 ) and (4 + i ) (1 + i ) .
4. Obtain the following:
i (2 + i)
3
1 + 2i
(a) (b) (1 + i )(2 − 3i ) ( 4i − 3) (c) .
−2 − i (1 − i )
2
1.3 POLAR REPRESENTATION

In mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate
system in which each point on a plane is determined by an angle and a distance.
The polar coordinate system is especially useful in situations where the
relationship between two points is most easily expressed in terms of angles and
distance; in the more familiar Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system, such a
relationship can only be found through trigonometric formulation.
In this topic, we shall introduce polar coordinates, more commonly known as

polar representation or polar form.
1.3.1 Polar Form

We know that the complex number z can be written as z = x + iy . Then, the angle
y ⎛ y⎞
of inclination of z is θ = arc tan( ) = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , x ≠ 0 and measured from the
x ⎝x⎠
positive real axis. As in Figure 1.8, if measured in the anti-clockwise direction,
then θ is positive, and if measured in the clockwise direction then θ is
negative.
Figure 1.8: Sketch of angle of inclination of z = x + iy
PROPERTIES OF ANGLES OF INCLINATION
(i) Determined up to multiple of 2π , since all angles θ + 2π k for the

values k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,… give the same direction on the complex plane.
(ii) Angle of inclination for vector z is called argument of z and denoted by
arg z.
(iii) Angle satisfying −π ≤ arg z < π is called the principal value and denoted
by Arg z.
(iv) From (i) we can write arg z = Arg z + 2π k , k is a fixed integer.
Note that z = x + iy ≠ 0 can be written in a polar form as:
z = z (cos (arg z ) + i sin (arg z )) = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = r cosθ .
Here, z = x 2 + y 2 = r = absolute value or modulus and

arg z = θ = arc tan( y ) = tan −1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟ , x ≠ 0
x ⎝x⎠
Table 1.2: Guide for obtaining the value of Argument of z.
Guidance Examples
If z lies in the 1st and 4th quadrant (x>0), −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ π
then, the value of Arg z can be found by Arg (1+i) = tan ⎜ ⎟ =
using the equation: ⎝1⎠ 4
⎛ −1 ⎞ π
⎛ y⎞ Arg ( 3 − i ) = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟=
Arg z = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ , x > 0 ⎝ 3⎠ 6
⎝x⎠
If z lies in the 2nd quadrant (x<0, y>0), then −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 3π
the value of Arg z can be found by using the Arg (–1+i) = tan ⎜ ⎟ + π =
equation: ⎝ −1 ⎠ 4
⎛ y⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞
Arg (−2) = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ + π = π
Arg z = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ +π, x < 0, y ≥ 0
⎝ −2 ⎠
⎝ x⎠
−1 ⎛ −1 ⎞
If z lies in the 3rd quadrant (x<0, y<0), then 3
the value of Arg z can be found by using the Arg (–1–i) = tan ⎜ ⎟ = − π
equation: ⎝ −1 ⎠ 4
⎛ y⎞
Arg z = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ −π, x < 0, y < 0
⎝ x⎠
If z lies on the positive x axis i.e z = x +i0, ⎛0⎞
then Arg z = 0. Arg(3) = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝3⎠
If z lies on the y axis, i.e z = 0 + i y, then π π
Arg(2i) = , Arg(-3i) = −
π 2 2
Arg z = , ( x = 0, y > 0)
2
π
Arg z = − , ( x = 0, y < 0)
2
Example 1.11
Obtain Arg 1 + 3i and write 1 + 3i in polar form.
Solution:
θ is in the first quadrant as in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9
3 π
Let z = 1 + 3i . Then 1 + 3i = 2 and Arg z = θ = arc tan = , (principal
1 3
value).
Thus, 1 + 3i can be written in polar form as:

⎛ π π⎞ π
2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = 2cis
⎝ 3 3⎠ 3
ADVANTAGES OF POLAR FORM
Suppose
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )
If we compute
z1 z2 = r1r2 (cos θ1 cos θ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) + i{(sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2 })
then we obtain
z1 z2 = r1r2 (cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ 2 ))
We can then write in the following form

z1 z2 = (r1cos θ1 )(r2 cosθ 2 ) = r1r2 cos(θ1 + θ 2 )
and we see that

z1 z2 = z1 z2 = r1 r2
and
arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + argz2 .
Furthermore,
z1 r1
= cos (θ1 − θ 2 ), z2 ≠ 0.
z2 r2
and
z1
arg = = arg z1 - arg z2 .
z2
Example 1.12
1+ i
Write in polar form.
3 −i
Solution:
⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
1 + i = 2cis ⎜ ⎟ , and 3 − i = 2cis ⎜ − ⎟ .
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
Then
1+ i 2 ⎛π π ⎞ 2 ⎛ 5 ⎞
= cis ⎜ + ⎟ = cis ⎜ π ⎟ .
3 −i 2 ⎝4 6⎠ 2 ⎝ 12 ⎠
1+ i
Figure 1.10: Sketch of in the first and fourth quadrant
3 −i
(clockwise direction for principal values)
Notation: cis θ is cos θ + isin θ

ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Draw the following vectors:
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
(a) 7cos ⎜ ⎟ (b) 4cos ⎜ − ⎟ (c) cos ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
2. Write the following in polar form:

7(1 + i )
(a) i (b) –i (c) 1+i (d) –3 +4 i (e) 4+3 i (f) −
3 +i
3. Obtain the following:
(a) Arg (6 –6i) (b) Arg ( −π ) (c) Arg (10i)
(d) Arg ( − 3 − i )
1.3.2 Complex Exponents

We have come across series expansion of e x , sin x dan cos x . For example,
x 2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + +…
2! 3!
If we choose x = iθ and use the expansions of sin x and cos x , we obtain the
following identity known as Euler’s formula.
Euler’s Formula: eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
This means that Euler’s formula allows us to write a complex number in polar
form as
z = r cos θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = r eiθ
or in other words,
z = r e i θ = z ei arg z
Note:
Observe the following identities:

π1 π1
2π i −2π i 4π i πi
e i0
=e =e =e = = 1, e = −1, e 2
= i ,e 2
= −i
Notice that ei arg z = 1 and Euler’s formula give the following representation for the
trigonometric functions:
eiθ + e − iθ eiθ − e − iθ
cos θ = Re eiθ = , sin θ = Im eiθ = .
2 2i
The product and quotient of complex numbers can be expressed as exponents in

polar form:
Product: z1 z2 = r1 ei θ r2 e i θ = r1 r2 ei (θ
1 2 1 +θ2 )
z1 r1 ei θ1 r
Quotient: = iθ2
= 1 ei (θ1 −θ 2 ) , z2 ≠ 0.
z2 r2 e r2
Complex conjugate for z = reiθ is
z = re − iθ = r{cos(−θ ) + i sin( −θ )} = r (cos(θ ) − i sin(θ )).
Euler’s formula is also useful in simplifying complex numbers of the form of

exponents or surds such as (1 + i )10 or (1 + i ) 10 . We introduce here De Moivre’s
1
formula, which is
Then, (cos θ + i sin θ ) n = (cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ ), n = 1, 2,3,....
10
⎛ ⎧ π π ⎫⎞ ⎧ 10π 10π ⎫ 5 ⎧ 5π 5π ⎫
(1 + i ) = ⎜ 2 ⎨cos + i sin ⎬ ⎟ = 25 ⎨cos + i sin ⎬ = 2 ⎨cos + i sin ⎬
10
⎝ ⎩ 4 4 ⎭⎠ ⎩ 4 4 ⎭ ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
and
1
⎛ ⎧ π π ⎫ ⎞10 1 ⎧ π π ⎫
(1 + i )
1
10
= ⎜ 2 ⎨cos + i sin ⎬ ⎟ = 2 20 ⎨cos + i sin ⎬
⎝ ⎩ 4 4 ⎭⎠ ⎩ 40 40 ⎭
and simplified as far as possible.

Example 1.3.3
1. Show De Moivre’s formula

(cos θ + i sin θ ) n = (cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ ), n = 1, 2,3,....
1+ i
2. Evaluate (a) and (b) (1 + i)24.
3 −i
3. State cos 3θ in terms of cos θ and sin 3θ .
Solution
1. Using the multiplication law,

(e )
iθ n
= eiθ eiθ … eiθ = eiθ +…+iθ = einθ
⎛π ⎞ iπ ⎛ π⎞ ( − iπ )
2. (a) 1 + i = 2cis ⎜ ⎟ = 2e 4 , 3 − i = 2cis ⎜ − ⎟ = 2e 6
⎝4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
Then,
iπ
5π
1+ i 2e 4 2 i12
= ⎛ − iπ ⎞
= e .
3 −i ⎜
⎝ 6 ⎠
⎟ 2
2e
(b) In exponential form,

iπ 24
⎛ ⎞
(1 + i ) = ⎜ 2e 4 ⎟ = 212 ei 6π = 1212
24
⎝ ⎠
3. cos 3θ = Re(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ) = Re(cos θ + i sin θ )3 .
By binomial expansion, (a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3 .
Hence, by taking a = cos θ and b = i sin θ , we obtain,

cos 3θ = Re(cos3 θ + 3cos 2 θ i sin θ + 3cos(− sin 2 θ ) − i sin 3 θ )
= cos3 θ − 3cos θ sin 2 θ .
SELF CHECK 3.3

1.3.3 Powers and Surds

For surds, we begin with Definition 1.3.1.
Definition 1.3.1
Suppose a complex number w ≠ 0 is given and n is a positive integer. The
number z is known as the n-th root of w if z n = w .
Example 1.13
Solve for z if z 3 = 1 .
Solution:
z 3 = 1cos (θ + 2π k ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . But
⎛ 2π k ⎞
z = [(cos 2π k )]3 = cos ⎜
1
⎟ , k = 0,1, 2. (using De Moivre’s Theorem)

⎝ 3 ⎠
Here, we only take three values of k; since only three solutions are distinct, the
rest repeats itself.
We then obtain the following:

k = 0 : z = cis (0) = 1;
⎛ 2π ⎞ 1 3
k = 1: z = cis ⎜ ⎟=− + i;
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2 2
1 3
k = 2: z = − − i
2 2
Hence, we conclude that the m-th root of unity are as follows:
⎛ 2π k ⎞ ⎛ 2π k ⎞
2 πk
= cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟ ; k = 0,1, 2,… , m − 1.
1
z = 1m = e m
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠
Whereas for the m-th root of z distinct from unity such as

w = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) ≠ 0 , then the solutions of z m = w are given by:
1 θ 2π k θ 2π k
z = r m [cos( + ) + i sin( + )], k = 0,1, 2,..., m − 1.
m m m m
ACTIVITY 1.4
1. Solve the following: (a) z 5 = −1 , (b) z 4 = i and (c) z 3 = 1 + i .

2. Simplify the following in polar form:
⎛ 1− i ⎞
10
i
(a) (1 + i ) 30
(b) (− 3 + i ) 3
(c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) .
⎝ 1+ i ⎠ ( )
5
1 + 2 3i

i i
(a) 10 + 10i (b) − (c) 1 + i (d) –3
2
1.4 COMPLEX VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex
variable, is the branch of mathematics investigating functions of complex
numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including number theory
and applied mathematics, and in physics.
1.4.1 Complex Functions

A complex function is a function in which the independent variable and the
dependent variable are both complex numbers. More precisely, a complex
function is a function whose domain D is a subset of the complex plane and
whose range is also a subset of the complex plane.
Suppose z = x + iy is a complex variable and D is a domain. If every point z in D

is assigned a unique complex number w = f(z), then the equation w = f(z) is said
to define a complex valued function of the complex variable on D.
The following are examples of functions of the complex variables z = x + iy:

(i) w=f(z) = 2z2 + z;
(ii) w=f(z) = 4 +2i ; and
(iii) w=f(z) = 1/z.
Example 1.14
Write the function w = f ( z ) = z 3 + z in the form w = u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) .
Solution:
If z = x + i y, then
w = f ( z ) = ( x + iy )3 + ( x + iy ) = x 3 − 3xy 2 + 3 x 2 yi − iy 3 + x + yi
which can be simplified as
w = ( x 3 − 2 xy 2 + x) + i (3 x 2 y + y − y 3 )
The above example shows that a function of a complex variable is a pair of real
functions u ( x, y ) and v( x, y ) , which is f ( z ) = f ( x + iy ) = u ( x, y ) + iv( x, y ) .
Hence, the function of complex variable may be written in the polar form as
w = f (reiθ ) = u (r, θ ) + iv(r ,θ ) .
1.4.2 Complex Mapping

It is rather difficult to represent a complex function geometrically. However, we
can imagine a complex function of the form w = f(z) by sketching its domain in
the z-plane and its range in the w-plane as in Figure 1.9
Figure 1.11: Domain of w = f(z) in the z-plane and range of w = f(z) in w-plane
Example 1.15
Solve the equation w = z2 +1.
Solution
Let w = z2 +1 where z = x + iy. Then,
w = u + iv = (x + iy)2 + 1 = (x2 –y2 + 1) + i (2xy).

So u(x, y) = x2 –y2 + 1, and v(x, y) = 2xy.
The point z1 = 0 is mapped into w1 = 1
z2 = 1 + i is mapped into w2 = 1 + 2i
By utilising the properties of quadratic mapping w = z2 and the method of

translation (i.e. mapping of the form w = z + b, b a complex constant, where
every point z will be transferred by the translation vector b), the region with the
largest angle of 45° on the z-plane will be mapped into the region of 90° in the w-
plane where the vertex z = 0 is mapped as the vertex w = 1 by the mapping w = z2
+ 1. This is shown in Figure 1.12.
Figure 1.12
A function of complex variable can be mapped by translation or shift by the formula

f ( z ) = z + b for any integer b, dilation by the formula f ( z ) = kz , for any integer k
and rotation by f ( z ) = eiθ z, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π if linear transformation is involved.
Example 1.16 will illustrate the method of translation without having to plot
points.
Example 1.16
Let S = {z : z ≤ 1} . Obtain the image of S under the mapping f ( z ) = z + 2 + i .
Solution:
For any z in S, f(z) is an addition vector of z and 2+i . Then, the function shifts z
by 2 units to the right and one unit above.
In other words, let w = f ( z ) = z + 2 + i , then w – (2 + i ) = z . From S,

z = w − (2 + i ) ≤ 1 . So on the w-plane, image of S is a disc with radius 1 and
centre at 2+i.
Figure 1.13: Image of S under the mapping f ( z ) = z + 2 + i

SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. Write the following functions in the form w = u (x, y) + iv(x,y).
1
(a) 1/z (b) (c) 2z2 + z + 1 (d) z Re( z ) + z 2 + Im( z )
z −1
2
2. Write the following in polar coordinates.

1
(d) z
3
(a) z + 4 z – 6
5 2
(b) z 2
(c) 1/z
3. Show that the linear transformation w = iz + i maps the right positive
half of Re( z ) > 1 to the whole upper half of Im( z ) > 2 .
4. Show that the image of z + 1 + i < 1 under the transformation
w = (3 – 4i ) z + 6 + 2i is the disc w + 1 − 3i < 5 .
5. Obtain the range under the transformation w = iz – 2+3i where the

domain is the disc |z|<1.
1.5 ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

An elementary function is a function built from a finite number of exponentials,
logarithms, constants, one variable and roots of equations through composition
and combinations using the four elementary operations (+, –, ×, ÷). The
trigonometric functions and their inverses are assumed to be included in the
elementary functions by using complex variables and the relations between the
trigonometric functions and the exponential and logarithm functions.
1.5.1 Exponential Functions
Definition 1.4
If z = x + iy , then e z is defined as the complex number

e z = e x eiy = e x (cos y + i sin y )
where eiy = cos y + i sin y and is known as Euler’s equation. In other form it is
written as
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ .
PROPERTIES OF EXAPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(a) Multiplicative Property:
If z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 are any two complex numbers, then
e z1 e z2 = e z1 + z2 . .
(b) Differentiability Property:

d z
Differentiate e z with respect to z , dz (e ) = e
z
(c) For all z = x + iy , ez = ex , eiy = 1.
Observe that
eiy = cos y + i sin y = cos 2 y + sin 2 y = 1

e z = e x +iy = e x eiy = e x eiy = e x
(d) Periodic Property:

The function f ( z ) = e is periodic with basic period (modulo)
z
1.5.2 Trigonometric Functions

The definition of sine and cosine functions in complex variables z are mere
extensions of the corresponding definitions in real variables.
Definition 1.5
For any complex variable z, define
ei z − e − i z ei z + e − i z
sin z = and cos z =
2i 2
The definitions for other trigonometric functions are similar to the case of real
functions.
Definition 1.6
For any complex number z, define
sin z ⎛ π ⎞ cos z
tan z = , ⎜ z ≠ + nπ ⎟ cot z = , ( z ≠ nπ )
cos z ⎝ 2 ⎠ sin z
1 ⎛ π ⎞ 1
sec z = , ⎜ z ≠ + nπ ⎟ cosec z = , ( z ≠ nπ )
cos z ⎝ 2 ⎠ sin z
where n is any arbitrary integer.
The derivatives of both sin z and cos z functions are similar to the derivatives of
real functions.
d d
(sin z ) = cos z , (cos z ) = − sin z
dz dz
The derivatives of other trigonometric functions are as follows:

d ⎛ π ⎞
(tan z ) = sec 2 z , ⎜ z ≠ + nπ ⎟
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
d
(cot z ) = −cosec 2 z, ( z ≠ nπ )
dz
d ⎛ π ⎞
(sec z ) = sec z tan z , ⎜ z ≠ + nπ ⎟
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
d
(cosec z ) = −cosec z cot z , ( z ≠ nπ )
dz
where n is any arbitrary integer.
The following is a list of properties of the functions sin z and cos z. Note the
similarities in the properties between complex and real trigonometric functions.
Properties of sin z and cos z functions

1. sin 2 z + cos 2 z = 1.
2. (a) sin(− z ) = − sin z ,
(b) cos(− z ) = cos z.
⎛ π⎞
3. sin ⎜ z + ⎟ = cos z ,
⎝ 2⎠
4. (a) sin 2 z = 2sin z cos z ,
(b) cos 2 z = 2 cos 2 z − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2 z.
5. sin( z1 ± z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 ± cos z1 sin z2 .
6. cos( z1 ± z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 ∓ sin z1 sin z2 .
d
7. (a) ( sin z ) = cos z,
dz
d
(b) ( cos z ) = − sin z
dz
8. sin z = 0 if and only if z = nπ , n is any arbitrary integer.
π
9. cos z = 0 if and only if z = + nπ , n is any arbitrary integer.
2
Formula (1) and (6) can be proved easily using properties of exponential
functions. We shall prove some of the other properties.
Example 1.16
d
Prove that (cos z ) = − sin z
dz
Solution:
d d ⎛ e iz + e − iz ⎞
(c os z ) = ⎜ ⎟
dz dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
= ( ie iz − ie − iz )
2
1 ⎛ e iz e − iz ⎞ 1
= ⎜− + ⎟, i=−
2⎝ i i ⎠ i
⎛ e iz − e − iz ⎞
= −⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2i ⎠
= − sin z .
Example 1.17
Prove that sin z = sin x cosh y + i cosh x sinh y, z = x + iy.
Solution:
To prove, we have to use the definitions of hyperbolic functions.

1
(
sinh y = e y − e − y ,
2
) 1
(
cosh y = e y + e − y .
2
)
1 1
sin z = (eiz − e − iz ) = (e − y eix − e y e− ix )
2i 2i
1
= [e − y (cos x + i sin x) − e y (cos x − i sin x)]
2i
⎛ e y + e− y ⎞ ⎛ e y − e− y ⎞
= sin x ⎜ ⎟ + i cos x ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
1.5.3 Hyperbolic Functions

As in the case of trigonometric functions, the definitions of complex hyperbolic
functions are similar to the case of real functions i.e.
1 z −z 1
sinh z = (e − e ), cosh z = (e z + e − z ).
2 2
d d
(sinh z ) = cosh z , (cosh z ) = sinh z.
dz dz
sinh z cosh z 1 1
tanh z = , coth z = , sech z = , cosech z = .
cosh z sinh z cosh z sinh z
Further, we give some properties of sinh z and cosh z, some of which are similar
to the case of real hyperbolic functions.
PROPERTIES OF Sinh z AND Cosh z FUNCTIONS
(a) cosh 2 z − sinh 2 z = 1.

(b) (a ) sinh(− z ) = − sinh z, (b) cosh(− z ) = cosh z.
(c) sinh( z1 ± z2 ) = sinh z1 cosh z2 ± cosh z1 sinh z2 .
(d) cosh( z1 ± z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 ± sinh z1 sinh z2 .
sin iz = i sinh z, cos iz = cosh z , sinh iz = i sin z , cosh iz = cos z.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. Solve the following: (a) z 5 = −1 , (b) z 4 = i and (c) z 3 = 1 + i .

2. Simplify the following in polar form:
⎛ 1− i ⎞
10
i
(a) (1 + i )30 (b) (− 3 + i )3 (c) ⎜ ⎟ (d) .
⎝ 1+ i ⎠ (1 + 2 3i )
5

i i
(a) 10 + 10i (b) − 2 (c) 1 + i (d) –3
• In this topic, you have been introduced to complex numbers which have two
components, real and imaginary parts.
• Given two complex numbers z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 2 – 3i,
Then,
Real part of z, Re (z1) = 2,
Imaginary part of z, Im (z1) = 3,
For z2 ;write z2 = 2 + (–3)i
Then, Re (z2) = 2 and Im (z2) = –3
Note that Im (z1) and Im (z2) are of opposite signs. This indicates that z1 and z2
are conjugates of one another.
• Note that in the case of product, we have to consider i2 = –1. In the case of
quotient, we have to change the denominator into a real quantity by multiplying it
with its conjugate. After the operation, separate the real and imaginary parts Re
(z) and Im (z).
• In this topic, we were also given the guidelines regarding algebra of complex
numbers, explanation of the complex planes, conversion of complex numbers to
polar forms and various form of complex functions and their properties.
Argument Euler fomula

Complex functions Imaginary part of the complex number
Complex mappings Modulus
Conjugates of the complex number Polar form
De Moivre’s theorem Powers of complex numbers
Elementary complex functions Real part of the complex number

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Topic X Complex

1.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Definition of complex number:

A complex number is expressed in the form a + i b, where a and b are real

1.1.1 Algebra of complex numbers

Figure 1.1: Concepts of algebra of complex numbers.

(a) SUM AND DIFFERENCE

Example 1.1 (3 + 2i ) + (−1 − 4i ) = (3 − 1) + i (2 − 4) = 2 − 2i

Example 1.2 (3 + 2i ) − (−1 − 4i ) = (3 + 1) + i (2 + 4) = 4 + 6i

(b) PRODUCT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Product of Complex Numbers

Example 1.3 (−1 + i )(2 + i ) = −2 − i + 2i + i 2 = −3 + i

Example 1.4 i (3 − 2i ) = 3i − 2i 2 = 3i − 2(−1) = 3i + 2

(c) QUOTIENT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Quotient of Complex Numbers

1.1.2 Properties of Complex Numbers

The identity with respect to addition 0 and identity with respect to

Figure 1.2: Properties of complex numbers

1.1.3 Quadratic Formula

Dividing throughout by a ≠ 0 and completing squares we obtain:

and then we obtain the Quadratic Formula as follows:

What are the roots of 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 0 ?

2. Solve the following and express the solution in the form of a + ib

3. Simplify the following:

4. Obtain the real and imaginary parts of the following:

5. Find the values of x and y given that

1.2 COMPLEX PLANES

1.2.1 Argand Diagrams

Figure 1.3: Complex Plane

1.2.2 Complex Conjugates

Table 1.1: Properties of Complex Conjugates

Let z1 = a1+b1i and z2= a2+b2i . Then,

z1 z 2 = (a1 + b1i )(a2 + b2i ) = (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i

Prove property (d).

1.2.3 Absolute Values

In the following box some properties of absolute value of a complex number

Proof (c) (i)

From (b), z = x 2 + y 2 = ⎡⎣ Re ( z ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣Im ( z ) ⎤⎦ , then

or using property (e), we obtain,

Figure 1.4: A circle with centre z0 and radius r

Illustrate the set of points z satisfying the following equations:

(a) z + 2 = z −1 , (b) z –1 = Re( z ) + 1

(a) Substituting z = x + iy , we obtain x + iy + 2 = x + iy –1 , i.e.

and y is any arbitrary real number.

The required set is then:

(b) As in (a) x + iy − 1 = x + 1 , i.e. ( x − 1) 2 + y 2 = ( x + 1) 2 or y 2 = 4 x is a

The sketch of (a) and (b) are as in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1..5: Sketch of (a) and (b)

SELF CHECK 1.2

Write the set of points satisfying the equation z − 1 = Im( z ) + 1 .

1.2.4 Vector Representations

Triangle Inequality: For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 we have

Figure 1. 6: Vector Addition

Figure 1.7: Vector Difference

1. Prove 2.3.1(c) and (d).

4. Obtain the following:

1.3 POLAR REPRESENTATION

In this topic, we shall introduce polar coordinates, more commonly known as

1.3.1 Polar Form

Figure 1.8: Sketch of angle of inclination of z = x + iy

PROPERTIES OF ANGLES OF INCLINATION

(i) Determined up to multiple of 2π , since all angles θ + 2π k for the

Note that z = x + iy ≠ 0 can be written in a polar form as: