Energy Conversion II

Prepared by: Mahmood Sunny

DC Generator

An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power)

into electrical energy (or power)
The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of dynamically (or
by motion) induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically
induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction. This e.m.f causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Two basic essential parts of an electrical generator: 1. a magnetic field 2. a
conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.
THE MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from
one form to another in motors, generators, and transformers. Four basic principles
describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:

A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes
through that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action.)
A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it.
(This is the basis of motor action.)
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. (This
is the basis of generator action.)
Simple Loop Generator

• Single-turn copper coil ABCD

rotates about own axis
• Magnetic field provided by
permanent or electromagnet
• Slip-rings ’a’ and ‘b’
• Carbon or copper brushes
• Rotating coil may be called
‘armature’
• Magnets may be called ‘field
magnets’
Simple Loop Generator
Simple Loop Generator

In the next half of revolution, maximum induced e.m.f. is found when the coil is in
position 7
Minimum value of e.m.f. is when in position 1
Direction of current flow is DCLMBA
Resulting current is called the AC or Alternating Current

How can we create DC or Direct Current?

DC Generator Principle

• To make the current flow in the external circuit unidirectional, the slip-rings are
replaces by split-rings
DC Generator Principle
• In the first half of revolution, direction
of current flow is ABMLCD and the
brush 1 is in contact with segment ‘a’.
‘a’ acts as positive end of the supply
and ‘b’ acts as the negative end.
• In the second half revoltion, the
direction of the induced current in the
coil has reversed. But at the same time,
the positions of ‘a’ and ‘b’ have
reversed too. Hence, brush 1 is in
touch with the positive segment ‘b’. As
a result, current in the load resistance
again flows from ’M’ to ’L’
• Split-rings are also called
‘commutators’
• In the armature of a dc generator, the
induced voltage is alternating
Construction of Practical
Generator
• Magnetic Frame or Yoke
• Pole Coils or Field Coils
• Armature Windings or Conductors
• Brushes and Bearings
• Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
• Armature Core
• Commutator
Yoke
1. Yoke provides mechanical support for
the poles and acts as a protecting
cover for the whole machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced
by the poles
3. In small machines, cast irons are used
to construct the yoke
4. Cast or rolled steel are used for larger
machines
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole

cores and pole shoes
Pole Shoes serves two purposes:
They spread out the flux in the air gap
and also reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path
They support the exciting coils (or
filed coils)
Pole Coils and Armature Core

When current is passed through

these coils, they electromagnetise
the poles which produce the
necessary flux that is cut by revolving
armature conductors
Armature core houses the armature
conductors or coils and causes them
to rotate and hence cut the magnetic
flux of the field magnets
Others..
Armature Windings
Single-layer winding
Two-layer winding
Multiplex winding
Lap and Wave Windings
Simplex Lap-winding
Simplex wave winding
Commutator
Facilitates collection of current from the armature conductors. It rectifies or converts the
alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current in the
external load circuit.
Brushes
Collects current from the commutator. Made of carbon or graphite
Types of Generators
Generators are usually classified according to the way in
which their fields are excited:
Separately-excited generators: these generators are those
whose field magnets are energized from an independent
external source of dc current
Self-excited generators: these generators are those whose
field magnets are energized by the current produced by the
generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is Fig: Separately-
always some flux present in the poles. When the armature is excited generator
rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced current is
produced which is partly or fully passed through the field
coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
Types of Generators
There are 3 types of self-excited generators according
to the manner in which their field coils (or windings) are
connected to the armature:
Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or
in parallel with the armature conductors and have the full
voltage of the generator applied across them
Series wound: The field windings are joined in series with
the armature conductors. As they carry full load current,
they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips.
Such generators are rarely used except for special
purposes. i.e. as boosters etc.
Compound wound: It is a combination of a few series and
a few shunt windings and can be either short-shunt or
long-shunt. In a compound generator, the shunt field is
stronger than the series field. When series field aids the
shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-
compounded. However, if series field opposes the shunt
field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
Types of Generators
Brush Contact Drop

It’s the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current passes from
commutator segments to brushes and finally to the external load. Its value
depends on the amount of current and the value of contact resistance. This drop is
usually small and includes brushes of both polarities. However, in practice, the
following constant values are assumed for all loads:
0.5 V for metal-graphite brushes
2.0 V for carbon brushes
Generated E.M.F. of a Generator
Φ = flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= number of slots x number of conductors
per slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in r.p.m.
E = e.m.f. induced in any parallel path in
armature
Generated E.M.F. of a Generator
Total Loss in a DC Generator
Copper losses:
Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
(30 to 40% of FL loss)

Field copper loss = Ish 2Rsh or Vish for shunt generators. Ise2Rse for series generators.
(20 to 30% of FL loss)
The loss due to brush contact resistance.
Usually included in armature copper loss
Total Loss in a DC Generator
Magnetic or iron or core losses:
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss
(both losses account for 20 to 30 % of FL loss together)
Hysteresis loss:
This loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation of the armature core.
For reducing the hysteresis loss, those metals are chosen for the armature core which have a low
hysteresis coefficient. Generally, special silicon steels such as stalloys are used which not only have a
low hysteresis coefficient but which also possess high electrical resistivity.
Eddy Current loss:
When the armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic flux. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in the body
of the core according to the laws of electromagnetic induction. This e.m.f. though small, sets up large
current in the body of the core due to its small resistance. This current is known as eddy current. The
power loss due to the flow of this current is known as eddy current loss.
In order to reduce this loss and the consequent heating of the core to a small value, the core is built up
of thin laminations
 Total Loss in a DC Generator
Mechanical losses:
Friction loss at bearings and commutator
Air-friction or windage loss of rotating armature
Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as
stray losses or rotational losses.
For shunt and compound generators, field copper loss is
constant. Hence stray losses and shunt Cu loss are
constant. These losses are called standing or constant
losses Wc
Armature Cu loss is called variable loss as it varies with the
load current
Total loss = variable loss + constant loss
Power Stages of DC Generator
 Generator Efficiency

Generator efficiency is maximum when variable loss = constant loss

Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems