Scientific article for use with Question 7 – A

Red Card for the Heart.

1. Inflammation
(a) How is inflammation useful in protecting against invading pathogens?
(Release) histamine; Dilation of arterioles / increased blood
flow / vasodilation; Oedema / swelling / leakage of plasma;
More white blood cells / eq (attack pathogens); Mast cells;
(b) Describe the role of histamine in an inflammatory response.
Histamine causes blood capillaries to become leaky, allowing the
passing of white blood cells out of the vessel and to the area of
infection.
(c) Explain the appearance of a wound during inflammation.
Wound appears red and swollen due to increased blood flow (more
WBC/platelets). Vasodilation caused by histamine.

2. Coronary Arteries
(a) Draw and label an artery

(b) Why is a damaged coronary artery potentially fatal?

1. narrowing leads to higher blood pressure;
2. increases risk of {further damage to the artery wall /
aneurysm}
3. platelets stick to damaged wall;
 4. triggers blood clotting process / eq;
5. correct reference to mast / foam cells / inflammatory
response;

3. Myocarditis
(a) Myocarditis is a condition where the heart muscle is weakened.
Suggest the effect this may have on stroke volume.
Left ventricle with not contract with force which will reduce the
volume of blood leaving the aorta.

4. Pathogens
(a) Describe the structure of a virus.
Genetic material (DNA or rNA)
Protein coat
Envelope may be present
Enzymes present
(b) When a pathogen enters the body, the response can be both specific
and non-specific. The non-specific response includes phagocytosis
and lysozyme action. Describe how these responses help the body
combat an infection.
Phagocytes engulf {pathogen / eq} / pseudopodia extend around the
{pathogen / eq} / reference to endocytosis ; {Phagosome /
(phagocytic) vesicle} is formed(inside the cell) ; Lysosomes fuse with
vesicle membrane /eq ; {Secrete/ release} (hydrolytic) enzymes into
vesicle ;
(c) Describe the role of T killer cells in the immune response to the
influenza virus.
T killer cells destroy infected cells. They release enzymes/perforins
which destroys cell. When the virus is released, antibodies bind to
the virus; macrophage engulfs and destroys.
(d) Describe the role of a T helper cell in the immune response.
T helper activated by antigen-presenting cell. T cells activate B
cells. This leads to a specific response (antibodies)
(e) Describe the role of interferon during a viral attack.
 {Destroys / prevents replication of} viruses secreted by infected
cells;

5. Primary vaccinations
(a) Describe how a vaccination can protect the body against known
pathogens.
Antigens {activate / detected by} lymphocytes;
Reference to specificity;
B cells{divide/replicate};
Develop into plasma cells;
(Plasma cells) {secrete/produce} antibody;
Reference to memory cells;
(b) Some vaccinations require a booster after the primary vaccination.
Suggest why.
In some cases there is a decline in the number of antibodies over
time. A booster injection is intended to increase immunity against
that antigen back to protective levels, after memory against that
antigen has declined through time
6. Regular exercise, muscles and joints
(a) Explain how regular exercise can reduce the risk of CHD.
Exercise reduces blood pressure so there is less risk of damage to
artery. Exercise can help maintain a person´s weight/help them lose
body fat which is a contributing factor for CHD.
(b) Label the joint (J and M)

J= Cartilage
M= Tendon
 (c) Describe the role of tendons
Attached muscles to bone
(d) Describe how damage to a ligament could affect movement
Ligaments attach bone to bone. Damage to a ligament would reduce
movement of the joint. There would also be inflammation to the joint
restricting movement.
(e) What are the advantages of keyhole surgery when the knee joint is
damaged?
(Only a small cut) because damage is less / less bleeding / less pain;
Recovery is rapid / shorter stay in hospital. Less risk of infection /
inflammation;
(f) Why advantage do slow twitch muscles off long distance runners?
Slow fibres {generate ATP / respire} aerobically. Slow twitch fibres
have more {mitochondria / myoglobin} for aerobic respiration.
(g) Why might a person new to running experience pain in their muscle
during exercise?
Muscle fatigues quickly as person not used to running. Build up of
lactic acid/lactate which is slow to break down and can cause pain.
Possible damage to muscle if not used to exercising.

7. Heart
(a) Label the following structures of the heart

A= right atrium B= semi lunar valve C=AV valve/bicuspid

(b) The diagram shows an ECG from a healthy person. The P and R waves
are labelled.

Explain why there is a brief delay between P and R.

reference to (impulse) conduction between atria and ventricles ;

delay at AV node ; allows ventricles to fill before contraction ;

From the ECG, calculate the heart rate in beats per minute. Show your
working.

distance from one P wave to next (or R to R) is 56 to 58 ;

heart rate = 60 × 50 / 56 to 58 ;

= 51.7 (52) to 53.8 (54) beats per minute ;

(c) Describe how the sinoatrial node starts the contraction of the heart
muscle.
The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical impulse that stimulates
contraction of the heart muscle tissue. This impulse directly causes
the atria to contract and stimulates another node at the junction
between the atrium and ventricle
The atrioventricular node (AV node) – sends signals down the septum
via a nerve bundle (Bundle of His)
The Bundle of His innervates nerve fibres (Purkinje fibres) in the
ventricular wall, causing ventricular contraction
(d) During the cardiac cycle, the pressure in the left ventricle falls to a
much lower level than in the aorta. Suggest an explanation for this
difference.
Reference to closure of semilunar valve ; Elasticity / eq of aorta wall
;Recoil (in aorta) maintains pressure ; Reference to refilling /
relaxation of ventricle ;
(e) The heart maintains a high pressure of oxygenated blood in the
arteries to the body.
Explain how a double circulation is important in bringing this about.
Reference to {narrow / extremely long} capillaries;
Reference to blood in the lungs / reference to oxygenation of
blood; Results in {low pressure / loss of pressure} of blood
(when it emerges from the lungs); Not enough pressure to get
through rest of {capillary network / the body}; Pumping the blood
again {raises / restores} lost pressure OR provides extra boost of
pressure / reference to second pump; Higher pressure in systemic
circulation / lower pressure in pulmonary circulation;
(f) The diagram below illustrates some aspects of the regulation of
heart rate.

Complete the flow diagram by naming the part of the heart that
receives impulses from the two nerves.
SA node / SAN / sinoatrial node

Explain how this increase in blood volume in the vena cava and right
atrium causes a change in heart rate.
 Increased blood pressure (in vena cava / right atrium);
Baroreceptors stimulated; {Cardiovascular centre / medulla} initiate
impulses in {sympathetic / accelerator} nerve {Stimulation of SAN
increased / eq} / decreased delay at AVN; Heart rate increased

(g) Describe and explain how the electrical activity of the heart ensures
that the ventricles begin contracting from the apex (base) of the
heart.
Reference to AV node; Delay at AV node; Reference to bundle of
His; Reference to Purkinje fibres; {Electrical activity / impulse}
travels from base up through cardiac muscle; Electrical activity /
impulse stimulates contraction of cardiac muscle / eq;
(h) Heart rate increases during exercise. Describe how the cardiac
centre brings about a change in heart rate.
Increased pressure/ increased carbon dioxide
concentration/decreased pH detected by baroreceptors and
chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata. Sympathetic nervous system
stimulated. Release of noradrenaline. Excitation of SAN
(i) On the diagram below, indicate whether each valve is open or closed
during ventricular systole (contraction of the ventricles). Indicate
the position of the sino-atrial node (pacemaker) by drawing a cross
on the diagram.

Open Open

Closed

Closed

8. Action potentials in neurones

(a) Describe what would happen in the presynaptic neurone as a
result of the arrival of an action potential.
calcium channels open / membrane more permeable to Ca ;
calcium (ions), diffuse / move in ; vesicles move towards
(presynaptic) membrane ; vesicles, fuse / bind / eq, with
membrane ; transmitter / acetylcholine, released into,
(synaptic) cleft / gap ;

The graphs below show the changes in membrane potential in

the presynaptic neurone and the postsynaptic neurone as an
impulse passes across a synapse.

On the graph for the postsynaptic neurone, indicate by using a

letter S the point at which the sodium channels open, allowing
an increased flow of sodium ions into the neurone.
S indicated at 1.2 ms
On the graph for the postsynaptic neurone, indicate by using a
letter P the point at which the potassium channels open,
allowing an increased flow of potassium ions out of the neurone.
P indicated at 2.4 ms
 Calculate the delay between the arrival of the action potential
at the presynaptic neurone and the production of an action
potential in the postsynaptic neurone and explain this delay.
2.4 – 1.8 ;
= 0.6 ms ;
(b) Describe how an action potential is produced in the effector
neurone, following the diffusion of transmitter substance
across the synaptic cleft.
release of, transmitter / acetylcholine ;
diffusion / movement, across cleft ;
time to, depolarise / form action potential /
reference to Na channels opening ;
(c) Describe the normal sequence of events that occurs within a
muscle fibre after stimulation of a neuromuscular junction.
{calcium ions / Ca2+} released from sarcoplasmic reticulum;
calcium (ions) binds to troponin; (troponin) causes tropomyosin
to move; exposing (myosin) binding sites (on actin); myosin
head attaches to binding site / cross bridge formation;
myosin head {moves / nods forward / eq}; release of ADP and
inorganic phosphate; actin slides over the myosin; (ATP
causes) myosin head to detach; {ATP hydrolysis / ATPase};

9. Transcription and translation

“when the scientists investigated the genetic code of these cells, they found
that the sports rats had far fewer genes for these ion channels”.

(a) Describe how a gene is responsible for the synthesis of a protein such
as an ion channel.
The gene contains the genetic code to form the protein. During
transcription, part of the DNA (molecule) unwinds;DNA strands
separate / {hydrogen / H} bonds break; (free) nucleotides line up
against DNA; correct reference to RNA polymerase;
reference to {nucleotides joining together / formation of
phosphodiester bonds}; (to form) mRNA; exits through nuclear pore /
from nucleus to cytoplasm / movement to ribosomes; mRNA translated,
 Free amino acids attached with peptide bond. Form ion channel
(protein)
(b) Suggest why fewer genes for ion channels would reduce the heart rate
in an animal.
Less sodium enters the neurone; threshold not reached as frequently;
action potential not generated; SAN not stimulated as frequently
(c) What is the role played by the pacemaker cells in the heart?
Pacemaker / sets rhythm of heart / initiates cardiac cycle

10. Sympathetic nervous system

(a) The retina of a mammal’s eye contains millions of receptor cells which
are highly sensitive to light. These receptor cells are protected from
excessively bright light by the iris.
The diagram below shows part of a nerve cell pathway involved in the
reflex controlling the size of the pupil by the iris.

Put a cross in the box next to the arrow that correctly shows the
direction of impulse travel in cell A.
(b) Identify the neurone cells A and B.
A= motor neurone B=relay neurone
(c) Sympathetic nerves trigger radial muscles to contract and cause the
pupils to dilate. Before this occurs, light must pass through to the
retina and excite the sensory neurones, allowing a message to be sent
to the brain. Describe how light hitting a rod cell can excite a sensory
neurone.
Light (energy) absorbed by {rhodopsin / pigment / visual purple};
 Retinal changes shape / cis to trans; Rhodopsin {splits / bleaches};
Into retinal and opsin; Sodium gates close / reduced permeability to
sodium ions / less sodium diffuses in / hyperpolarisation of membrane /
rod cell becomes more negative inside; Bipolar cell becomes
depolarised; Action potential formed in sensory neurone
(d) Suggest the advantage to the body when the parasympathetic nervous
system “winds down the body´s activity” after eating.
Allowing maximum absorption of food molecules into blood in the small
intestine
(e) Suggest how beta-1 adrenergic receptors stimulate the SAN in the
heart.
Norephrine binds to beta-1 adrenergic receptor in post synaptic
membrane. This causes the sodium ions to open. Sodium enters causing
action potential, stimulating SAN.
(f) Beta blockers reduce the stimulation of the SAN and therefore reduce
heart rate and blood pressure. Explain how.
Blocking the beta-1 adrenergic receptor so less norephrine binds to the
receptor, less sodium enters and threshold is not reached as
frequently.
(g) Describe how a drug trial would be carried out to determine whether it
is suitable for human consumption.
Phase one involves testing a new drug on a small number of healthy
individuals, it is done to find out a safe dosage and look for side
effects.
Phase two is to be tested on a larger group of patients, to see how well
the drug works
Phase three is when it is compared to existing treatments. It involves
hundreds, or even thousands of patients. They are split into two
groups, one with the new treatment, and one who receives the existing
treatment or a placebo.
The diagram shows a synaptic junction between 3 neurones. Neurone A
releases adrenaline, and neurone B is an antagonist of adrenaline. It
increases the calcium ions passing into the post synaptic membrane.
(a) (i) Describe the sequence of events that leads to an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP) in the postsynaptic neurone after
stimulation of neurone A.
(Arrival of action potential) alters the potential across the pre-
synaptic membrane; Calcium {channels / gates} open (in the pre-
synaptic membrane) / influx of calcium ions (into pre-synaptic knob);
Vesicles migrate to (pre-synaptic) membrane; (Vesicles) fuse with
(pre-synaptic) membrane; Release {transmitter substance /
acetylcholine} into synaptic cleft; By exocytosis; {Transmitter
substance / acetylcholine) diffuses across cleft; (Transmitter) binds to
receptors on post-synaptic membrane; Resulting in {sodium channels
opening (in post-synaptic membrane) /influx of sodium ions (into post-
synaptic knob)}; Reference to depolarisation of post-synaptic
membrane. More sodium channels open; If threshold value reached
the action potential is generated;

11. Blood
(a) Complete the diagram for blood clotting

Platelets; Prothrombin; Fibrinogen;

(b) The diagram shows red blood cells viewed under a microscope.

What advantage does the shape of red blood cells offer in the
transport of oxygen around the body?
Biconcave to allow rapid entry of oxygen. Biconcave to squeeze
through small capillaries
(c) In the blood, red blood cells are suspended in plasma, the main
component being water. Suggest one other component found in
plasma which could enter red blood cells as describe how it would
cross the cell surface membrane.
Oxygen – diffuse across cell surface membrane