CHAPTER 3

VISCOSITY

A. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Most engineers appreciate that viscosity is some form of internal resistance of a liquid
to flow and are generally prepared to accept this fact together with the knowledge that
there are accepted temperatures controlling the most suitable operating viscosities for the
various grades and types of oil. Most oil-distribution centres or refineries specify the
viscosity of the oil they supply and issue a chart or graph from which the most suitable
temperatures can be selected. The manufacturers of oil-burning equipment specify operating
viscosities or temperatures and a method of correlating these two factors to obtain the opti-
mum results from the equipment supplied.
In the design of oil-burning installations and heat transfer equipment, viscosity is a
constant source of frustration unless the term viscosity and some of the complexity of
terms associated with viscosity are more fully appreciated. Viscosity is defined as that
property of a fluid which, due to internal resistance opposes variations in velocity by
causing shearing stresses between adjacent layers of fluid moving relative to each other.
Referring to Fig. 1.15, which illustrates the flow of a fluid through a pipe, Newton
showed that the velocity of flow was not uniform but varied from point to point across the
cross-section as illustrated by the velocity profile. It follows that layers, or thin cylinders
in a cylindrical pipe, of fluid may be assumed to slide relative to adjacent layers and that
the relative slip velocity between layers varies across the section.

FIG. 1.15. Velocity distribution curve for a fluid flowing through a pipe.

In the case of Newtonian fluids it can further be shown that the shearing stress between
the layers is directly proportional to the velocity gradient normal to the flow, when a co-
efficient of viscosity can be stated to be the stress in the given fluid resulting from unit
velocity gradient.
Consider a longitudinal layer of fluid flowing through the pipe, distance y from the side
of the pipe and of thickness dy. Let the velocity of this layer be v increasing by dv over thick-
ness dy.
28
 VISCOSITY 29
Let </> = angle of distortion due to viscous shear stress,
/ = viscous shear stress,
I* = coefficient of viscosity.
Then,
But, from Fig. 1.15, tan <f> = dv/dy = velocity gradient.
Since <f> is extremely small

Or, coefficient of viscosity = Viscous shear stress/Velocity gradient

Substituting the fundamental dimensional units: M— mass
L = distance
T = time

B. TERMS OF VISCOSITY AND UNITS

For quantitative analysis a distinction is made between dynamic viscosity, relating to
motive force, and kinematic viscosity, relating to motion, while the methods of measuring
viscosity have led to the use of arbitrary viscosity units.

1. Absolute Dynamic Viscosity

This is defined as the force which exists when a layer of fluid of unit area is moving at
unit velocity relative to a similar layer unit distance from and parallel to the original layer
(see Fig. 1.16). If the force is measured in dynes, the corresponding unit of viscosity is the
"poise".
30 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

FIG. 1.16. Illustration of absolute dynamic viscosity.

Hence,

2. Absolute Kinematic Viscosity

This is defined as the absolute dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid.
Hence,

If measured in the c.g.s. system the unit of kinematic viscosity is referred to as the
"stoke".

While there is generally a preference for the use of absolute units in the solution of fluid
dynamic problems, practical engineering applications may require the use of engineers
units and extreme care is needed with any calculation involving the unit of force.
To avoid possible error, calculations are better carried out completely in one system
and any conversion, where necessary, carried out at the outset or completion of the
calculation.
Table 1.8 shows the systems of units in use, while Table 1.9 indicates the relation between
the units and the conversion factors employed.
 VISCOSITY 31
TABLE 1.8. DERIVATION OF VISCOSITY UNITS

British systems (f.p.s.)

Absolute Engineers

Unit of Force Poundal = ^ l b - f Pound lb-f.

Unit of Mass Pound lb Slug = 32-2 lb

Specific weight of a substance is the force with which unit volume is attracted to the earth, e.g. Specif c
weight of water = w = 62-4 lb-f/ft3
Mass 62-4
Density of Water p J ^ = 6*4 lb/ft»
Volume Volume 32-2
M
lb M slug
Coefficient of Viscosity /x —r = = slug/ft
6 sec
! 7^7 = ? = lb/ft sec TL sec ft
TL sec ft
* lb ft 3
' M,
/x slug ft3 __.
Kinematic Viscosity v = — 7 - x -— = ft2/sec
= F* x Tu = ft
/sec P sec ft slug
I p sec ft lb

Absolute

Metric System (c.g.s.)

Unit of Force Dyne

Unit of Mass Gram
Coefficient of Viscosity \i M —g
r^w — , g/cm sec
TL sec cm
1 g/cm sec = 1 poise
001 g/cm sec = 1 centipoise
Kinematic Viscosity v V g cm3
P cm sec g
1 cm2/sec = 1 stoke
001 cm2/sec = 1 centistoke

3. Arbitrary Viscosity Units

A considerable variety of instruments, known as viscometers, have been developed for
the measurement of viscosity, and these have led to the use of a number of arbitrary units
which bear little direct relationship with the term viscosity as already described.
The normal standards of viscosity measurement in commercial usage are the Redwood
seconds in Great Britain and the Commonwealth, Saybolt Universal seconds in the U.S.A.
and Engler degrees in Europe which all give viscosity in terms of time (sec) of flow through
the particular instrument concerned.

C. THE HAGAN-POISEUILLE LAW FOR VISCOUS FLOW THROUGH

ROUND PIPES
The methods of measuring viscosity usually involve equating viscous resistance in terms
of rate of flow and pressure loss.
32 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

TABLE 1.9. VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS

British System (f.p.s.)

Viscosity Metric System (c.g.s.)
Absolute Engineers Absolute

1 lb/ft sec T^- = 0-31056 slug/ft sec g | = 14-8816 poise

53-6 x 32-24
32-2 lb/ft sec 1 slug/ft sec
M 30-48 ~~ 4 ? 9 19 P01i
°

30-48 = 00208
5 ^ ? - 0 0 6 7 2 lb/ft sec 1 poise
453-6 x 32-2 slug/ft sec

1 ft2/sec 1 ft2/sec 30.482 = 92903 stoke

V

^ = 00010764 ft2/sec 3 0 ^ 5 = 00010764 ft2/sec 1 stoke

1
The basis of all pressure-loss calculations in fluid flow is that derived by Poiseuille and
subsequently verified by Hagan and generally referred to as the Hagan-Poiseuille Law.
When a fluid isflowingthrough a pipe there is an internal resistance to flow which must
result in a pressure drop between two points in the direction of theflow.This pressure loss,
induced by viscous stress, can be analysed from first principles by considering the nature
of viscous flow between two parallel planes, or flow in a circular tube where the diameter
is small in relation to the length.
Consider afluidflowingthrough a section of pipe of unit length as shown in Fig. 1.17.

FIG. 1.17. Fluid flow through a circular pipe.

Let R = radius of pipe, r = radius of elemental annulus of fluid of thickness dr, v =

velocity of fluid, A/? = pressure drop per unit length = p\ — p2

(1)
 VISCOSITY 33
where ix{dvjdr) is substituted for / from the basic viscosity equation. It should be noted
that dv/dr will be negative since r is measured outwards from the centre whereas in the
determination of the viscosity equation y9 in Fig. 1.15, was measured from the sides.

Net force on ends of fluid cylinder

(2)

Now it follows that,

Viscous resistance opposing motion of fluid cylinder = Net force on ends of fluid cylinder,

Integrating, (3)

where C is the constant of integration.

When r = R, v = 0 since the fluid is stationary at the pipe walls, from equation (3),

from which

If vr = velocity at radius r, then,

(4)

Next consider the quantity of fluid flowing through an elemental annulus.

Let, Q = total quantity of fluid flowing through pipe per second, dQ = quantity of fluid
flowing through elemental annulus.

Then,
34 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

Integrating between limits r = R and r = 0:

(5)

Let v — mean velocity of flow in pipe. Then,

For a pipe flowing full, the hydraulic mean depth m = Rj2 ; hence, substituting the value
of m into equation (6) and calling the diameter of the pipe D,

Dividing both sides by Z),

Since D = 4m,

Rearranging,

Dividing both sides by v2

(7)
Since, n = vp,

or rearranging,

(8)
or,

(9)
 VISCOSITY 35

where C and n are constants depending on whether the flow is streamline or turbulent.
Equation (8) can be rearranged to obtain any of the various terms but is more often
expressed to give pressure drop or viscosity,

i.e.

or

D. METHODS OF DETERMINING VISCOSITY

(a) Determination of pressure drop measurement during liquid flow through a pipe
The coefficient of viscosity using this method is calculated by reference to the Hagan-
Poiseuille Law and the rearrangement of equation (8), hence,

Frequently the pressure drop is measured in terms of "pressure head" in which case,

where w = the specific weight of the liquid, i.e. weight/unit volume, h = pressure head
loss/unit length = HjL, H = total pressure head loss, L = length of pipe between pressure
readings.
Expressing weight, or gravitational force, in absolute units,

Since density = mass/volume,

By substitution,

0)
or

(2)

the coefficient of viscosity can be calculated from equation (2) if the values of v and H
are measured for a pipe of known smoothness during viscous flow. The mean velocity v
is obtained by measuring the quantity of flow in a known time while the loss in pressure
head H is measured on a known length L by means of a manometer or accurate pressure
gauge. To obtain accurate results it is also necessary that there should be a sufficient length
of straight pipe, free from bends and valves, etc., both before and after the measuring
devices to render negligible any disturbance to flow caused by such fittings. Precise rules
for pipe lengths are given in B.S. 1042.
36 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

Extreme care should be taken to ensure that units used in the viscosity equation (2) are
consistent,
e.g. from equation (2),

Metric (C.G.S.) units

British (F.P.S.) Absolute units

British (F.P.S.) Engineers' units

(b) Determination by measurement of discharge through an orifice

It can be shown by simple experiment that the discharge through a small orifice under
a constant head H is given by the equation :

where Q = quantity of flow, A = area of orifice, Cd = coefficient of discharge =

actual discharge/theoretical discharge.
This equation may be rewritten :

where K = a constant, D = diameter of orifice.

It can further be shown by experiment that K is not a true constant but varies with such
factors as pressure head, viscosity, density and surface tension.
Mathematically K can be shown to be equal to a non-dimensional constant {pDv)Jii,
of the same form as Reynolds number.
Certain practical viscometers make use of the basic discharge equation in which the
viscosity of the liquid is related to the time taken for a specified quantity of liquid to dis-
charge through a known size of orifice under set temperature conditions.
In the above non-dimensional constant, time T is proportional to velocity v. Technical
viscometers of the Redwood, Saybolt and Engler types utilize this principle of measuring
viscosity and in the case of the Redwood and Saybolt instruments viscosity is specified in
terms of seconds time. These instruments do not therefore give readings of real viscosity
and hence can only be used for comparison purposes.
The Redwood instrument is shown in Fig. 1.18 and consists essentially of a cylindrical-
shaped reservoir fitted with an efflux tube or orifice in the centre of its base through which
the fluid can flow. The cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket heated by means of an elec-
tric immersion heater which maintains the fluid at a constant temperature in the cylinder.
The oil to be tested is poured into the cylinder to a known depth, indicated by a special
pointer provided, and brought up or down to the required test temperature when the plug
 VISCOSITY 37

FIG. 1.18. Detail of Redwood No. 1 viscosity instrument.

or ball valve is removed from the orifice and the time taken for 50 cc of oil to flow through
the orifice into a graduated flask. Conditions are arranged so that the flow through the
orifice takes place at a comparatively slow rate so that the velocity head of the discharging
fluid is negligible. Redwood viscosities are usually quoted at 70°F, 140°F and 200°F;
temperatures chosen specifically to compensate for rate of flow. Under the conditions of
the test the pressure head causing flow through the orifice can thus be equated to viscous
resistance.
The viscosity of any liquid taken with this type of instrument is proportional to the
time taken and as such is not a direct measurement of viscosity but a related comparison
to the instrument. The Saybolt and Engler instruments are similar in design to the Redwood
instrument, the basic variation being in the size of efflux tube or orifice used.
Exact conversion is not possible from arbitrary scales to absolute units, or from one
arbitrary scale to another, due mainly to the extent of the experimental error involved
during the measurement of viscosity; measurements by an ordinary Redwood apparatus
may be in error by as much as 1 %.
Close approximate equivalents are, however, available suitable for most practical
purposes which can be derived from conversion tables or formulae such as is given in
Table 1.10.
Referring to the Hagan-Poiseuille Law, equation (9),

Since,
38 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

TABLE 1.10. ARBITRARY VISCOSITY UNITS—CONVERSION FACTORS

To convert Multiply by

Centistokes to Redwood No. 1 Saybolt Universal Engler degrees

seconds seconds
About 60 408 4-62 0133
Above 60 „ 405 4-62 0132
Redwood No. 1 to Centistokes Saybolt Universal Engler degrees
seconds seconds
T= 40-85 [0-264 T - (190/r)] — —
seconds seconds
T= over 85 [0-247 T- (65/r)] — —
Tabout 150 0-242 1139 00326
175 0-243 114 00326
200 0-245 1-14 00326
225 0-246 114 00326
T above 225 0-247 114 00326

Saybolt Universal to Redwood No. 1 Centistokes Engler degrees

seconds seconds
T< 100 — [0-2267-(195/r)] —
T> 100 — [0-220r-(135/D] —
Tabout 175 0-877 0-215 00285
200 0-877 0-216 00285
Tabove 200 0-877 0-216 00285

Engler degrees to Redwood No. 1 Saybolt Universal Centistokes

seconds seconds 7-6[i-<1'£;3>J x E
E about 6 30-7 34-9 7-55
7 30-7 1 30-7 7-58
Eabove 7 30-7 3511 7-58
Redwood No. 2 to Redwood No. 1
seconds seconds
10

Saybolt Furol to Saybolt Universal

seconds seconds
10

from which,

Since D, L and H are constants for the instrument representing the diameter and length
of orifice, and the total head of oil respectively, it follows that:
 VISCOSITY 39
The time of discharge T varies as ljv, hence T = a constant x ljv, or T = a constant
x fji/p. Thus the time interval is recorded as an arbitrary unit of viscosity in either seconds
Redwood or Saybolt depending on the instrument used. With both the Redwood and Say-
bolt instruments there are two forms which are almost identical, differing only in the detail
and size of the orifice.
The Redwood instruments are referred to as Redwood No. 1 and Redwood No. 2,
No. 1 instrument generally being used for oils and other fluids having viscosities not
exceeding 2000 sec at the test temperature required, while the No. 2 instrument is designed
to have a rate of flow ten times faster than the No. 1 instrument and is normally confined
to oils having a viscosity exceeding 2000 sec Redwood No. 1.
The Saybolt instruments are referred to as Saybolt Universal and Saybolt Furol and as
with the Redwood instruments, the efflux time given by the Saybolt Furol viscometer is
approximately one-tenth that given by the Saybolt Universal viscometer.
The Engler viscometer, which works in the same manner as the previous two, expresses
viscosity in terms of Engler degrees, °E, which represent the ratio of the efflux time of the
test fluid at a specified temperature to the efflux time of distilled water at 20 °C. The latter
is approximately 51-3 sec.

(c) Determination by measurement of the time offall of a steel ball in the liquid
This method follows on from experiments carried out by Stokes who proved by a difficult
mathematical analysis that the resistance to a sphere moving through a non-compressible
fluid is given by

where F = resistance to slow motion or viscous flow, r = radius of sphere, v = velocity

of sphere. In the test equipment, a steel sphere is allowed to fall freely through a column
of the liquid and the time taken for the sphere's fall through a known height. The sphere
at first accelerates but provided it falls slowly and there are no eddies or effects of surface
tension from the sides of the cylinder containing the liquid, the resistance to motion
increases with increase in velocity until it just balances the pull of gravity on the sphere.
At this condition the sphere falls with uniform velocity and it is during this constant
velocity period that the time is measured for a known distance of fall.
By equating resistance to the pull of gravity on the sphere the coefficient of viscosity /x
can be calculated.
Let v = final uniform velocity of sphere, />i = density of sphere used, p% = density of
liquid.
Then, pull of gravity on sphere = weight of sphere — upthrust of liquid
= weight of sphere — weight of liquid displaced
= (4/3)7rr8(pi-/,a)g.
Since, pull of gravity on sphere = fluid resistance on sphere at velocity v

from which,
40 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

(d) Determination of kinematic viscosity

For accurate measurement of kinematic viscosity instruments of the British Standard
U-tube, the suspended level and Fenske types are used. These instruments are similar to
the Redwood, Saybolt and Engler instruments in that the time of flow of a definite quantity
of oil is measured. They are much more accurate, however, since the whole apparatus is
suspended in a constant temperature bath thermostatically controlled to maintain the test
temperature while in the former the liquid is collected at room temperature which is not
always the same as the temperature of the liquid in the reservoir. The instrument, basically
as shown in Fig. 1.19, is charged with a sufficient sample to fill the charging bulb up to the
etched mark and is then suspended in a water bath for a sufficient time to allow the instru-
ment to attain the test temperature.
The operating principle of the instrument is such that a given volume of the oil sample
is drawn up by vacuum or forced up the capillary tube to a point beyond the upper etched
mark. The oil is then allowed to flow under its own weight back through the capillary
tube and the time taken for the oil level to pass between the upper and lower etched marks.

FIG. 1.19. Detail of a suspended level viscometer.

The time of flow in seconds multiplied by a calibration constant for the instrument
minus a design constant gives the kinematic viscosity direct in centistokes.
Hence, kinematic viscosity v = Ct — (Bjt) centistokes,
where C = calibration constant for the instrument, t = time of flow in seconds, B = a
constant determined by the capillary diameter.
The instrument is usually calibrated by using distilled water, having a kinematic vis-
cosity of 1-0068 centistokes at 68 °F, and the constants determined, after which it is a
simple matter of noting rates of flow of the liquid through the capillary tube and substi-
tuting this value into the equation. Dynamic viscosity, in centipoise, is obtained by multi-
plying kinematic viscosity, in centistokes, by the specific gravity.
VISCOSITY/TEMPERATURE CHART

FIG. 1.20. Viscosity-temperature chart.

42 COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR BOILERS

Five models of the U-tube viscometer are available differing mainly in the dimensions
of the capillary, and which cover by steps the measurement of the extensive range of
viscosities from 0-5 centistokes to 1500 centistokes. Model 2 (6-75 cs) and Model 3
(50-300 cs) cover the range of ordinary fuel oils.

E. VISCOSITY-TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS
The viscosity of a fluid is considerably influenced by temperature and it is a well-known
fact that oils flow more freely when heated.
Since viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance of the liquid to flow, then it follows
that the viscosity of oil, and for that matter all liquids, must decrease with an increasing
temperature and vice versa. Thus the viscosity of a fluid must always be stated or calculated
at a specific temperature.
There is no general law connecting the effect of temperature on viscosity and experi-
mentally determined values are used. Charts have been produced and are generally issued
by the oil companies and the oil-burning manufacturers which show the viscosity-tempera-
ture relationship of the various fuels. These charts are usually plotted on logarithmic graph
paper which produces a straight-line relationship even over a large temperature range
which makes extrapolation possible with a fair degree of accuracy. Figure 1.20 shows a
viscosity-temperature chart typical of those issued by the oil companies.
The prime function of this particular chart is to provide a close indication of the tempera-
ture to which various fuel oils should be preheated to enable the appropriate viscosity to be
fixed for the type of burner and handling equipment being used.
Charts of wider scope are available for the designers of heating and pumping equipment.

To use the chart

Provided the viscosity of the oil at a particular temperature is known, according to
Redwood No. 1, Saybolt Universal, Engler or absolute kinematic scale, the viscosity at
any other temperature, or the temperature required for any other viscosity, may be deter-
mined by utilizing or producing a graph parallel to the existing graphs drawn. Thus if it
is known that an oil has a viscosity of 400 sec Redwood No. 1 at 100°F and it is required
that the viscosity at the burner be 84 sec Redwood No. 1, then the appropriate graph is
selected and followed up to the required viscosity where the temperature is read off from
the appropriate temperature scale above or below this point, i.e. in this particular case the
temperature required will be 170°F or approximately 77 °C. The graph lines drawn have
been experimentally determined and are a compromise on all of the various types and
grades likely to be encountered for marine purposes.