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MITOLO et al.: EFFECTS OF HIGH FAULT CURRENTS ON GROUND GRID DESIGN 1119
Fig. 2. Ground-fault current on the secondary side recloses to the center star
of the substation.
II. NATURE OF THE FAULT C URRENTS TO G ROUND AND Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit for a ground fault on the high side of the user’s
S TATE OF THE N EUTRAL substation.
For a ground fault occurring on the low side of the substation, the ground potential rise (GPR), is thus just a portion of the
the current will return directly to the center star (neutral) of the ground-fault current I F . This quota is described by a reduction
transformer, thanks to the equipment grounding conductors and factor r, i.e.,
will therefore not flow through the actual Earth (Fig. 2). The
IG
ground grid is not involved in the fault loop, and for that reason, r= (2)
the low-voltage ground current is not a sizing parameter. 3 · I0
A ground fault on the high side, on the other hand, impresses where I0 is the zero-sequence current circulating due to a fault.
a current through the grid and the actual Earth. The nature and r is estimated to be between 20% and 60% of the full ground-
the magnitude of this current depend on the system neutral fault current.
grounding that utility has adopted for its distribution network,
upstream of the customer substation.
III. T OUCH VOLTAGE
A common case is the utility network operated with no
intentional ground connection to the phase conductors. Even The touch voltage V t is defined as the voltage differential
if “ungrounded,” such a system is still “coupled” to ground that standard persons may be subject to, between one hand and
through the capacitance existing between the high-side distribu- both feet. This is the potential appearing between a grounded
tion lines and the actual Earth. This is the reason of single-phase metallic structure and a point on the Earth’s surface separated
line-to-ground capacitive current circulation at the occurrence by a distance equal to a man’s normal maximum horizontal
of a ground fault. Such fault current IG can be approximated reach (conventionally 1 m).
(in amperes) by Reference [1] assumes as a “standard” human body resis-
tance values (hand-to-feet) not exceeded by 50% of the popula-
IG = (0.003L1 + 0.2L2 ) · V (1) tion. Unlike [2], [3], and [6], [1] admits, in industrial facilities,
the presence of standard footwear of 1000 Ω in series with the
where L1 is the length of the overhead line in kilometers, L2 is human body in establishing the permissible limits for touch and
the length of the underground line in kilometers, and V is the step voltages. It is assumed that the presence of electric workers
line-to-line system voltage in kilovolts. This capacitive current with no work shoes at job sites is unrealistic.
can reach several hundreds of amperes for a line at 20 kV. In addition, in series with the human body, there is also
It is apparent how the capacitive current increases with the the person’s resistance to ground RBG . Such resistance, in the
extension and the nominal voltage of the distribution system absence of a floor (e.g., outdoor substation), is assumed by [1]
upstream of the substation. Underground medium-voltage ca- to be equal to 1.5ρ, where ρ is the superficial soil resistivity.
bles offer a larger capacitance to ground than overhead lines, The presence of such resistances limits the fault current’s
as in the latter case, the distance between the “armatures” (con- circulation, benefiting the person’s safety (Fig. 3).
ductors and Earth) is greater than the one in cables (conductors A voltage divider takes place, and the touch voltage V T is
and metal shield). less than the source touch voltage V ST . Both are smaller than
It is also evident how this calculation cannot be performed in the full GPR V G = RG IG , which is the potential difference
the absence of data from the distributor, which is the only one between the faulted ECP and the remote Earth.
to precisely know the lengths L1 and L2 .
The ground-fault current does not exclusively return to the
IV. P ERMISSIBLE L IMITS FOR T OUCH AND
winding source through the Earth. Part of it (i.e., I F − I G in
S TEP VOLTAGES
Fig. 1) is drained off by the metal sheath of the medium voltage
supply cables or the overhead lightning protection catenaries, Reference [1] dictates the permissible touch voltage values
both connected to the customer’s and the utility’s primary Vtp as a function of the utility protective device ground-fault
station’s ground grid. The current I G , which is responsible for clearing time tf (Table I).
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1120 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 46, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2010
TABLE I
P ERMISSIBLE T OUCH VOLTAGE VALUES
TABLE II
D IMENSIONS AND L ENGTH OF THE C ONDUCTORS OF
I NTERCONNECTED G RIDS
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MITOLO et al.: EFFECTS OF HIGH FAULT CURRENTS ON GROUND GRID DESIGN 1121
By Special Measures, [1] lists, among others, the following TABLE III
F USING C URRENTS AND T EST C URRENTS FOR A NNEALED
items: S OFT-D RAWN 100% C ONDUCTIVITY C OPPER C ONDUCTORS [7]
a) isolation, with respect to ground, of the substation’s
premises, through insulating mats, asphalt, a surface
layer of crushed stones or gravel, insulating walls, etc.;
b) creation of equal potential area through supplemental
electrodes connected to the ECPs likely to be touched,
equipotential bonding, etc.;
c) insulated fences around the substations.
2) The ground grid does not cover the whole facility area:
a) VG ≤ VTP (VTP as per Table I); or
b) VT ≤ VTP (VT as per actual measurement and VTP
as per Table I), and VS ≤ 3VTP (VS as per actual When exposed to high fault currents ρ can increase due to
measurement). drying, LT can decrease due to conductor damage, all increas-
ing RG .
Similarly, the mesh voltage (i.e., the worst possible value of
VI. E FFECTS OF H IGH FAULT C URRENTS a touch voltage to be found within a mesh of a ground grid) is
given by
If the above criteria are complied with, the ground grid is
redeemed adequate. Many possible causes can, though, lower ρKm Ki IG
Em = (4)
the grid performance later on, together with the electrical safety LM
of the installation. The GPR can, in fact, increase in substations
where
[4] and may be aggravated by high fault currents.
Km geometrical factor;
Among the possible failure mechanisms for increased GPR,
Ki irregularity factor;
we can find:
LM effective buried length in meters.
1) drying of the soil, increasing the soil resistivity; The mesh voltage increases with IG , ρ, and decreasing LM .
2) excessive voltage drops in the conductors and connectors The step voltage [6] is given by
due to high currents;
ρKS Ki IG
3) fusing, melting, and connector failures; Vs = (5)
4) arcing, burning, and open circuits; LS
5) altered current flow paths, further increasing voltage where
drops; LS effective length of the buried conductor;
6) corroded or otherwise damaged conductors and connec- KS spacing factor for the step voltage.
tors [5]; The step voltage also increases with IG , ρ, and decreasing
7) thinning of the protective surface layer of crushed stones LS . The constant K is a geometrical factor and does not change
or gravel; with increasing fault current.
8) weeds and shrubs growing in the surface layer;
9) mixing of the protective surface layer with soil and dust,
increasing its resistivity; VII. DAMAGE OR FAILURE OF E LEMENTS OF THE
10) failure of static wire, ground, or neutral wire connections G ROUNDING S YSTEM
from transmission and distribution lines to substations. An important cause of increased GPR in substations is the
All these factors can severely increase the ground resistance failure of the elements of the grounding system.
RG and, therefore, the GPR V G . This determines an increase
in step and touch potentials and creates a higher risk of injury
A. Thermal Damage to Grounding Conductors Due to
or death for the personnel.
Excessive Short-Circuit Currents
We may show the parameters that RG depends on, using
Sverak’s equation [6], i.e., An increase in fault current will decrease the fusing time of
the grid conductors, i.e.,
1 1 1 2
RG = ρ +√ 1+ (3) Akcmil
LT 20A 1 + h 20/A tc = (6)
IG · Df · Kf
where where
Rg resistance in ohms; tc fusing time of the conductor in seconds;
ρ Earth resistivity in ohm meters; Akcmil conductor cross-sectional area in thousand circular
LT total length of buried conductors in meters; mils (kcmil);
A total area of the grid in square meters; IG single-line phase-to-ground rms fault current in kilo-
h depth of the grid in meters. amperes, which is assumed to be equal to 3I0 ;
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1122 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 46, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2010
Fig. 5. Short-circuit testing of ground grid connectors [7]. The test loop contains one to four connector assemblies.
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MITOLO et al.: EFFECTS OF HIGH FAULT CURRENTS ON GROUND GRID DESIGN 1123
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1124 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 46, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2010
[14] IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power Station Massimo Mitolo (SM’03) was educated in Italy. He
Ground Potential Rise and Induced Voltage From a Power Fault, IEEE received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
Standard 367-1996.. from the University of Naples “Federico II,” Naples,
[15] L. M. Popovic, “Efficient reduction of fault current through the ground- Italy, in 1990, where his field of research was the
ing grid of substation supplied by cable line,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., analysis and grounding of power systems.
vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 556–561, Apr. 2000. He is currently the Assistant Electrical Depart-
[16] P. A. Zotos, “Ground grid design in large industrial plants,” IEEE Trans. ment Head of Chu & Gassman Inc., Middlesex, NJ.
Ind. Appl., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 521–525, May/Jun. 1988. He has authored numerous journal papers, as well
[17] C.-H. Lee, “Safety assessment of bulk and traction supply substations as the textbook Electrical Safety of Low-Voltage
in Taipei rail transit systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 19, no. 3, Systems.
pp. 1078–1084, Jul. 2004. Dr. Mitolo is a Registered Professional Engineer
[18] J. He, G. Yu, J. Yuan, R. Zeng, B. Zhang, J. Zou, and Z. Guan, “Decreasing in Italy. He is very active in the IEEE Industry Applications Society Industrial
grounding resistance of substation by deep-ground-well method,” IEEE and Commercial Power Systems Department, where he currently fills the posi-
Trans. Power Del., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 738–744, Apr. 2005. tions of Vice Chair of the Power Systems Engineering (PSE) Main Technical
[19] A. P. S. Meliopoulos, Power System Grounding and Transients. New Committee, Chair of the Papers Review Subcommittee, Chair of the Power
York: Marcel Dekker, 1988. Systems Analysis Subcommittee, and Chair of the Power Systems Grounding
[20] R. Natarajan, A. F. Imece, J. Popoff, K. Agarwal, and P. S. Meliopoulos, Subcommittee. He is also an Associate Editor of the PSE IEEE ScholarOne
“Analysis of grounding systems for electric traction,” IEEE Trans. Power Manuscripts. He was also the recipient of the Lucani Insigni Award in 2009 for
Del., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 389–393, Jul. 2001. merits achieved in the scientific field.
[21] EPRI, “Substation grounding programs,” Palo Alto, CA, Rep. TR-100622,
1992, vol. 1–5.
[22] EPRI, “Seasonal variations of grounding parameters by field tests,” Palo
Peter E. Sutherland (S’77–M’79–SM’97–F’07) re-
Alto, CA, Rep. TR-100863, 1992.
ceived the A.S. degree in electrical engineering tech-
[23] EPRI, “Guide for transmission line grounding: A roadmap for design,
nology and the B.S. degree in electrical engineering
testing and remediation,” Palo Alto, CA, Rep. 1002021, 2004.
from the University of Maine, Orono, the M.Sc.E.
[24] G. J. Georgantzis, N. G. Gagaoudakis, and T. Connor, “Design practice
degree in electrical engineering from the University
for the earthing system of the 400 kV gas insulated switching station
of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada, and
at Lavrion,” in Proc. 8th ICHQP, Athens, Greece, Oct. 14–16, 1998,
the Ph.D. degree in electric power engineering from
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Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY.
[25] R. P. Keil, “Substation grounding,” in Electric Power Substations Engi-
In 1987, he joined the General Electric Company,
neering, J. D. McDonald, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2003.
Schenectady, NY, where he held a variety of posi-
[26] C.-H. Lee and C.-N. Chang, “Comparison of 161/69-kV grounding grid
tions and became a Senior Engineer in the Power
design between indoor-type and outdoor-type substations,” IEEE Trans.
Systems Energy Consulting Department. In 2001, he joined SuperPower, Inc.,
Power Del., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 1385–1393, Apr. 2005.
Schenectady, where he worked on applications of superconductivity to electric
[27] A. P. S. Meliopoulos, S. Patel, and G. J. Cokkinides, “A new method and
power systems. In 2003, he joined the EPRI PEAC Corporation (now EPRI
instrument for touch and step voltage measurements,” IEEE Trans. Power
Solutions, Inc.), Schenectady, as a Consulting Engineer. He is currently with GE
Del., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1850–1860, Oct. 1994.
Energy Services, Schenectady. He is the author of numerous technical papers
[28] Q. Meng, J. He, F. P. Dawalibi, and J. Ma, “A new method to de-
Dr. Sutherland is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of Penn-
crease ground resistances of substation grounding systems in high re-
sylvania, Maine, and New York. He is a member of Phi Kappa Phi, Eta Kappa
sistivity regions,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 911–916,
Nu, and Tau Beta Pi. He is active in the IEEE Industry Applications Society
Jul. 1999.
and in the IEEE Schenectady Section.
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the current distribution near a substation during a single phase to ground
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[30] J. E. T. Villas, J. A. A. Casagrande, D. Mukhedkar, and V. S. da Costa, Ramasamy Natarajan (S’80–M’82–SM’90) received the Ph.D. degree in
“The ground grid design of the Barra do Peixe substation using a two- electrical engineering from the University of Washington, Seattle, in 1986.
layer soil model,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 1636–1641, He was with Pennsylvania State University (Penn State), University Park,
Oct. 1988. from 1986 to 1990. Since 1991, he has been a Consulting Engineer in the power
[31] J. E. T. Villas, D. Mukhedkar, V. R. Fernandes, and A. C. Magalhaes, systems area on load flow, stability, electromagnetic transients, grounding, trac-
“Ground grid design of a transition station system—A typical example tion power, harmonics and filtering. He is currently with Burns & McDonnell,
of fault transfer,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 124–129, Kansas City, MO, working in power system consulting and planning. He has
Jan. 1990. published extensively.
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