PMRE 411: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering

Course Content
 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
 Origin of Petroleum
 Petroleum Geology
 Trap and Reservoir Rock
 Reservoir Rock properties
 Porosity, Permeability, Saturation and other associated properties
 Reservoir Pressure and temperature
 Properties of Reservoir Fluids
 Properties of Gas
 Properties of Oil
Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Reservoir Engineering is a part of Petroleum Science that provides the
technical basis for the recovery of petroleum fluids from subsurface
sedimentary-rock reservoirs.
Various roles in the field of Petroleum
Role of Reservoir Engineering in the field of Petroleum
What is petroleum
Petroleum is a mineral substance composed of hydrocarbons and
produced from the natural accumulations of organic matter of a faunal
and/or floral provenance.
Petroleum is a gaseous, liquid or semisolid substance, present in the
pore space of porous rocks, referred to as reservoir rocks.
Phases of Petroleum:
Gases: Methane, ethane, propane, butane + others
Liquids: oil, crude oil,
Refined to derive petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel.
Solids: coal, kerogen, gas hydrates (ices of gas)
Visco-plastic solids: tar.
 Petroleum Geology
Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation
and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels

Petroleum geology refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are
applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil/gas exploration)

It is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in

sedimentary basins:
1. source
2. reservoir
3. seal
4. trap
5. timing
6. maturation and
7. migration
3 major steps involved in the creation of Hydrocarbon
Reservoirs:
1. Origin of Hydrocarbon (Source Rock)
2. Migration of Hydrocarbons
3. Accumulation of Hydrocarbon (Reservoir Rock)

Therefore we need to study

• Rock types and their origin
• Rock Structures that form traps to accumulate
hydrocarbon
 The Rock Cycle
3 major groups of rocks- Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic- each
of which is characterized by its mode of formation.
 Each group contains a variety of individual rock types that differ from
one another on the basis of composition or texture (the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains).
 The rock cycle is the way of viewing the interrelationships between
Earth’s internal and external processes.
 It relates the 3 rock groups to each other: to surficial processes such as
weathering, transportation, and deposition and to internal processes such as
magma generation and metamorphism.
 Plate movement is the mechanism responsible for recycling rock
materials and therefore derives the rock cycle.
Hydrocarbon System
Theory of Origin of Petroleum
The Conversion of Organic Matter to Petroleum
 When an organism (plant or animal) dies, organic matter is buried and
remains buried under anoxic conditions for 100-400 millions years.
 Over the years, layers of silt, sand and other sediments settled over the
buried organic matter resulting increase of pressure and temperature.
 The organic matter in sediments, subjected to increased temperature and
pressure is converted into petroleum hydrocarbons.
 Not all of the organic carbon (OC) in sedimentary rocks converted into
petroleum HC. A portion of the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) consists of
Kerogen. The composition of the organic matter strongly influences
whether the organic matter can produce coal, oil or gas.
 Basic components of organic matter in sediments • PROTEINS •
CARBOHYDRATES • LIPIDS (Fats) • LIGNIN All of these + Time +
Temperature + Pressure = KEROGEN
For the formation of a petroleum reservoir, several factors are required-
• There must be a source rock, preferably rich in primary organic matter (carbon-
rich marine or lacustrine shale). This source rock must be deeply buried to reach
efficient temperatures to cause the organic matter to mature and turn into
petroleum.
• There has to be a migration pathway that enables the shale-released petroleum
to migrate in a preferential direction.
• There must be a reservoir rock that is sufficiently porous and permeable to
accumulate the petroleum in large quantities.
• There must be a trap that is sealed sufficiently to withhold the petroleum.
Otherwise, the majority of petroleum will bypass the porous rock and be
dispersed or escape to the ground surface.
• An impermeable seal or cap rock, is critical in preventing the petroleum from
leaking out from the reservoir or escaping to the surface.
Petroleum generation, migration & accumulation
Petroleum Migration
• Oil and gas do not generally originate in the rocks in which they are found. Oil and gas
migrate into reservoir rocks at depth some time after burial and HC generation:
• Oil and gas are found in porous and permeable rock, which are not efficient for
preserving the organic matter near earth’s surface. This implies that they were
generated in other rocks (source rocks) elsewhere.
• Oil and gas is often found in solution pores and fractures that must have formed after
the burial and lithification of the host rock (i.e., during Diagenesis).
• Oil and gas are trapped in the highest structural culmination, or stratigraphic pinch out
of a permeable rock unit, which implies upward and lateral migration.
• Oil, gas and water occur as stratified bodies according to their densities in porous and
permeable reservoir rock. This implies they were free to migrate laterally and
vertically.
Petroleum Migration
Controlling Factors of Petroleum Migration
The generation of petroleum by thermal degradation of kerogen is based on
chemical processes controlled mainly by temperatures.

Migration of petroleum from its place of origin in the source rock to its place of
accumulation in the reservoir trap is controlled by the physical and physico-
chemical conditions of the sedimentary strata the HCs are moving through.

1) Pressure: Hydrostatic, Lithostatic & Hydrodynamic Pressure

2) Porosity & Permeability
3) Capillary Forces
 Geologic Structures
• The strata forming the earth crust are often deformed by the geologic processes.
• The resulting structures are classified as-
1. Warps or gentle tilts
2. Folds
i. Monoclines
ii. Anticlines
iii. Synclines
iv. Domes
v. Basins
3. Joints
4. Faults
i. Normal Fault
ii. Thrust or Reverse Fault
iii. Strike-Slip Fault
5. Unconformities
i. Disconformity
ii. Unconformity
iii. Angular Unconformity
6. Traps
i. Structural Traps
ii. Stratigraphic Traps
iii. Combination Traps
Folds:

Types of folds:
Salt Dome
A salt dome is a mound or column of salt that has intruded upwards into overlying
sediments. Salt domes can form in a sedimentary basin where a thick layer of salt is
overlain by younger sediments of significant thickness. The development of salt domes
can deform rock units into traps that hold oil and natural gas. They are often mined as
sources of salt and sulfur. The impermeable nature of the salt can make them important
sites for underground storage or underground disposal of hazardous waste. Two sources
of pressure that have produced salt domes are the downward pressure of overlying
sediment and the lateral pressure of tectonic movement.
At the time of deposition, clastic
sediments above the salt are
uncompacted, contain significant pore
space, and have a lower density than the
salt. Their density does not exceed the
density of the salt until they are deeply
buried, tightly compacted and partially
lithified.
Joints
Types of fault:
Normal Fault
A reverse fault is the opposite of a normal fault—the hanging wall moves up
relative to the footwall. Reverse faults indicate compressive shortening of the
crust. The dip of a reverse fault is relatively steep, greater than 45°.

A thrust fault has the same sense of motion as a reverse fault, but with the
dip of the fault plane at less than 45°.
Thrust Fault
Reverse Fault
Strike Slip Fault
A nonconformity is an erosion surface cut into metamorphic or igneous rocks
that has then been covered by sedimentary rocks. A nonconformity is
essentially an erosional boundary between sediments and the underlying
bedrock.
An angular unconformity is an erosion surface lying on tilted/folded rocks
underlying younger layers. Such a feature is the result of layers of older strata
being deformed or tilted and then truncated by erosion before the younger
layers were laid down on top.
A disconformity refers to an erosion surface that is parallel to the layered strata
above and below it. This formation would indicate either a pause in the regular
sequence of sediment formation, or a period of erosion in which layers between
those bordering the unconformity were eroded away. This latter case is usually
what has occurred.
 Traps

Traps
1. Structural
1. Anticlinal
2. Fault
3. Dome Plug
2. Stratigraphic
1. Unconformity
2. Lenticular
3. Comination
 Reservoir Rocks
Definition: A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and
permeability to store and transmit fluids.
Principal Properties
The two principal properties required from a rock to be a viable reservoir rock are
porosity and permeability.
Porosity is the capability of a rock to hold fluids in pores. It is expressed as a
volume percent of the total rock and can range from very low porosities (a few %)
to very high (over 40% in some chalks). Pores can be of many types, particularly in
carbonate rocks.
Permeability is the capability of a rock to transmit a fluid. It depends crucially on
the connections between the pores. Darcy’s law establishes the basic relationship
between pressure, flow rate and permeability.
Types of Reservoir Rocks
All types of rock (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) can act as reservoir rocks if it
can accommodate and drain hydrocarbons.

Reservoir rocks around the world is dominated by sedimentary rocks because

generally it has primary porosity.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks can be reservoir if there are in fracturing state
(secondary porosity).
Sandstone
Properties of Reservoir Rocks
Porosity, Compressibility, Saturation
 Contents
 Introduction to reservoir rock
properties
 Porosity
– Types and definitions
– Controlling parameters
– Determination
– Averaging/upscaling
 Rock compressibility
– Definitions and concepts
 Saturation
– Types and definitions
– Determination
– Averaging/upscaling
 Introduction
 Properties of rocks are important characterization parameters with
respect to the fluids contained and produced/injected .
 Influence reserves and mobility.
 Reservoir engineer concerned with:
– The quantities of fluids contained.
– The transmissivity of fluids through the rocks and related properties.
 Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
Factors which affect capacity and flow of fluids are:
1. Porosity
2. Permeability
3. Capillary pressure
4. Compressibility
5. Fluid saturation
 Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
For economic viability, oil & gas production reservoir rock must exceed:
 minimum porosity
 minimum thickness
 minimum permeability
 minimum area
 Porosity
 Porosity is the best known physical characteristic of a reservoir.
 The porosity constitute the part of the total porous rock volume which is
not occupied by rock grains or fine mud rock, acting as cement between
grain particles.
 Porosity is the ratio of void volume to the bulk volume (grains plus void
space). This void space consists of pore space between grains or crystals, in
addition to crack space.
 A pore is a discrete void within a rock, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or
other fluids. In a body of rock, the percentage of pore space is the porosity.
 Porosity determines the storage capacity of the sand and is generally expressed on a
percentage basis or as a fraction or a decimal.
Porosity
Void volume
Porosity  x 100%
Bulk volume
Pore volume
Porosity  x 100%
Bulk volume
Bulk volume  Grain volume
Porosity  x 100%
Bulk volume
Pore volume
Porosity  x 100%
Pore volume+Grain volume
Porosity
Total/Primary Porosity:
 is the ratio of volumes of ALL pores to the
bulk material
 regardless of pore interconnectivity
Effective Porosity:
 is the ratio of interconnected pore volume
to bulk material volume and it
contributes to fluid flow or permeability
in a reservoir.

 Isolated pores cannot contribute to recoverable reserves

 Effective porosity is typically less than total porosity
Effective Porosity Contd.
Consider a bulk volume of reservoir rock (sandstone) Vb.
Let the total volume of porous space in bulk volume be Vp and
the volume of disconnected pores Vd.

We then define the total porosity of the rock and the effective porosity of the rock as
follows:
 Type of Porosity

Secondary Porosity
Primary Porosity:
Intergranular porosity

Vugular Porosity Micro Porosity

Fracture Porosity
Intragranular Porosity
Vugular porosity:
• Vugular porosity is the pore space consisting of cavities or vugs.
• Vugular porosity can occur in rocks prone to dissolution, such as
limestone, in which case is secondary porosity.

Isolated
porosity

Effective
porosity
Fracture Porosity:
Fracture porosity is a form of secondary porosity generated by tectonic
fracturing of the rock.
Such porosity can develop in any rock, allowing the development of
productive reservoir in rocks such as granites and gneisses.

In carbonate rocks there are flow channels in the form of fractures in

addition to the pores. In such media, one usually defines two porosity
values in each point, the matrix porosity and the fracture porosity. These
are defined as follows:

where Vp, Vf is the volume of the pores and the fractures in the bulk
volume Vb, respectively.
Micro porosity:
 Micro-porosity is that part of the pore space that has a characteristic
dimension less than 1 micron.
 In general, this includes not only very small pores but also the porosity
associated with surface roughness.
 The water in this pore space is part of the capillary-bound water and
the small-pore water.
 Water in micro-pores is not expected to flow on production.

Intragranular porosity:
The porosity due to voids within the rock grains.
Unfilled intraparticle porosity (within a large coral fragment).
Type of Porosity
Application of porosity
1. Primary application of porosity is to quantify the storage
capacity of the rock,
2. Define the volume of hydrocarbons available to be produced.
3. From a drilling perspective, the rate of penetration and the
volume of drilling fluid lost to a formation by invasion are
related to porosity.
 Controls on porosity
 In sedimentary rocks, the amount of pore space depends on
1. Grain size
2. Grain packing arrangement
3. shape of grains
4. the amount of cementation
5. the degree of sorting.
Grain size distribution or sorting
Figures below illustrates the difference between excellent and poor sorting
of sand grains and consequently shows a mixing of grain sizes or a
distribution of grain sizes in the rocks.

The picture on left shows excellent sorting for both coarse and fine-grained
rocks while the picture on right gives a poor sorting scenario.
 Effect of sorting on porosity

Well sorted Poorly sorted Grains of two sizes

φ = 32% φ = 17% φ = 12.5%
Effect of the size of the grains on the porosity
Clean sands of various sizes were artificially mixed in the laboratory
and then porosity measured. The results show for all grain sizes
from coarse to very fine sand.

The porosity increases as the sorting improves from poor to extremely

well sorted. Porosity is uniform for a given degree of sorting and various
grain sizes. That is, porosity does not change (within
experimentation error), irregardless of the size of the grains.
Grain packing arrangement
 Grain packing arrangement

Analytical values for unconsolidated grain packs

 Poor sorting results in reduction in porosity
 Compacting due to overburden reduces porosity
 0 – 6,000 ft: 52% - 41% - sandstone
 0 – 6,000 ft: 60% - 6% - shales
 Sandstone formed by cementation at grain
contacts results in reduction of porosity
 Grain Shape
The degree of sorting and packing are dependent upon two final textural
parameters;

1. Roundness and
2. Fabric of the grains.

The degree of roundness and sphericity is a function of the erosional

processes the grains have undergone during transport and burial.

The sphericity of a grain refers to the dimensions of the grain

with respect to a equidimensional sphere.

The roundness is related to the roughness of the grain from angular to

smooth.

The fabric is the composite effect or framework of the various grains.

Figure: Roundness and sphericity
Table: shape of grains and corresponding porosity
Measurement of porosity
Core analysis (Lab):
1. Grain-volume measurements based on Boyle`s law
2. Imbibation method
3. Mercury Injection
4. Fluid-Summation Method
5. Full-diameter Core Analysis
Well logs (Field): Porosity can be estimated from different wireline logs:
1. Formation resistivity factor
2. Micro resistivity log
3. Neutron log
4. Density log
5. Acoustic (sonic) log
Grain-volume measurements based on Boyle`s law
 Imbibition Method
Pore volume Measurement
• The rock sample is immersed in a wetting fluid of known density (ρ) until it is fully
saturated.
• The sample is weighed before and after the Imbibition.
• The difference in weight is ρ Vp
• The pore volume Vp can be calculated.
Bulk-volume measurement
Using the Archimedes` principle of mass displacement:
 The core sample is first saturated with a wetting fluid and then weighed.
 The sample is then submerged in the same fluid and its submerged weight
is measured.
 The bulk volume is the difference between the two weights divided by the
density of the fluid
 Mercury Injection
The rock is evacuated, and then immersed in mercury.
At laboratory pressures mercury will not enter the pores of most rocks.
The displacement of the mercury can therefore be used to calculate the
bulk volume of the rock.
The pressure on the mercury is then raised in a stepwise fashion, forcing
the mercury into the pores of the rock.
If the pressure is sufficiently high, the mercury will invade all the pores.
 A measurement of the amount of mercury lost into the rock provides the
pore volume directly.
The porosity can then be calculated from the bulk volume and the pore
volume.
Clearly this method also measures the connected porosity.
High pressure mercury porosimetry

• Holder of known calibrated

volume
• Sample placed and handle
cranked till Hg reaches particular
mark -> Vbulk
• Sample pressurized by cranking
handle until pressure rises
abruptly -> Vvoid
Mercury Injection
Apparatus
Problem-01: A clean, dry sample weighed 20 gms. This sample was
saturated in water of density 1.0 gm/cc and then reweighed in air,
resulting in an increase in weight to 22.5 gms. The saturated sample
was immersed in water of the same density and subsequently weighed 12.6
gms. What is the bulk volume of the sample?

Problem -02: The following sequence of measurements were obtained

from the sample in problem 01. Calculate the porosity of the sample.

Problem -03: A calibration procedure resulted in V1 = 100 cc and V2 = 80 cc,

respectively. A core sample was placed in the first chamber at 0 kPa pressure.
Gas was admitted to the second chamber to a pressure of 413.7 kPa.
The valve was open and the final equalized pressure was recorded as
199.783 kPa. What is the grain volume?
Problem-01: A clean, dry sample weighed 20 gms. This sample was
saturated in water of density 1.0 gm/cc and then reweighed in air,
resulting in an increase in weight to 22.5 gms. The saturated sample
was immersed in water of the same density and subsequently weighed 12.6
gms. What is the bulk volume of the sample?
Solution:
Problem -02: The following sequence of measurements were obtained
from the sample in problem 01. Calculate the porosity of the sample.

Solution
Problem -03: A calibration procedure resulted in V1 = 100 cc and V2 = 80 cc,
respectively. A core sample was placed in the first chamber at 0 kPa pressure.
Gas was admitted to the second chamber to a pressure of 413.7 kPa.
The valve was open and the final equalized pressure was recorded as
199.783 kPa. What is the grain volume?
Solution:
Problem with solution -04:
 Up scaling/ Averaging : Porosity
Up scaling is the process of calculating effective parameter values on a
large scale from known parameter values on a smaller sale.
Usually, sandstones contain shale layers on all scales. If we measure
porosity on a core plug scale (macro scale) in a ‘clean’ sand, the shale's
on a scale larger than plug scale will not be included in the measurement.
Since shale's have finite volumes and effectively zero porosity, the shale
content in a volume larger than the core plug must be incorporated into an
up scaling procedure.
 Up scaling/ Averaging : Porosity
1. The reservoir rock may generally show large variations in porosity
vertically but does not show very great variations in porosity parallel to
the bedding planes. In this case, the arithmetic average porosity or the
thickness-weighted average porosity is used to describe the average
reservoir porosity.

2. A change in sedimentation or depositional conditions, however, can

cause the porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different
from that in another area. In such cases, the areal-weighted average or
the volume-weighted average porosity is used to characterize the
average rock porosity.
The averaging Techniques of Porosity
 Rock Compressibility
A reservoir thousands of feet underground is subjected to an overburden pressure
caused by the weight of the overlying formations.

Overburden pressures vary from area to area depending on factors such as depth,
nature of the structure, consolidation of the formation, and possibly the geologic age and
history of the rocks.

Depth of the formation is the most important consideration, and a typical value of
overburden pressure is approximately one psi per foot of depth. The weight of the
overburden simply applies a compressive force to the reservoir.

The pressure in the rock pore spaces does not normally approach the overburden
pressure. A typical pore pressure, commonly referred to as the reservoir pressure, is
approximately 0.5 psi per foot of depth, assuming that the reservoir is sufficiently
consolidated so the overburden pressure is not transmitted to the fluids in the pore
spaces.
The pressure difference between overburden and internal pore pressure is
referred to as the effective overburden pressure.

During pressure depletion operations, the internal pore pressure decreases and,
therefore, the effective overburden pressure increases. This increase causes the
following effects:

•The bulk volume of the reservoir rock is reduced.

•Sand grains within the pore spaces expand.

These two volume changes tend to reduce the pore space and, therefore, the
porosity of the rock.
Rock compressibility
Consider a pure substance in a cylinder with a piston.

The Isothermal Compressibility of a substance is in general defined as

Sedimentary rocks buried under thick column of overlying
rocks
Two types of stresses:

Overburden stress s
Hydrostatic
pressure p

Fluids saturating the rock resist overburden

stress s .> hydrostatic pressure p
 Types of Compressibility
 Matrix volume compressibility

 The change in volume of the rock grains.

 This is very small and usually not of interest in sandstones

 The subscript T indicates that the derivative is taken at constant temperature.

Bulk volume compressibility
 The change in unit volume of the rock.
 This is of interest in reservoirs on the impact at the surface where
subsidence might occur.

Pore volume compressibility

 Change in pore volume.
 Of interest since it affects porosity
In terms of the porosity φ
 For most petroleum reservoirs, the rock and bulk compressibility are
considered small in comparison with the pore compressibility cp. The formation
compressibility cf is the term commonly used to describe the total
compressibility of the formation and is set equal to cp, i.e.:

where ΔVp and Δp are the change in the pore volume and pore pressure, respectively.
Example:
Given the following data:
cf = 10 × 10−6
original pressure = 5,000 psi
original porosity = 18%
current pressure = 4,500 psi

Calculate the porosity at 4,500 psi.

Solution Hint
Total Compressibility
It should be pointed out that the total reservoir compressibility ct is extensively
used in the transient flow equation and the material balance equation as defined
by the following expression:
Fluid Saturation
In most oil bearing formations it is believed that the rock was completely
saturated with water prior to the invasion and trapping of petroleum.

The less dense HC are considered to migrate to positions of hydrostatic and

dynamic equilibrium, thus displacing water from the interstices of the
structurally high part of the rock.

The oil will not displace all the water which originally occupied these pores.
Thus, reservoir rocks normally will contain both HC and water (frequently
referred to as connate water) occupying the same or adjacent pores.

To determine the quantity of HC accumulated in a porous rock formation, it is

necessary to determine the fluid saturation of the rock material.
What is fluid saturation
Let us consider a representative elementary volume of the reservoir, with the
pores filled with oil, gas and water. In volumetric terms, this can be written as
follows:

which leads to the definition of saturation, S, as a fraction of the pore volume

occupied by a particular fluid:

where n denotes the total number of fluid phases present in the porous medium.
Consequently,
Definition of Saturation
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied
by a particular fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed
mathematically by the following relationship:
Critical oil saturation, Soc
For the oil phase to flow, the saturation of the oil must exceed a certain
value, which is termed critical oil saturation. At this particular saturation,
the oil remains in the pores and, for all practical purposes, will not flow.

Residual oil saturation, Sor

During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or
gas injection (or encroachment), there will be some remaining oil left that is quantitatively
characterized by a saturation value that is larger than the critical oil saturation. This
saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor. The term residual saturation is
usually associated with the non wetting phase when it is being displaced by a wetting
phase.
Movable oil saturation, Som
Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of interest and is defined as the fraction of
pore volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by the following equation-
Critical gas saturation, Sgc
As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the
oil phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure
declines. The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation,
called critical gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.

Critical water saturation, Swc

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation
are extensively used interchangeably to define the maxi-mum water saturation at which
the water phase will remain immobile.
Average Saturation
Proper averaging of saturation data requires that the saturation values be
weighted by both the interval thickness hi and interval porosity . The average
saturation of each reservoir fluid is calculated from the following equations:
Methods of determining fluid saturations
There are two approaches to determine fluid saturations within the rock.
1. Direct approach: By selecting the rock samples and measuring the
saturations of these samples as they are recovered from the parent
formations.
2. Indirect Approach: By measuring some other physical property of the rock
like resistivity.
 Determination of fluid saturations from rock samples
(Lab Methods)
Methods that are applied to measure values of original rock saturations involves-

1. Evaporation of the fluids in the rock

2. Leaching out of the fluids in the rock by extraction with a solvent

Following methods are discussed briefly next:

1. Retort distillation
2. ASTM Extraction
3. Centrifuge
 Retort distillation
Process Description:
 The core sample is weighed and its bulk volume measured or
calculated.

 The sample is then placed in a cylindrical metal holder with a screw

cup at the top and a hollow stem projecting from the bottom.

 The top is sealed and the sample holder is placed in a retort oven.

 Heat the rock sample so as to vaporize the water and the oil, which is
condensed and collected in a small receiving vessel.

 In order to remove the all oil, it is necessary to approach temperatures

on the order of 1000 to 1100 oF.
The high temperature retort distillation method
Retort distillation gives both the water and oil volumes so that
oil and water saturations can be calculated from the following
formulas.
 Disadvantages:
1. At temperatures of this magnitude the water of crystallization within
the rock is driven off causing the water recovery values to be
greater than just interstitial water.

2. Oil itself when heated to high temperatures has a tendency to crack

and coke. The change of HC molecule tends to decrease the liquid
volume and also in some cases coats the internal walls of the rock
sample itself.
 ASTM Extraction
Process description:
1. The core is placed so that a vapor of toluene,
gasoline or naphtha rises through the core and
is considered to reflux back over the core.

2. The water and the extracting fluid are

condensed and are collected in a graduated
receiving tube. The water settles to the bottom
of the receiving tube because of its greater
density and the extracting fluid refluxes back
into the main heating vessel.

3. The process is continued until no core water

is collected in the receiving tube.
 Centrifuge Method
A solvent is injected into the centrifuge just off center. Owing to the
centrifugal force it is thrown to the outer radii, being forced to pass through
the core sample. The solvent removes the water and oil from the core. The
outlet fluid is trapped and the quantity of water in the core is measured.
 Gas saturation
Conventional and sidewall core samples have gas saturation measured
by injecting mercury into the gas filled portions of the pores. The gas is
compressed into a small volume or forced into solution in the liquids in
the pores using a mercury pump. Measurement of the volume of
mercury penetrated is a measure of the gas content of the sample.
Factor affecting fluid saturations of cores
The fluid content of the sample has been altered:
a. The pressure differential between mud column and the formation
causes mud and mud filtrate to invade the formation immediately and
as the most drilling is done with water based mud, water filtrate
invades the core and displaces some of the oil and interstitial water.

b. As the sample is brought to the surface the confining pressure of

the fluid column is constantly decreasing which results the
expansion of the entrapped water, oil, gas.
Properties of Reservoir Rocks:
Permeability
Permeability
 The permeability of a rock is the description of the ease with which fluid can
pass through the pore structure
 Can be so low to be considered impermeable.
 Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above permeable reservoir.
 Also include some clays, shale, chalk, anhydrite and some highly cemented
sandstones.
 Term is used to link flow rate and pressure difference across a section of
porous rock.
 In a rock the pore space , size and interconnection is very complex.
 The application of energy equations developed for flow in pipes is difficult.
 The parameter used for this flow behavior is termed ‘permeability”
 The unit of permeability is the Darcy, named after a French scientist
investigating flow through filter beds.
Permeability
 Darcy’s Experiment
 A homogeneous sand pack in cylinder through which water flowed

1
Q  A, h,
L
A  h1  h 2 
Qk
L

where is k constant.
k varied from sand pack to sand
pack.
Datum level

Q = Constant flow rate (m3/s)

A = Cylinder cross section (m2)
h1, h2 = Manometer heights (m) relative to a datum level.
Assumptions in Darcy’s Law
 Darcy’s Law assumes:
 Steady State Flow
 Laminar Flow
 Single phase only occupying 100% of porosity
 No reaction between fluid & rock
 Homogenous rock
Darcy’s Law in terms of the pressures

Let the water density be ρ(kg/m3)

and g be the acceleration of gravity
(9.81m/s2)
P1=ρgh’1 and P2=ρgh2
Since h1=h’1+L

Subsequent experimentalists extended Darcy’s experiments to include

different fluids and flow directions. They found that

where μ is the fluid viscosity and ρ is the fluid density.

Darcy’s Experiment-Tilted
For a tilted cylinder as shown

We may express this equation in

terms of a Volumetric Flux, u=Q/A
Exercise: 01
In the figure below, assume p2  p1  gl
a. Find the flow rate.
b. Formulate Darcy’s Law for horizontal flow.
c. Formulate Darcy’s Law for vertical flow upwards.
d. Formulate Darcy’s Law for vertical downwards flow
Solution

a.

b
c

d
Exercise-02:
Solution
Up scaling: Permeability
A medium which is heterogeneous but isotropic on a small
scale may be homogeneous and anisotropic on large scale.

In many cases, the reservoir contains distinct layers, blocks, or

concentric rings of varying permeability.
The boundaries parallel to the indicated flow direction are all
assumed to be no-flow boundaries, and a pressure gradient
is applied over the length L of the volume. Regardless what
is taking place inside the volume, the up scaled permeability
K in the given flow direction is given by-

where Q is the volumetric flow

rate
Beds in Parallel-Linear flow
Average permeability from Darcy’s Law

QT  Q1  Q 2  Q3
k1A1  P1  P2 
Q1 
L
k1A1  P1  P2  k 2 A 2  P1  P2  k 3A3  P1  P2 
QT   
L L L
A i  P1  P2 
QT  k 
L

k 
k A i i

A i

kA 
k h i i

h i
 Beds in Series-Linear flow
 Reservoir may have been
folded or faulted.
 Horizontal layers now vertical.
 Average permeability obtained
by adding pressure drop across
each bed.

 P1  P4    P1  P2    P2  P3    P3  P4 
QL1 QL2 QL3 QL1
 P1  P4     
k1A1 k 2 A 2 k 3A3 kA1

k 
L This is the thickness weighted harmonic
Li
k average of layers permeability
i
 Beds in Parallel-Radial flow
Case of several layers flowing simultaneously in a well

2h i k i  Pe  Pw 
Qi 
r
 ln e
rw

2h T k  Pe  Pw  2  Pe  Pw 
Q   Qi    k1h1  k 2 h 2  k 3h 3 
re re
 ln  ln
rw rw

k
 hk i i

hT
Beds in Series-Radial flow
 Natural variations in permeability.
 Well bore damage.
 Cleaning techniques.
 Injection processes

2k1h  P1  Pw 
Q1 
r
 ln 1
rw

2k 2 h  Pe  P1 
Q2 
r
 ln e
r1

2k avg h  Pe  Pw 
Total flow: QT 
r
 ln e
rw
Beds in Series-Radial flow
Total pressure drop:  Pe  Pw    Pe  P1    P1  Pw 

re r r
QT  ln Q 2 ln e Q1 ln 1
rw r1 rw
 
2k avg h 2k 2 h 2k1h

At steady state flow: QT  Q1  Q2

re
re re r1 ln
ln ln ln rw
rw

r1

rw k avg 
k avg k2 k1
r1 re
ln ln
rw r1

k1 k2
Exercise: A block of sand contains three horizontal layers.
The top layer has a permeability of 2.1D and a thickness of
12m. The middle layer has a permeability of 3.6D and a
thickness of 6 m. The bottom layer has a permeability of
4.0 D and a thickness of 8 m. Find the up scaled
horizontal and the up scaled vertical permeability for this sand
block
Solution
Permeability
 Unit of permeability - Darcy
 Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoises fluid to flow at
linear velocity of one cm per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimeter.
Unit of Permeability
 Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy.
 Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy to more than 10,000
millidarcy.
 Clays and shale have permeability of 10-2 to 10-6 mD.
 These very low permeability make them act as seals between layers.
Dimension of Permeability
Darcy’s Equation k  dP g dz 
Vs     
  ds 1.0133 106 ds 
Dimensions L M M
Vs   =
T LT L3
M L dP M
P= 2
g 2 = 2 2
LT T dS L T
L kLT  M M 
   2 
M  L2T LT 
2
3
T

L k

T LT

kL 2
Field Units
 Measurements in the field often quoted in
kA  P1  P2 
field units. A conversion is required for Q
compatibility with Darcy equation.
L
 Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day or m3/day
 Permeability, k - darcy to oil field units gives
 Thickness, h - feet or metre
bbl kA  P1  P2 
 Pressure, P - psia Q  1.1271
day L
 Viscosity, - centipoise
 Radius. R - feet or metre
 Length, L - feet or metre
Measurement of Absolute Permeability
Introduction:
There are essentially two approaches to measuring the permeability-

1. The steady state: the pressure drop for a fixed flow rate is measured.
2. The unsteady state: the flow in the transient regime is measured.
Steady State Permeability Method
 The most conventional permeability measurement approach has been to
use the measurement of the pressure drop associated with a fixed flow
rate.

 To determine specific permeability nitrogen or air is usually caused to

flow through a prepared sample of measured dimensions.

The pressure differential and flow rates are measured and the
permeability calculated from the Darcy equation.
steady state permeability measurement
Case Study: Core sample liquid permeability

Problem statement:

A cylindrical core sample is properly cleaned and all remains of

hydrocarbons are removed from the pore space. The core is saturated
with water and then flushed horizontally. The core length is 15 cm, it’s
diameter is 5 cm and the water viscosity is 1.0 cp. The pressure drop ∆p,
is measured for three different flow-rates are as follows-

What is the absolute liquid permeability?

Solution:
Permeability can be calculated by using the formula below directly

d is the core sample diameter

Permeability is calculated using the above formula,

 Core sample Gas permeability
Due to certain interactions between the liquids and the porous rock,
absolute permeability is routinely measured in the laboratory by flowing
gas (usually inert gas) through the core sample. Because gas is a highly
compressible substance, i.e. the gas rate is pressure dependent, the
Darcy’s law may not be utilized directly.
The gas permeability could be estimated using Eq.

Qb 

kA P  P2
1
2 2

2LPb
Case Study: Gas permeability
Problem statement:

A gas permeability test has been carried out on a core sample, 1in in
diameter and length. The core has been cleaned and dried and
mounted in a Hassler core holder. The gas is injected and the pressure,
p1 measured, at one end of the core sample, while the gas rate, q2 is
measured at the other end, at atmospheric pressure, i.e., p2 = 1at m.
Given the pressure p1 and the gas rate q2
Solution:
The mean pressure in the core sample,

The pressure drop across the core, ∆p, (p1-p2)

The gas permeability k is found as a function of the mean core

pressure.
 Factors Affecting Permeability Values
Permeability is introduced as a proportional coefficient in Darcy’s law.

The characteristics than the porous medium have important influence on

the numeric value of the permeability determination are-

1. Overburden pressure

2. Fluid used in laboratory tests (due to some interaction between the

fluid and the porous medium).

3. The use of gases introduce other problems, such as turbulent flow

behavior, increased uncertainty in gas rate measurements and at low
pressure, the Klinkenberg effect.

The rock permeability to gas is not the same as for liquids, since gas

permeability is pressure dependent, i.e. ,k  k ( p)
Relative Permeability
 Introduction
1. Relative permeability is a concept used to relate the absolute permeability
(100% saturation with a single fluid) of a porous system, to the effective
permeability of a particular fluid in the system, when that fluid occupies
only a fraction of the total pore volume.

2. When measuring a flow-rate of a fluid versus the pressure difference in a

core sample, we can obtain (single phase flow),

Here ke is called effective permeability. For 100% saturation, the effective

permeability is identical to the absolute permeability; i.e. ke = k.
3. In multiphase flow a generalization of Darcy law has been accepted

where j denotes a fluid phase j, and kje is called the effective (phase)
permeability.

In a vast number of laboratory experiments it has been observed that a

sum of effective permeability’s is less than the total or absolute
permeability, i.e.
4. Effective (phase) permeability is a function of quite a number of
parameters, such as:
Fluid saturation,
Rock property,
Absolute permeability,
Fluid property, and
Reservoir conditions (pressure, temperature)

5. The effective permeability can be decomposed into the absolute

permeability and the relative permeability, as shown below,
6. Relative permeability provides an extension of Darcy’s Law to the presence
of more than a single fluid within the pore space.

A P qo
Oil o
qw
Water
L
w
kk ro A dP kk rw A dP
qo  qw 
o dl  w dl
k - absolute permeability
kro,krw - relative permeability
The relative permeability to oil, Kro

The relative permeability to water, Krw

The relative permeability to gas, Krg

Effective and Relative Permeability
Normalized Relative Permeability Curve
ko (Sw = Swc ) =k x k′ro
Typical Relative permeability Curve
water -oil system

Irreducible
water
saturation

Residual oil
saturation
Typical Relative permeability Curve
Gas -oil system
 Relative permeability: Drainage/Imbibition
 Imbibitions
 Displacement of non-wetting phase by wetting phase causing the
increased wetting phase saturation within the system. For example-
1. Oil- water system where rock is water wet- imposing water flooding to
improve oil recovery.
2. In a gas-oil systems- movement of an oil zone into depleting gas cap
zone.
 Drainage.
 Displacement of wetting phase by non-wetting phase causing the
increased non-wetting phase saturation within the system. For example-
1. Oil- water system where rock is water wet- oil from source rock is
displacing water from the reservoir rock/
2. Gas oil system where gas expulsion occurs during primary depletion.
 Oil-water system:
Starting with the porous rock completely filled with water, and displacing
by oil, the drainage relative permeability and capillary pressure curves
will be defined:
Reversing the process when all mobile water has been displaced, by
injecting water to displace the oil, imbibition curves are defined

Note: The above curves are typical ones for a completely water-wet system.
For less water-wet systems, the capillary pressure curve will have a negative
part at high water saturation. The shape of the curves will depend on rock
and wetting characteristics.
 Drainage: Oil-gas systems
Starting with the porous rock completely filled with oil, and
displacing by gas, the drainage relative permeability and capillary
pressure curves will be defined:
 Imbibition: Oil-gas systems
If the process is reversed when all mobile oil has been displaced, by
injecting oil to displace the gas, imbibition curves are defined:
 Factors Affecting Relative Permeability
I. Fluid saturations
II. Geometry of the pore spaces and pore size distribution
III. Wettability
IV. Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or drainage)
 Use of Relative and Effective Permeability

1. To model a particular process, for example, fractional flow, fluid

distributions, recovery and predictions.
2. Determination of the free water surface; i.e., the level of zero capillary
pressure or the level below which fluid production is 100% water.
3. Determination of residual fluid saturations
Properties of Reservoir Rocks:
Capillary Pressure
Surface Kinetics
 Reservoir rocks contain two or more phases and other issues need to
be considered. Multiple phases introduce the concept of:
– Wettability
– Capillary Pressure
– Relative Permeability
Surface and Interfacial Tension

An interface is known as the boundary region between two

adjacent bulk phases. The equilibrium bulk phases can be:

• Liquid-vapor (LV).
• Liquid-liquid (LL).
• Liquid-solid (LS).
• Solid-vapor (SV)

Gases are basically miscible and thus, no interfacial tension is

observed between gases
Surface and Interfacial Tension
 Surface free energy exists on all
surfaces between states of matter and
between immiscible fluids
 Surface tension results from molecular
forces that cause the surface of a
liquid to assume smallest possible
size.
 The equilibrium in force between two
dissimilar fluids is disrupted at the
interface.
 Surface or Interfacial tension deforms Oil-Water Boundary
the outer surface of immiscible liquids
to produce droplets.
 If the two liquids are on a surface, the
IFT deforms the liquids to produce a
contact angle.
Surface and Interfacial Tension
The molecules attached to the oil-water interface do necessarily have less
kinetic energy than the bulk molecules on average.

The molecules on or close to the interface may not move with the same degree
of freedom and speed, due to the constraint put on them by the interface.

Since the total energy of the molecules is mainly a function of temperature, the
potential energy of molecules attached to the interface is greater than the potential
energy of the bulk molecules.

Molecular motion in bulk and

close to the oil-water interface.
Surface and Interfacial Tension
Generally speaking, a molecule at a surface is in a state of higher potential
energy than a bulk molecule, due to anisotropy and intermolecular interactions.

This means that energy is required to move a molecule from the interior to the
surface of a phase, i.e., to increase the surface area of the system.

Since a proportionality exist between surface area and potential energy of the
system of molecules and since equilibrium is reached at minimum potential energy
(actually minimum Gibbs energy), the surface area of a system is always
minimized.

Molecular motion in bulk and

close to the oil-water interface.
Wettability
 The adhesion tension which is the function of interfacial tension
determines which fluid will preferentially wet the solid surface.
 A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid and preferentially
wets the solid. The contact angle approaches zero and will always be
less than 90o.
 The contact angle is measured through the denser liquid phase and
ranges from 0 o to 180 o
 Wettability
 A positive adhesion---denser phase preferentially wet the solid surface.
 A adhesion of zero---both phases have the equal affinity for the solid surface.
 If the adhesion tension is large or contact angle is small, the denser phase will
readily spread and tend to coat the surface.
 If the adhesion tension is small or contact angle is large, an outside source of
energy is required to cause the denser phase to spread over the surface.
 The composition of the surface affects the interfacial tension.
Adhesion tension
 Difference between solid water and solid oil interfacial tension.

A t  sw  wo  wo Cos wo

Capillary Rise in Tube
Net force upwards  2rwo Cos

Net force downwards   w gh  o gh  r 2   w  o  ghr 2

Interface is at equilibrium
2rwo Cos  gh  w  o  r 2

Capillary Pressure: It is the pressure

difference across an interface

2Cos
Pc     w  o  gh
r
 Capillary Pressure and Fluid Saturation
In case of the capillary tube of varying diameter, the height to which the
fluid will rise in the tube depends on-
1. Adhesion tension
2. Fluid density
3. Variation of tube diameter with height

If the pressure is applied to the interface, the interface will move to new
equilibrium position, thus decreasing the volume of water within the tube.
 2Cos
Pc     w  o  gh
r
From the definition of the capillary pressure, the capillary pressure
would be greater for small radius of curvature than for the large radius of
curvature.

This behavior indicates that there is an inverse functional relationship

between capillary pressure and wetting phase saturation.

Lower the saturation, the smaller would be the radii of the curvature
and the wetting phase material will exist in the smaller crevices and
opening of the system, leaving the large open channels to the non
wetting phase.
Normally hydrocarbons, entering pore space initially occupied by the
wetting fluid, normally water, during migration of hydrocarbons from a
source rock region into a reservoir trap.

A pressure differential is required for the non-wetting phase to

displace wetting phase and this is equivalent to a minimum threshold
capillary pressure and is dependent on pore size.

The physical significance of threshold pressure in an oil reservoir

may be appreciated by the analogy with a capillary rise of water in
different vertical glass tubes suspended in an open tray of water.

Since Pc ∝ 1/ r it is observed that entry of the non-wetting phase

should be most difficult in the smallest tube (highest threshold
pressure). For a water-air system, the following relation exist,
The threshold capillary pressure, found in reservoir is proportional to the
height above the free water level (FWL), where a 100% water saturation is
found.

The FWL is a property of the reservoir system, while an oil-water contact

observed in a particular well will depend on the threshold pressure of the
rock type present in the vicinity of the well.

Figure: Capillary water elevation

in cylindrical tubes as function of
tube radii.
In real reservoir systems it is expected that a number of rock type units
or layers will be encountered. Each unit can have its own capillary
pressure characteristic and the static saturation distribution in the
reservoir will be a superposition of all units

Observed water-oil contacts and their relationship with free water level
(FWL) in a layered reservoir with a common aquifer
Distribution of Capillaries

Transition zone

Irreducible water saturation

100% saturation
above FWL

Oil water contact, OWC

Free Water level, FWL

 Factor Affecting Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks
Pore openings:
1. Case1has a small range of connecting pore sizes.
2. Case 2 has a much larger range of connecting pore sizes,
 Factor Affecting Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks

 Rock wettability
affects Pc.
 Oil wet rocks have
reduced transition
zones
 Lower IFT reduces
transition zone
 High IFT extends
transition zone
Factor Affecting Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks

 Large density
(water-gas)
difference
suppresses
transition zone.
 Small density
differences
(water-oil )
increases
transition zone.
 Capillary Hysteresis
It is seen that capillary pressure depends both on wetting phase saturation
and the direction of its variation.

A typical curve of the capillary pressure in case of two-phase flow. Two ways
in which one phase can be substituted by the other in a porous medium are
usually considered.

The first is the process of displacement where the wetting phase is displaced
by the non-wetting one, and the second is the process of Imbibition, where the
non-wetting phase is displaced by the wetting one.

The value Pcb is defined as threshold capillary pressure which should be

exceeded to provide displacement. If displacement is preceded by Imbibition
the capillary pressure curve is as the curve 3 in which is different from the
curve 1.

The presence of two different curves of Imbibition and displacement is called

capillary hysteresis.
Typical type of capillary pressure curve for a two-phase flow problem:
1 drainage, 2 Imbibition and 3 secondary drainage
 Height of water - oil transition zone
A laboratory air-brine capillary pressure of 1.25 bar has been measured in
a reservoir core sample at residual water saturation. The air-brine
interfacial tension is 0.070 N/m and the brine-oil interfacial tension for the
reservoir fluids is 0.022 N/m. Find the height of the water-oil transition
zone. ρbrine and ρoil is respectively 1074 kg/m3 and 752 kg/ m3.

The height of the water-oil transition zone is the height from FWL and up
to the point in the reservoir where connate water saturation is reached

where Pc,res is the capillary pressure in the reservoir at this water

saturation.
Solution:

In the case of identical wetting preferences for the core sample and the
reservoir, one may assume proportionality between capillary pressure
and the interfacial tension in the two situations,

Combining these two equation, the height of the transition zone is found
Reservoir Pressure & Temperature
Reservoir Pressure and Distribution of Fluid Phases.

The migration and accumulation of petroleum in a reservoir leads to the

replacement of the original pore water by gas and oil , even though the
rock pores remain "water-wet" (i.e., their walls are covered with a thin film
of water). The density difference makes the gas accumulate at the top of
the reservoir, and the oil directly below.
The following fluid interfaces in the reservoir are important:

The Gas-Oil Contact (GOC) – a surface separating the gas cap from
the underlying oil zone. Below the GOC, gas can be present only as a
dissolved phase in oil.

The Oil-Water Contact (OWC) – a surface separating the oil zone from
the underlying water zone. Below the OWC, oil is generally absent.

The Free-Water Level (FWL) – an imaginary surface at which the

pressure in the oil zone equals to that in the water zone, i.e. po = pw. In
other words, FWL is the oil-water contact in the absence of the capillary
forces associated with a porous medium, i.e. in a well.

The Free-Oil Level (FOL) – the level above which the oil saturation is
sufficiently high to allow full oil mobility (100% oil productivity) and the
water saturation is low enough to make water immobile. In most reservoirs,
this is the level where So exceeds 70%, which means Sw < 30%.
Lithostatic Pressures & Fluid Pressures

 Lithostatic pressure:
 Grain to grain transmission of weight of rock.
 Sometimes termed geostatic or overburden pressure.
 Function of depth and density.
 1 psi./ Ft
 Pov at depth D = 1.0 x D psi.
Lithostatic Pressures & Fluid Pressures

 Lithostatic pressure is balanced in part by the pressure of fluids within

pores, pore pressure and by grains of rock under compaction.
 Unconsolidated sands, overburden totally supported by fluid pressure
and fluid pressure equals overburden pressure.
 In deposited rocks, like reservoirs, fluid pressure is not supporting the
rocks but arises from the continuity of the aqueous phase from surface
to the depth.
 The fluid pressure is termed as hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic Pressure
 Imposed by a column of fluid at rest.
 Value depends on the density of fluid.
 Water - salinity
 0.433 psi/ft - fresh water
 0.450 psi/ft for saline water 55,000ppm
 0.465 psi/ft for saline water 88,000ppm
 Pfluid = ρfluidDg
Here, g=acceleration due to gravity
D= depth.
Lithostatic Pressures & Fluid Pressures

Hydrostatic pressure

Lithostatic pressure
Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is dictated by prevailing water pressure in vicinity of reservoir.

In a normal situation the water pressure at any depth is:

  dP  
PW     D   14.7 psia (dP/dD is the hydrostatic gradient)
  dD  water 
Assumes continuity of water pressure from surface and constant salinity.
In most cases even though the water bearing sands are divided between
impermeable shales, any break of such sealing systems will lead to
hydrostatic pressure continuity, but the salinity can vary with depth.

If pressure extrapolated to zero depth is atmospheric pressure

- normal pressured reservoir
Fluid Pressure-Abnormal Pressure

Under certain conditions fluid pressures are not normal.

 Over-pressured reservoirs.
 Hydrostatic pressure greater than normal pressure
 Under-pressured reservoirs
 Hydrostatic pressure below normal pressure

Abnormal pressured reservoirs can be defined by the equation:

  dP  
PW    D   14.7  Cpsia
  dD  water 

C - constant positive - over-pressured

C - constant negative - under-pressured
Abnormal Pressure

Over-pressured
reservoir

Under-pressured
reservoir
Causes of Abnormal Pressure

 Thermal effects-expansion or contraction of water: An

increase in temperature of 1oF can cause an increase of 125 psi in a
sealed fresh water system.
 Rapid burial of sediments: It consists of layers of sand and clay.
Speed of burial does not allow fluids to escape from pore space.
 Geological changes: The uplifting of the reservoir, or the
equivalent, surface erosion, both of which result in the water
pressure in the reservoir sand being too high for its depth of
burial; the opposite effect occurs in a downthrown reservoir in
which abnormally low fluid pressure can occur.
 Osmotic effects via salinity differences: the sealing shale
acting as the semi-permeable membrane in this ionic exchange; if
the water within the seal is more saline than the surrounding
water the osmosis will cause an abnormally high pressure and vice
versa.
Causes of Abnormal Pressure
Geological changes
 Pressure distribution for an oil reservoir with a
gas-cap and oil water contact.

Pressure

Path of well Impermeable

bed

Gradient in gas column

Gradient in oil column

Gradient in aquifer

Over pressured reservoir

Fluid Pressures-Hydrocarbon Systems
 Hydrocarbon pressure regimes different since densities of oil and gas are less than
water.

 dP 
   0.45 psi / ft
 dD  water

Pressure
0  dP 
  gas  0.08 psi / ft
 dD 
Depth

 dP 
   0.35 psi / ft
 dD oil
Pressure distribution for an oil reservoir with a
gas-cap and oil water contact.

The composition of the

respective fluids gives rise to
different pressure gradients.

These gradients will be

determined by the density
of the fluids which result
from the specific
composition of the fluids.
Problem

Solution
Problem
Following data were obtained from an oil reservoir. Water pressure at a depth
of 2,756 ft is 1,920 psia. Oil pressure at a depth of 2,560 ft is 1,840 psia.
Consider normal hydrostatic pressure gradient. Calculate the depth of OWC and
pressure at OWC. Redo the calculation considering water is over-pressured by
20 psi.
 Uncertainties about contact
1. Assume normal hydrostatic pressure regime
At the oil water contact
The linear equation for the oil pressure above the oil water contact
Po= 2490 at OWC (5500ft), so the constant can be evaluated to give the equation
The gas oil contact at 5200ft and the linear equation of the gas pressure line would be
2. Water is over pressured by 20 psi
The linear equation for the water
OWC would be at 5300ft instead of 5500ft.
If the exploration well has only penetrated the gas cap:
The linear equation for the water, Pw= 0.45D+15 psia
The linear equation for the gas, Pg=0.08D+1969 psia
Assuming there is no oil
Water gas contact would be at 5,821 ft (DPGC)
DPGC= deepest possible gas water contact.
Since there is no physical reason why an oil column should not extend then
Assuming the oil gradient of 0.35psi/ft and Po= 0.35D+C
If at 5150 ft a GOC exist then Pg= 2381psia and C=579
Solution of Po=Pw gives OWC at 5640ft.
Reservoir Temperature
 Earth temperature increases from surface to centre
 Heat flow outwards generates a geothermal gradient.
 Obtained from wellbore temperature surveys.
 Reservoir geothermal gradients around 1.6oF/100 ft ( 0.029K/m).
 Because of large thermal capacity and surface area of porous reservoir, flow
processes in a reservoir occur at constant temperature.
 Local conditions , e.g. around the well can be influenced by transient cooling or
heating effects of injected fluids.
 Considers fluid made up of two components
 Gas dissolved in oil: solution gas

 Stock Tank Oil

Undersaturated
Saturated

A Typical p-T diagram for a Black oil

The gas solubility, Rs is defined as the number of cubic feet ( cubic
meter) of gas measured at standard conditions which will dissolve in
one barrel (cubic meter) of stock tank oil when subjected to
reservoir temperature and pressure.
Black oil model treats the amount of gas in solution in terms of the gas produced
Above bubble point pressure.
Oil is under saturated
Solution GOR is constant

 At and below bubble

point pressure two
phases produced in the
reservoir as gas comes
out of solution.
 Solution GOR reduces
 Volume occupied by oil between surface conditions and
reservoir is that of the total system, the ‘stock tank’ oil and its
associated ‘solution gas’.

 A unit volume of stock tank oil to surface with its associated gas
will occupy at reservoir conditions a volume greater than unity.

 Relationship between volume of oil and its dissolved gas and

the volume at stock tank conditions is called the Oil Formation
Volume Factor, Bo.
Definition
Oil formation volume factor is defined as
the ratio of the volume of oil at reservoir
(in-situ) conditions to that at stock tank
(surface) conditions.
Above bubble point as
pressure reduces oil
expands due to
compressibility.

Below bubble point oil

shrinks as a result of
gas coming out of
solution.
 Reciprocal of the oil formation volume factor is called the
shrinkage factor, bo.

 bo=1/Bo

 The formation volume factor ,Bo multiplied by volume of stock

tank oil gives the reservoir volume.

 Shrinkage factor multiplied by reservoir volume gives stock tank

oil volume
 Solution Gas & Free Gas
Saturated

R= Rs scf/stb + R-Rs scf/stb

+
Stock Tank Oil

1 stb. oil

Gas
Bo res. Bbl. oil & dissolved gas/stb
Oil
Oil Reservoir

(R-Rs)Bg res. bbl.free gas / stb

 Sometimes convenient to know volume of the oil in the reservoir by
one stock tank unit of oil plus the free gas that was originally
dissolved in it.

 Total formation volume factor is used, Bt.

 Sometimes termed two-phase volume factor.

The total formation volume factor is the volume in barrels
(cubic meter ) that 1.0 stock tank barrel ( cubic meter ) and
its initial complement of dissolved gas occupies at reservoir
temperature and pressure conditions.

Bt  Bo  Bg  R sb  R s 
Rsb = the solution gas to oil ratio at the bubble point.
Bt  Bo  Bg  R sb  R s 
P = Pb P < Pb

GAS Bg(Rsb-Rs)
Bob OIL
Bt
OIL Bo
Hg
Hg

Sometimes used in the material balance equation

Does not have volume significance in the reservoir.
Bt  Bo  Bg  R sb  R s 

Pb, Bt = Bo
Flash Expansion
Experiment
After recombining the oil and
gas in the correct proportions, the
fluid is charged to the PV cell
which is maintained at constant
temperature, the measured
reservoir temperature, throughout
the experiments.

The cell pressure is controlled

by a positive displacement
mercury pump and recorded on
an accurate pressure gauge.

The plunger movement is

calibrated in terms of volume of
mercury injected or withdrawn
from the PV cell so that volume
changes in the cell can be
measured directly.
 Flash Expansion Experiment
 In the flash experiment the pressure in the PV cell is initially raised to a value far in excess
of the bubble point.

The pressure is subsequently reduced in stages, and on each occasion the total volume vt
of the cell contents is recorded.

As soon as the bubble point pressure is reached, gas is liberated from the oil and the
overall compressibility of the system increases significantly.

Thereafter, small changes in pressure will result in large changes in the total fluid volume
contained in the PV cell.

In this manner, the flash expansion experiment can be used to "feel" the bubble point.

Since the cell used is usually opaque the separate volumes of oil and gas, below bubble
point pressure, cannot be measured in the experiment and therefore, only total fluid volumes
are recorded.

In the laboratory analysis the basic unit of volume, against which all others are compared,
is the volume of saturated oil at the bubble point, irrespective of its magnitude.
Problem: Flash Expansion
The data from a flash vaporization on a black oil at 220oF are given below.
Determine the bubble point pressure and prepare a table pressure and relative
volume for the reservoir fluid study.

Pressure Total Pressure Total Pressure Total

psig volume psig volume psig volume
Cc cc cc

5000 61.030 2591 63.576 1040 112.715

4500 61.435 2516 64.291 830 136.908
4000 61.866 2401 65.532 640 174.201
3500 62.341 2250 67.400 472 235.700
3000 62.866 2090 69.901
2900 62.974 1897 73.655
2800 63.088 1698 78.676
2700 63.208 1477 86.224
2605 63.455 1292 95.050
 Solution
Pressure vs. Total volume
5500

5000

4500

4000
Pressure, psig

3500
Volume at bubble point=63.316 cc
3000 Pressure at this point is 2620 psig
2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250

Total volume, cc
Differential Liberation
Experiment

After recombining the oil and

gas in the correct proportions, the
fluid is charged to the PV cell
which is maintained at constant
temperature, the measured
reservoir temperature, throughout
the experiments.

The cell pressure is controlled

by a positive displacement
mercury pump and recorded on
an accurate pressure gauge.

The plunger movement is

calibrated in terms of volume of
mercury injected or withdrawn
from the PV cell so that volume
changes in the cell can be
measured directly.
Differential Liberation Experiment
The experiment starts at bubble point pressure since above this pressure the
flash and differential experiments are identical.

In contrast to the flash expansion, after each stage of the differential liberation,
the total amount of gas liberated during the latest pressure drop is removed from
the PV cell by injecting mercury at constant pressure.
Results of isothermal differential liberation
Difference Between FE and DLE
In the flash expansion no gas is removed from the PV cell but instead
remains in equilibrium with the oil. As a result, the overall hydrocarbon
composition in the cell remains unchanged.

In the differential liberation experiment, however, at each stage of depletion

the liberated gas is physically removed from contact with the oil and
therefore, there is a continual compositional change in the PV cell, the
remaining hydrocarbons becoming progressively richer in the heavier
components and the average molecular weight thus increasing.
Problem: Differential Liberation Expansion
The data from a differential vaporization on a black oil at 220oF are given
below. Prepare a table of solution gas oil ratios, relative oil volumes and
relative total volumes by this differential process. Also include z factors and
formation volume factors of the increment of gas removed.
 Solution
Solution Gas Relative Oil Gas Gas Relative Total ZT ft 3 0.0282* 0.85 * 680
Oil Ratio, Rsd Volume, Bod Deviation Formation Volume, Btd Bg  0.0282 
Factor, Z Volume P scf 2114.7
Factor, Bg ft 3
853.9705533 1.592833316 Bg  0.00771
scf
762.9730324 1.554028101 0.846003895 0.006860477 1.665210011
683.9879878 1.515010614 0.85100226 0.007716848 1.748622313 BtD  BoD  Bg ( RsDb  RsD )
611.9934813 1.479025574 0.858933272 0.008833005 1.859681796 0.00771ft 3 / scf
543.9763498 1.445011624 0.872005315 0.010355839 2.016739175 BtD  1.515  (854  684)
5.615 ft 3 / bbl
478.9723813 1.412008491 0.886981227 0.012463363 2.244375095
415.977188 1.382012534 0.903006193 0.015534266 2.593749955
VR PRTsc
353.9863824 1.351005762 0.921931516 0.020445193 3.17153525 Z
291.9955768 1.32002426 0.940941658 0.029353339 4.257841137 Vsc PscTR
223.0142332 1.283003134 0.964869068 0.050733011 6.983860506 4.292cc *( 210014.65) psia*( 60 460) o F *35.31510
157.005877 1.244010917 0.98372977 0.108601048 14.72417021 Z 0.01966 scf *14.65 psia*( 220 460) o F
0 1.075002527
1 Z  0.851
(Cumulative, gas, removed  gas, removed, upto, that, pressure) scf
RsD 
Re sidual, oil, cc * 6.29 106 bbl / scf
(0.21256 0.02265 0.01966) scf
RsD  6
 684scf / residual bbl
39.572cc * 6.29  10
reservoil, oil, volume, cc 59.952
BoD    1.515res  bbl / resi  bbl
residual, oil, volume, cc 39.572
 Objective to determine impact of separator conditions on
Bo, GOR, and produced fluid physical properties.
 Carried out to give an indication of oil shrinkage and GOR
when fluids produced to surface.
 There are not unique values for Bo & GOR. They depend
on separator conditions.
 Starting point for the test is the bubble point pressure.
 Fluid produced at surface conditions. Stock tank oil
PVT Cell pressure kept at bubble point
 Saturation pressure, -bubble point.
 Compressibility coefficient.
 Coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Relative total volume of oil and gas, Vt
 Cumulative relative volume of gas. Vg
 Cumulative relative volume of oil. Vo
 Gas formation volume factor or gas expansion factor
 Gas compressibility factor.
 Specific gravity of gas
 Liquid density
 Viscosity of liquids as a function of pressure.
 Oil formation volume factor
 Solution gas- oil ratio. Shrinkage of separator oil to tank oil
 Hydrocarbon analysis of reservoir and produced fluids
Table: Pressure vs. Relative Volume
Pressure Total Relative
Psig volume(Vt) volume
cc (Vt/Vb)

2401 65.532 1.0350

2250 67.400 1.0645
2090 69.901 1.1040
1897 73.655 1.1633
1698 78.676 1.2426
1477 86.224 1.3618
1292 95.050 1.5012
1040 112.715 1.7802
830 136.908 2.1623
640 174.201 2.7513
472 235.700 3.7226
 Problem: Separator Test
Data from a separator test on a black oil are given below. Note that the volume
of separator liquid was measured at separator pressure and temperature
before it was released to the stock tank. Prepare a separator test table for the
reservoir fluid study
Solution
 Problem: Oil formation volume factor calculation

Pressure above bubble point Pressure below bubble point

At 5000 psig
 reservoil, oil, volume, cc
BoDb 
residual, oil, volume, cc
63.316
  1.6res  bbl / resi  bbl
39.572
Problem: Solution Gas-Oil Ratio Calculation
At or above bubble Below bubble [point pressure
point pressure
Problem: Total formation volume factor
Calculation
Problem
Table-1 below gives the results for a volume/pressure investigation of
a reservoir fluid at reservoir temperature. The system composition
remained constant throughout the test.
Intersection of oil and
‘oil and gas’ slope
occurs at p = 1595 psi
and a volume of
168.08cc.

Pressure, psig
Bubble point = 1595 psig

Volume,
In another test on the fluid a sample of oil at its bubble point pressure and
reservoir temperature in a PVT cell were passed through a two stage
separator at 100 psig and 75oF and 0 psig and 60oF. 34 cc of oil were
displaced from the PVT cell and 27.4 cc of oil were collected from the last
separator stage. 4976 cc of gas were collected at standard conditions during
the test.
From separator test
Bob = 34/27.4 = 1.241 bbl/stb

Bo at 3650 psi above bubble point

Pressure above bubble point
Vol @ 3650 psi = 164.42 cc and vol @bubble
point=168.08cc
Bo @ 3650 = Bob x rel. vol. @ 3650/vol @ Bp
= 1.2409 x 164.42/168.08
Bo @ 3650 = 1.2138 bbl/stb

GOR @3650 psig= 4976 cc of gas per

27.4 cc
In a further test the pressure in a PVT cell at reservoir temperature was
reduced in stages and the gas produced at each stage removed and the
remaining oil volume measured. The total gas produced at standard
conditions was recorded and is presented in Table-2.
GOR @1200 psig= 4438 cc of
gas per 140 cc residual oil

Below Bp need
differential result
(a) Determine the bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid at reservoir temperature.
(b) The oil formation volume factor at 3650 psig
(c) The solution gas-oil ratio at 3650 psig and 2700 psig
(d) The solution gas-oil ratio at 1200 psig
(e) The total formation volume factors at 3650 psig and 1200 psig.

From graph-1
 A laboratory cell initially contained oil at its bubble point of 2000 psia at
180oF and the mercury level was at 280.0 cc. 18.8 cc of mercury were
removed from the cell and the pressure dropped to 1600 psia. Mercury was
then re-injected at constant pressure and temperature and 0.129 scf of gas
were removed leaving 263.5 cc of liquid. Some more quantity was removed
from the cell until the pressure was reduced to 14.7 psia and the temperature
was reduced to 60oF. At that condition 0.388 scf of gas were removed and
205.9 cc of liquid (oil) remained in the cell.

Determine
a) The oil formation volume factor Bo and the solution gas-oil-ratio Rs at the
bubble point pressure.
b) Determine Bo, Bt, Bg, Rs and z at 1,600 psia and 180oF.
c) What is the value of Bt at 2000 psia and 180oF?
 Saturation pressure is the dew point pressure.
 Gas condensate cells have a window to visualize dew
point.
 Not possible to determine by change of slope of
compressibility of gas and liquid..
 Main aspects of PVT study:
 Constant mass expansion
 Constant volume depletion
 Specialized tests ( IFT)
 Compositions of oil & gas
 Compositions of fluids are generally made by blowing
down samples and recombining the resultant liquid and
gas phase compositions.
 No fluids removed from the cell
 Purpose to determine z value above dew point.
 Determine dew point pressure

Dew point observed as drops on window

 Carried out to simulate condition below dew point
 Series of pressure expansions
 Volume of cell returned to original volume
 Liquid volume produced below dew point generates a liquid
drop out curve.
Question
If both experiments are performed isothermally, in stages, through the
same total pressure drop, then the resulting volumes of liquid oil remaining
at the lowest pressure will, in general, be……….equal or different?
Answer
If both experiments are performed isothermally, in stages, through the same total
pressure drop, then the resulting volumes of liquid oil remaining at the lowest
pressure will, in general, be slightly different.

For low volatility oils, in which the dissolved gas consists mainly of methane and
ethane, the resulting oil volumes from either experiment are practically the same.

For higher volatility oils, containing a relatively high proportion of the intermediate
hydrocarbons such as butane and pentane, the volumes can be significantly
different. Generally, in this latter case, more gas escapes from solution in the flash
expansion than in the differential liberation, resulting in a smaller final oil volume
after the flash process.

This may be explained by the fact that in the flash expansion the intermediate
hydrocarbon molecules find it somewhat easier to escape into the large gas volume
in contact with the oil than in the case of the differential liberation, in which the
volume of liberated gas in equilibrium with the oil, at any stage in the depletion, is
significantly smaller.
 Question
Which type of experiment will provide the most realistic values of PVT
parameters at the current reservoir pressure and fixed temperature?
Answer
Combination of both flash and differential liberation is required for an
adequate description of the overall volume changes.

It is considered that the differential liberation experiment provides the better
description of how the oil and gas separate in the reservoir since, because of
their different flow velocities, they will not remain together in equilibrium once
gas is liberated from the oil.

The one exception to this is during the brief period after the bubble point has
been reached, when the liberated gas is fairly uniformly distributed throughout
the reservoir and remains immobile until the critical gas saturation is exceeded.
Question: Why multi-stage separation is
commonly used in the field?
Answer
Within any single separator the liberation of gas from the oil may be considered
as a flash expansion in which, for a time, the gas stays in equilibrium with the oil.

If two or more separators are used then the gas is physically removed from the
oil leaving the first separator and the oil is again flashed in the second separator.

This physical isolation of the fluids after each stage of separation corresponds
to differential liberation. In fact, the overall effect of multi-stage separation
corresponds to the differential liberation, only in this case it is not conducted at
constant temperature.

It is for this reason that multi-stage separation is commonly used in the field
because, as already mentioned, differential liberation will normally yield a larger
final volume of equilibrium oil than the corresponding flash expansion.
Question: Which mechanism is followed
for the following cases?

Production of crude oil-

i. At reservoir pressures above the bubble point pressure.

ii. At reservoir pressures below the bubble point pressure.

iii. From reservoir to the surface

Answer

Production of a crude oil at reservoir pressures below the bubble point pressure
occurs by a process which is neither flash or differential vaporization.

Once enough gas is present for the gas to move toward the wellbore the gas
tends to move faster than the oil. The gas formed in a particular pore tends to
leave the liquid from which it was formed thus approximating differential
vaporization, however, the gas is in contact with liquid throughout the path
through the reservoir. The gas will also migrate vertically as a result of its lower
density than the oil and could form a secondary gas cap.

Fluid produced from reservoir to the surface is considered to undergo a flash

process where the system remains constant.
  Volume changes of oil above the bubble point are very
significant in recovering under saturated oil.
 Oil formation volume factor reflects these changes
 More fundamentally in the coefficient of compressibility of the
oil or oil compressibility.

1  V 
co    
V  P T
Pb
1  Bo 
In terms of Bo co    
Bo  P T

V2
Assuming compressibility
does not change with co  P2  P1    ln
pressure, between V1
conditions 1 & 2.
 Viscosity of oil at reservoir conditions less than dead oil because
of dissolved gases.
 The estimation of the density of a reservoir liquid is important
to the petroleum engineer.
 Specific Gravity of a Liquid

o Specific gravity of a liquid is the density ratio between

o  liquid and water at the same T&P.

w Both liquid and water are measured at 60o and 1 atmos.

pressure

141.5
API Gravity: Degrees. API  o
 131.5
SpecificGravity @60 F
Specific gravity relative to water @ 60oF
 Several methods of estimating density at reservoir conditions.
 Methods depend on the availability and nature of data.
 When compositional data available Ideal Solution Principle can
be used.
 When we have produced gas and oil data empirical methods can
be used.
 An ideal solution is a hypothetical liquid
 No change in characteristics of liquids is caused by mixing.
 The properties of the mixture are strictly additive.
 Ideal solution principles can be applied to petroleum mixtures to
determine density.
Calculate density at 14.7 psia and 60oF of the following HC liquid mixture.
74.69 lb.
o   39.73
1.88 cu.ft.