Review of Related

Literature
“Flood Analysis in Mayorga, Leyte”
(CE 483 Undergraduate Research)

TOLIBAS, TEJAY L.
Student
BSCE 4C
 Street Floods in Metro Manila and Possible Solutions
Alfredo Mahar Lagmay, Jerico Mendoza, Fatima Cipriano, Patricia Anne Delmendo, Micah Nieves Lacsamana, Marc Anthony
Moises2, Nicanor Pellejera III, Kenneth Niño Punay, Glenn Sabio, Laurize Santos, Jonathan Serrano, Herbert James Taniza, Neil
Eneri Tingin

1. National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
2. Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards Phil-LiDAR 1 Flood Modelling Component, UP NIGS, Quezon City 1101,
Philippines

ABSTRACT

Urban floods from thunderstorms cause severe problems in Metro Manila due to road traffic.
Using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)-derived topography, flood simulations and anecdotal
reports, the root of surface flood problems in Metro Manila is identified. Majority of flood-prone
areas are along the intersection of creeks and streets located in topographic lows. When creeks
overflow or when rapidly accumulated street flood does not drain fast enough to the nearest
stream channel, the intersecting road also gets flooded. Possible solutions include the elevation
of roads or construction of well-designed drainage structures leading to the creeks. Proposed
solutions to the flood problem of Metro Manila may avoid paralyzing traffic problems due to short-
lived rain events, which according to Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) cost the
Philippine economy 2.4 billion pesos/day. © 2017 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental
Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Published by Elsevier B.V.

Introduction

Metro Manila is located on an isthmus between the Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay. The entire
region is composed of one major catchment called the Marikina River Basin, which covers 535
km2, and eight smaller, river sub-basins, which cover 683 km2 that drain directly into Manila Bay
and Laguna de Bay. The Marikina, Pasig, San Juan and Tullahan rivers serve as the main outlets for
a network of tributaries of the Marikina River Basin and smaller catchments of Metro Manila
(Fig. 1). Highly urbanized and populated by almost 12 million residents (Cox, 2011), the metropolis
lies on one of the widest floodplains in the Philippines.

Apart from devastating floods like those spawned by Tropical Storm Ondoy in 2009 (Lagmay et
al., 2010) and the typhoon- enhanced southwest monsoon rains in 2012, 2013 (Lagmay et al.,
2014) and 2014, more frequent floods caused by short-lived thunderstorms are also a problem.
Once parts of the road network are blocked by floods, traffic develops and paralyzes the entire
city. According to JICA, traffic jams due to thunderstorm- related flashfloods costs PhP 2.4 billion
a day from wasted gasoline and lost economic productivity (Rodis, 2014).
Flashfloods are traditionally blamed on the loss of infiltration due to urban concrete, a century-
old drainage system, and clogged streams. This study analyses nuisance floods caused by brief,
heavy downpours. It identifies other factors to find relatively inexpensive solutions to flood-
generated traffic problems.

Methods

The Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) released a list of flood-prone areas in the
National Capital Region, verified by accounts collected from photographs posted in social media.
Crowd-sourced data were overlaid on a 100-year rain flood-hazard map. LiDAR-derived
topography was used to create profiles of the main roads in these areas, as well as profiles of the
road sides. A Roces Street and CP Garcia Avenue in the University of the Philippines (UP) were also
examined. Field work was also conducted to check the drainage crossing the streets in those areas.
Floods were simulated in FLO-2D GDS PRO using the St. Venant equations for continuity and
momentum and the finite-difference scheme to compute flood velocities. accelerations. These are
solved using the finite-difference scheme to get the velocity across the boundaries in eight
potential flow directions of every grid element.

The simulations used 1 × 1 m LiDAR-derived elevation data. The floodplains were delineated into
catchment areas based on the flow direction and accumulation. Manning's coefficient of 0.03 was
assigned to streams, which is the normal value for main channels (Chow, 1959), and 0.15 to the
floodplains which are predominantly concrete. Inflow and outflow nodes were assigned based on
where the water flows in from the upper watershed and out through the main stream channel.
Rainfall is simulated as a non-point source carrying water throughout the model. Once flood-
prone areas were identified from the 100-year flood-hazard map, higher-resolution simu- lations
in sub-basins of concern were conducted for short- lived thunderstorms. An hour of rainfall with
intensities of 30–70 mm/hr was used to simulate thunderstorms. Observations, road profiles and
flood simulations revealed the causes of street flooding and indicated appropriate solutions.
Five sites have bridges (Appendix A): Philcoa, R. Papa, C-5 Bagong Ilog, Osmeña–Skyway, and Don
Bosco. The street at Philcoa stands 3.8 m above the creek bottom with a rectangular, 2.37 × 4.4-
m culvert perpendicular to the road and two circular, 1 m-diameter culverts parallel to the road.
R. Papa is 1.38 m above the creek bottom. In C-5 Bagong Ilog, the street is 3.92 m above the stream
bottom. Along Osmeña–Skyway is a 22.3-m bridge 3.34 m below street level. A stream with its bed
4.5 m below South Luzon Expressway in the Don Bosco area is drained by a parallel 4 × 2.5-m
drainage structure. Eight places do not seem to have drainage networks, which could be masked
by overlying concrete.

Conclusions
Metro Manila's floods are compounded by many factors including encroachment of concrete
surfaces, densification of buildings and residential areas, silting of riverbeds and canals,
obstruction of waterways by informal settlers, clogging of floodways by garbage, narrowing of
rivers due to development on floodplains, draining and filling in of small rivers forcing more water
into fewer channels, forest degradation, and reclamation of coastal land. Furthermore, humans
have altered the landscape in the metropolis which has grown rapidly but with poorly planned
urbanization. Since the 1970's, people have migrated from rural areas to Metro Manila increasing
the population from 4.9 million residents in 1975 to more than 11 million today. A survey by the
National Housing Authority showed that by the early 1980s, a quarter of Metro Manila residents
were informal settlers living in crowded shantytowns many along waterways. Further complicating
the problem is ground subsidence. From 1978 to 2000, parts of Metro Manila sank by an amount
ranging from 16 cm to 1.46 m. The probable causes of subsidence are excessive groundwater
extraction, soil compaction and tectonic movement, though more research is needed to fully
determine the primary causes (Lagmay et al., 2010).
 Flood risk analysis for the Municipality of Bay, Laguna, Philippines
EDUARDO C. CALZETA1, FELINO P. LANSIGAN2, LEONARDO M. FLORECE3, NATHANIEL C. BANTAYAN4 and RENATO L. LAPITAN5

An integrated approach was employed to analyze the riskiness of the Municipality of Bay,
Laguna, Philippines to flood. The study was specifically undertaken covering the 10 low-lying
barangays of the municipality, namely: Calo, Dila, Maitim, San Agustin, San Antonio, San Isidro,
San Nicolas, Santo Domingo, Puypuy and Tagumpay. Elements of risk such as hazard, exposure,
vulnerability and adaptive capacity were assessed and integrated in the context of socio-ecological
framework. Analyses showed that Barangay Tagumpay is the mostrisky barangay to flood with
0.26 risk index among the 10 barangays assessed. It is followed by Barangay Maitim with 0.20 flood
risk index. Barangays San Isidro, Dila, San Agustin, San Nicolas, San Antonio, Puypuy and Calo have
moderate levels of risk with index ranging from 0.10 to 0.17. On the other hand, the least risky
barangay is Santo Domingo with only 0.08.

Applying risk in flood assessment studies was employed by Ikeda (2006), Barredo, De Roo & Lavalle
(2007), Kannami (2008), Zonensein et al. (2008), Bhattacharya (2010), Fano (2010), Okazawa
et al. (2011) and Balica (2012). Kannami(2008) established a country-based flood risk index of the
235 countries and regions by combining the hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity
indicators. He further categorized coping capacity into soft and hard measures. Results revealed
that Haiti had the highest flood risk index of 4.5. It was followed by Bangladesh with 4.0 flood risk
index. The third to eight spots are occupied by African countries such as Mozambique and Gambia.
Philippines is ranked eleventh most risky with 2.7 flood risk index. Similarly, a detailed assessment
was conducted in the Philippines by Fano (2010) adopting the same approach. Among the 82
provinces assessed, the province of Metro Manila emerged as the most risky to flood with the
highest flood risk index of 3.22 due to its high vulnerability and exposure.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area. Bay is one of the towns surrounding Laguna de Bay and bounded by the Municipalities
of Los Baños in the northwest, Calauan in the southeast and Sto. Tomas and Province of Batangas
in the western portion (Figure 2). It has a total land area of 4,080 has. and classified as second
class municipality. Of the total of 15barangays, 10 were selected as case-study areas which are
situated in the low-lying elevation of the municipality and near the lake as shown in Figure 2. These
include the Barangays of Calo, Dila, Maitim, Puypuy, San Isidro, Santo Domingo, San Agustin
(Poblacion), San Nicolas (Poblacion) and Tagumpay. Among the sampled barangays, Puypuy has
the largest total land area with about 734.08 has while San Nicolas is the smallest. Barangay San
Antonio is the most populated with a total of 5,563 inhabitants, while barangays San Nicolas and
San Agustin have the smallest number of residents with only 1,341 and 1,397, respectively
(National Statistics Office (NSO) 2010).
Flood risk indicators and parameters. Among the indicators and parameters assessed in this study
are presented in Table 1. In this study, the extent and probability of occurrence of flood was
estimated based on the computed discharge for Bay/Cambantoc watershed for certain return
period. Flood map at different return periods were derived based on the developed unit
hydrograph and calibrated Soil Conservation Service run-off equation by Calzeta (2013) for the
Bay/Cambantoc watershed. Population density and inventory of household properties like vehicle,
furniture and appliances were used as indicators for exposure. Vulnerability indicators measured
in this study were poverty, illiteracy, presence of children, aged and disabled, and house structural
type. In terms of adaptive capacity or resilience, indicators assessed were resident’s ability to
swim, level of knowledge, awareness and preparedness to flood.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Assessment of the degree of risk of 10 low-lying barangays of Bay was done in the context of socio-
ecological framework. The elements of risk considered in the analysis were hazard, exposure,
vulnerability and resilience. Index was used in the analysis to merge social and ecological indicators
and quantify levels of risk. Results showed that barangay Tagumpay is most flood-prone with 0.92
hazard index, while barangay Puypuy is the least prone with only 0.31 hazard index. Barangay San
Agustin is the most exposed barangay with exposure index value of 0.62 due to high population
density. On the other hand, Barangays Puypuy, Dila and San Antonioare the least exposed with
only 0.45, 0.46 and 0.48 exposure index, respectively.
Highly vulnerable barangay is Maitim with the highest vulnerability index of 0.50 while
Barangays Calo and Santo Domingo are least vulnerable with only 0.28 and 0.29 vulnerability
index, respectively. Although barangay Puypuy has less probability of occurrence of flood due to
its location, it has higher vulnerability due to lower literacy rate of the residents and low quality of
the house structures in the area. Nine of the 10 sampled barangays have higher level of resilience
or adaptive capacity to flood. Only barangay Puypuy has lower resilience index of only 0.58. In
terms of flood risk, barangay Tagumpay is the mostrisky with the highest flood risk index of 0.26.
It was followed by barangays Maitim with 0.20 flood risk index and San Isidro with only 0.17.
Barangays Dila, San Agustin, San Nicolas, San Antonio, Puypuy and Calo have moderate levels of
risk with flood risk index values ranging from 0.10 to 0.16. Among the 10 barangays assessed,
Santo Domingo is the least risky to flood with only 0.08 flood risk index.
Results of this study could serve as information to policy-makers, planners and executives
in prioritizing efforts and resources to address flooding and minimizes its adverse impact. This
study has identified areas that are at high risk to flood and which require immediate attention.
Likewise, local executives can also assess which elements of risk need to be addressed to reduce
impacts of flood. These can also serve as basis for future land use plans and institutional
developments.
 A Study on Flood Control System Introducing Storage Tank in Manila City Hall Area
John Harold S. Castro, Glenda Aiselyn T. Badenas, Wennie M. Caldit, Donamel M. Saiyari, Brian G. Eurolfan
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Adamson University, Ermita, Manila, Philippines

The low-lying topography, meteorological and hydrological conditions of the Metropolitan

Manila makes it vulnerable to floods and storm water Various measures have been conducted for
mitigation of flood and inundation damages, but the drainage problem is still one of the
major tasks. Historically, Manila suffered major floods that occurred in 1940’s to 1980’s. The
flooding inflicted serious damage over the past half-century; these floods have become both
more extensive and more severe as experienced in recent storms such as Ondoy and Habagat. In
order to address the problem, different engineering works were utilized to provide flood
protection and reduce flood damages. One alternative flood control measure is the provision of
retarding basin for the purpose of reduction of the peak discharge of flood. Based on the
hydrological, topographic and flooding information gathered from government and private
institutions, a storage tank facility is proposed as alternative flood control measure in the study
area to reduce the flood level and to identify the volume of the proposed storage tank.
The conceptual simplified model for detention tank simulation model has been used to simulate
the operation of the tanks and to evaluate the performance of the proposed structure.

METHODOLOGY
The design discharge can be estimated by specific discharge method or runoff model using
rainfall data. The runoff model was used in the study to compute urban runoff and flooding in the
study area. For the purpose of this study, the two models were initially simulated with and without
the storage tank component in the existing drainage system to observe the response of
hydrograph and discharge results for storm event Ondoy occurring over the Estero De Balete
Creek. Each runoff model was used to evaluate the effect of flood control to the initial design
discharge. The characteristics in terms of size of the storage tank were determined to
accommodate the excess discharge that occurred along the area where flooding was observed.
In this study, Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was utilized for runoff
computation(Metcalf and Eddy, 1971; Huber et al., 1992). The procedures to evaluate the
effects of detention storage used in this study includes inputting the geographical and
physical data, estimation of coefficients for sub catchment areas and conveyance elements.
Finally, the effect of the flood control in the study area was determined by comparing the
hydrograph of the existing drainage system without storage tank with the hydrograph of the
drainage system with storage tank component.
SWMM is a distributed model, which means that a study area can be subdivided into any
number of irregular subca tchments in manner to best capture the effect that spatial variability in
topography, drainage pathways, land cover, and soil characteristics have on run off
generation.
According to Huber et al. in 1992, EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a
comprehensive mathematical model for simulation of urban runoff quantity and quality in storm
and combined sewer systems. All aspects of the urban hydrologic and quality cycles are simulated,
including surface and subsurface runoff, transport through the drainage network, storage and
treatment. SWMM is a physically based, discrete-time simulation model. It employs principles of
conservation of mass, energy, and momentum wherever appropriate. This study considered the
following physical processes which SWMM uses to model storm water runoff quantity such as
surface runoff, infiltration and flow routing.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the abovementioned results, this study concludes the following:
1. The largest feasible volume of the detention tank based on rainfall intensity within the area is
50,000 m3. (A = 5,000 m2 x depth = 10 m);
2. The results of the simulation showed that the tank significantly reduced the flooding in the area
during extreme storm event like Ondoy, inevitably, the design size of the tank cannot totally
eradicate the flooding in the area during such event; and
3. Based on the available the location, the researchers chose to locate the tank outside the study
area situated in the Luneta Park since the area can accommodate the construction of such large
structure and due to its proximity to the nearest natural bodies of water for discharging point.
 Flood Risk Assessment of the Antiao River Control Project in
Catbalogan City, Philippines
Ronald L. Orale

ABSTRACT
Flooding in Catbalogan City, Samar Philippines is perennial. Factors causing floods are due to
increasing population, outdated and non-functional drainage system, heavily silted and
reduced river size, poor waste management, no erosion control measures, reduced vegetative
cover and the unusually heavier precipitation. In response to this flood problem, the local
government asked help from the Department of Public Works and Highways which in turn
developed a Flood Management and Drainage System Master Plan wherein a River Control
Project which includes disilting of almost 2km stretch of the river and the construction of
river walls are currently being implemented. Using a hydrologic modeling system (HEC-HMS)
version 4, river discharge was calculated for at least 4 extreme events. Results have shown that
the project will not solve the flooding problem due to extreme precipitation. The river walls
are more needed upstream than downstream portion of the river while the disiltation of the
river is not enough to carry storm water. There is therefore an urgent need to construct
river walls in the upstream as well as other interventions specified in the master plan to
manage the flooding problems in Catbalogan.
Methodology:
The methods used to answer the research question includes watershed profiling, characterization
of precipitation in Catbalogan City, runoff and discharge analysis, river control project
assessment and the flood risk calculation. Interviews, participatory rural appraisal and
observation were also conducted to validate data gathered in the analysis.
A. Watershed Profiling
The profile of Antiao watershed was determined with the aid of National Mapping and
Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) topographic maps. The said map was used to identify
the boundaries of the watershed including the tributaries supplying water to the river. Soil
classification was derived from the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM)
geological and soil maps. The determination of ground cover of the Antiao Watershed was
estimated using rasterized satellite images from www.bing.com. These maps were analyzed by
overlaying it with the NAMRIA maps in AutoCad environment.
B. Characterization of Precipitation in Catbalogan
Daily rainfall data came from the Catbalogan station of the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST)-Philippine Atmospheric, Geographical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA). Thirty years of monthly data was used as reference of normal
precipitation volume. Five years of daily rainfall data was evaluated to determine extreme
rainfall events. Number of days with relatively continuous rains as well as the accumulated amount
of rain was presented in histogram.
C. Runoff and Discharge Analysis
The runoff and discharge analysis made use of the Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS)
Version 4, developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers-Institute for Water Resources Hydrologic
Engineering Center. Variables used are based on runoff curve number (CN) method proposed by
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Technical Release 55 (TR55) published in June
1986. Simulation run using the HEC-HMS software was performed using daily rainfall data on
selected months with extreme precipitation events. The simulation run is capable of estimating
behavior of the modeled watershed given hydrologic information.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Catbalogan Samar in the past decade have experienced perennial flooding primarily due to
extreme rainfall events usually occurring during a storm. In the past five years, Catbalogan
has experienced more than half of the total number of months having precipitation larger
than the 30 year normal.
Based on the simulation, the river on the upstream part specifically along the vicinity of Bliss
Community and San Andres in Catbalogan City cannot carry surface runoff from an extreme
precipitation event. On the other hand, the river in its natural state near the Antiao Bridge
is more than enough to carry precipitation as high as that which was experienced in December
2014.
The Antiao River Project near the Antiao Bridge has increased the capacity but the same
was not needed. On the other hand, disilting activity along Bliss Community will not solve
the risk of flooding from extreme events. The walls constructed narrows the width of the river
therefore an increase in water level is expected. This in turn may cause upstream water to
increase. This possibility needs to be examined thoroughly.
Heavy siltation is expected during an extreme precipitation event which reduces river
carrying capacity. Disilting activity must be made regularly, at least ever after every extreme
precipitation events. Soil erosion in the watershed needs to be addressed to reduce siltation and
avoid clogging of the river. The river control project should have been implemented in the
upstream side of the Antiao River and not near the mouth. To minimize the risk of flooding in the
upstream side construction of river wall needs to be extended up to Barangay San Andres.
 Flood Risk of Metro Manila Barangays: A GIS Based Risk Assessment Using Multi-Criteria Techniques
Karlo P. Pornasdoro, Liz C. Silva, Maria Lourdes T. Munnariz PhD, Beau A. Estepa, Curtis A. Capaque

ABSTRACT

This study examined the flood prone areas within Metro Manila to find out their degrees of disaster
risk. More specifically, the study considered the population densities of Metro Manila barangays, the
smallest political units of the country, the gender and age population, the structural materials and
the recorded depths of flooding. Geographic Information System (GIS)using multi-criteria techniques was
the tool of analysis of the study. Projecting the population density of each barangay, the children, elderly
and women populations to 2020 and 2030 and simultaneously examining the recorded depths of its flood
waters and existing structural materials, the study identified the barangays that will be at high risk
by 2020 and 2030. Although the study is limited to population data and physical characteristics of
barangays, the findings may be useful to urban and regional planners and government agencies involved
in disaster risk reduction and mitigation management. The study can be integrated in future
development plans of specific areas and be used to guide future flood control measures. Finally, the
study may be considered by other countries in their analysis of similar flooding experiences.

METHODOLOGY

In the flood risk assessment of Metro Manila barangays, the following major steps for data collection
and analysis were considered: First, data gathering of the relevant GIS layers were taken from
different government agencies like the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA) and the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) for the flood hazards of
Metro Manila; the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) and the National Mapping
Resource and Information Agency (NAMRIA) for the boundary maps of cities and municipality in Metro
Manila; and the Open Street Maps (OSM) for other map requirements. Population data were gathered
from the National Statistics Office(NSO). Barangay structural materials were taken from the 2003
Metro Manila Earthquake and Impact Reduction Study (MMEIRS).

Second, the establishment of the base map and Geographic Information System (GIS)1 database of
the study used the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Metro Manila with its surrounding provinces.
Then, other layers, i. e., the updated city/municipality boundaries, and the GIS vector layers:
waterways, roads and buildings, were overlaid for reference purposes. The Philippine Reference System
(PRS92) was used as the Coordinate Reference System for all the layers. In determining the spatial
characteristics that existed between datasets of barangays, the collected data were considered in
the base map as different variables, but interacting with each other. The flood layers adopted the
number of divisions by the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) (2013), which were VERY HIGH, HIGH,
MODERATE, LOW and VERY LOW frequencies.

Third, the study utilized a multi-criteria technique, where the environmental and social risks of
barangays were examined. Based on the Framework, 5 indices were considered, namely: population
density, gender, age, structural materials and flood depths; where, the gender and age indices were
with respect to 3 population groups, i. e., women, children and elderly, the most vulnerable groups
to floods. The women population data was females from 15 to 64 years old; the children population data
was from 0 to 14 years old and the elderly population data was from 65 years old and above. It is noted
that NSO data for these specific groups were available only for city/municipality level and none for barangay
level.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study cannot be said to be without limitations. Nevertheless, a GIS-based risk assessment of multiple
criteria can improve the accuracy of flood risk assessment for Metro Manila with the consideration of the
smallest political unit of Philippine society, the barangay. Firstly, the study shows barangays that can be
at high and very high flood risks in the near future and in a relatively more distant future, and has
implications to the disaster risk mitigation/reduction policies of LGUs. For instance, with the Marikina
River rising as high as 21 meters during heavy downpours, the Marikina City government implemented
structural mitigation programs through a number of flood-control projects and raised public awareness
and emergency preparedness through a Disaster Management Office, i. e., Rescue 161 (Ordinance
264 of 1998) and a Disaster Preparedness Education Center, where a disaster management library for
children and adults is one of its components (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, 2008). However,
these could be said to have been a response to the earlier experiences of the City. To know a few
years earlier which barangays in Marikina City can be expected to be at high and very high flood risks can
give the city government ample time to plan its future disaster risk reduction/mitigation programs and
sustain its environment policies on public safety and quality of life. Furthermore, the city government can
give priority interventions and determine some not too expensive flood mitigation strategies that can
support the concerned barangays. Secondly, the study can be used by the national government, say,
in the prioritized projects of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) and the MMDA
that are within the flood control master plan, to solve perennial flood problems in Metro Manila
(Manila Bulletin, 2012). Thirdly, both national and local governments can use the study as a guide
to determining priority areas for future urban plans. Finally, as mapping can provide critical
information at the barangay level, GIS- based mapping agencies can use the findings of the study
to facilitate improvements in their output.