What is Soil?

Soil is the upper most part of the earth crust and is a mixture of organic as well as
weathered rock and materials necessary for the plant growth soil is also the
medium for detritus food chain.

Importance of Soil

The soil provides homes and ideal environmental conditions for living organisms.
soils provide the key links in the Global carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur
cycles etc. the soil supplies nutrients to the plant and form the basis of agriculture
and forestry. soil acts as a filter for aqueous and solid inputs including rain,
domestic wastes, Industrial wastes, pesticides and other chemicals.

Soil Formation

Soil formation involves two stages i.e., weathering and soil development and
pedogenesis.

A. Weathering process

It involves the breakdown of bigger rocks into fine, smaller mineral particles
and may be physical or chemical.

1. Physical weathering

Agents such as temperature, water, ice gravity and wind etc., exert mechanical
effect on the rocks as a result of which fragments are broken down to regoliths.
Physical weathering includes wetting-drying, heating-cooling,freezing.

2. Chemical weathering

The presence of moisture and air are essential for chemical weathering. It takes
place through the following reactions:

Solution

Water soluble minerals like gypsum,limestone etc.,of the weathered rock get
weathered by the solvent action which increases in the presence of carbon
dioxide and organic acids, formed by the decay of organic remains of plants and
animals.

Oxidation.

In this process oxygen reacts with minerals to produce oxides.

4FeO+O2_2Fe2O3

Reduction.

The red ferric oxide may also be reduced to grey ferrous oxide. The reduction
mainly occurs in deep zones of earth crust, which are poorly aerated.

2Fe2O3_4FeO+O2

Hydration.

In this process water molecules get attached to the rock material.

CaSO4+2H2O_CaSO4.2H2O

Biological Weathering.

A number of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, lichens and

mosses transform the rock into a dynamic system, storing energy and synthesizing
organic matter.

B. Pedogenesis

It is the modification of mineral matter through interaction between biological,

topographic and climate effects which leads to the development of a number of
layers i.e., horizons of soil, known as soil profile.

Factors affecting soil formation.

Soil formation is affected by active factors viz.,rainfall, temperature

wind,humidity and evaporation.
Passive factors include parent materials and topography which influences
aeration, texture and chemical characteristics of the soil.

Composition of soil

Composition of soil is :

1 Mineral matter 45%

2 Organic matter 5%

3 Soil water 25%

4 Soil air 25%

1. Mineral matter in the soil

A. Lithophile elements: These elements get readily ionised forming oxyanions

viz., Li, Na, K, Ca, Mg.

B.Chalcophile elements: These elements tend to form covalent bonds with

sulphide such as Fe, Ni, Co.

C. Biophile elements: These elements remain associated with the living organisms
such as C, H, O, N.

2. Organic Matter in Soil.

A. The organic matter provides food for micro-organisms. It is the major source of
nutrients (N, P, K)and energy for microbes. It improves aeration, contributes to
the weathering of mineral matter and reduces soil erosion.

3. Soil Water.

Soil water does not only act as solvent and transporting agent but also maintains
soil texture, arrangement and compactness of soil particles. It makes the soil a
perfect habitat for plants and animals. Soil water is essential for photosynthesis
and convertion of straches to sugars. It is a main regulator of physical, chemical
and biological activities in the soil. On the basis of water retention by the soil, the
soil water may be physically classified into

A. Gravitational water

B. Capillary water

C. Hygroscopic water and

D. Combined water

4. Soil Air.

Soil air occupies the pore space between soil particles which is not water filled.
Soil air is essential for the respiration of soil micro-organisms and plants. Soil
aeration increases the permeability of roots to water.

THE SOIL PROFILE

A vertical section of soil is called soil profile. Soils have four horizons-an organic or
O-horizon and three mineral horizons.

A. Horizon O.: The uppermost horizon of soil profile is called horizon-O or litter
zone. It is usually not present in the soils of deserts grasslands and cultivated
field, but present in soils of forests.

B. Horizon A.: Underlying the litter zone is the horizon A or top soil. It contains
undercomposed, partially decomposed and completely decomposed humus from
upper to lower sides. This horizon is usually sandy.

C. Horizon B.: It is also known as subsoil and is formed with clayey soil. It contains
a little humus.

D. Horizon C.: It is at the bottom of soil profile and contains weathered rock of
parent material. It is light coloured, below this zone hard rocks are found.
Types of soil:-

1. Sandy Soils:- This type of soil consists of loose and dry sand particles. These
soils have poor water holding capacity and loan nutrient content.
2. Clayey Soils:- Clay particles (size less than 0.002 mm) have very small
interspaces and inhibit the free circulation of air and water.
3. Loamy Soils:- They contain sand, silt and clay in almost equal proportion. Loam
is the best soil for vigorous plant growth.
4. Sandy Loam Soils:- Such soils consist of sand, silt and clay. They are also
suitable for plant growth.
5. Clay Loam Soils:- These soil contain clay particles along with sand and silt.
Such soils also favour plant growth.
Sources of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution

1. Industrial wastes
2. Urban wastes
3. Metallic pollutants
1. Soil Pollution by Industrial Waste:- Industrial effluents are mainly
discharged from pulp and paper mills, chemicals industries, fertilizers drugs,
glass, cement, petroleum, etc. Industrial wastes consist of organic
compounds along with inorganic complexes and non-biodegradable
materials which affect the chemical and biological properties of soil

2. Soil Pollution by Urban Wastes:- Urban wastes comprise both commercial

and domestic wastes consisting of dried sludge of sewage. All the urban
solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse. This refuse contains
garbage and rubbish materials like plastic, glass, metallic cans, fibres,
paper, fuel residue, leaves, containers etc.
3. Metallic pollutants:- A number of industries including textiles pesticides,
paints, dyes, soap, and synthetic detergents, drugs, cements, petroleum, paper
and pulp, and Metal Industries pour their hazardous metallic effluents in soil and
water creating disastrous effects on living organisms

Control of soil pollution

1. Plantation of trees:- Launching extensive afforestation and community

forestry programmes as well as implementing deterrent measures against
deforestation can control soil pollution to a large extent. Grass, the natural bund,
acts as a powerful weapons against soil erosion.

2. Recycling of trees:- Recycling of trees have been used as under water dikes to
help stem the erosion of beaches and local marshes. The potted trees can be
replanted in green belt areas to control soil pollution.

3. Conservation of soil:- To prevent the loss of precious top soil from erosion
and to maintain it in a fertile state for agricultural purposes.

3. Transforming intensive agriculture into a sustainable system:- Banning the

use of highly toxic and resistant pesticides for regulating their use only for
special purposes under thorough monitoring.

Soil analysis

Techniques for the analyses of soil:- Soil analysis is essential for getting the
maximum yield as it provides the knowledge of soil components, nutrients and
their deficiency in a particular part of soil.
 Gravimetric Method: In this method soil is taken in a container, weighed in the
moist condition, oven dried and weighed again after cooling. The drying in the
oven is carried out at 110°C to constant weight. Drying takes about 2 hours for
small samples, but as much as 24 hours for bulky clayey soil samples. The mass
water percentage is calculated on the basis of dry soil weight.

Weight of moist soil = W1 g.

Weight of oven dried soil = W2 g.

Weight of mass of Moisture =(W1-W2)g.

𝑊1− 𝑊2
Percent moisture = ×100
𝑤2

Determination of soil pH

The pH of soil suspension can be determined by electric ph metre and

colorimetric methods.

1. Electric pH metre method.

The glass electrode with calomel reference electrode gives accurate pH of soil.
This instrument being a potentiometer requires to be calibrated with buffer
solutions of known pH value.

Principle: The glass electrode in contact with hydrogen ions of the soil suspension
acquires an electrical potential (emf) and gives H+ ion concentration or pH of the
sample.

Preparation of standard buffer solutions:

(i) pH in saturated soil paste.

1. Prepare a soil paste in distilled water.

2. On saturation the soil paste glistens and flows slightly when the container is
tilted.

3. Allow it to stand for about four hours.

4. There should be no free water on the soil surface and also paste should not
stiffen.

5. The glistening soil paste is ready to determine pH.

(ii) PH in 1:2 Soil Water Suspension : Weigh 40g of soil in 250 ml flask and dissolve
in 80 ml of distilled water. Shake the mixture on the reciprocating shaker for one
hours.