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Geomorphologic development of the Sunda volcanic complex, west Java,

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 Journal of Soufheasr Asian Earrh Sciences, Vol. 14, Nos 112, pp. 101-115. 1996
Copyright sfj 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
PII: SO743-9547(%)00069-4 0743-9547196 $15.00 + 0.00

A chronology for geomorphological developments in the

greater Bandung area, West-Java, Indonesia
M. A. C. Dam,*? P. Suparan,$ Jan J. Nossin,$ R. P. G. A. Voskuil$
and GTL Group11
*Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80021,3508 TA, Utrecht, The Netherlands;
TInstitute for Earth Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; SQuaternary Geology
Division, Geological Research and Development Centre, Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung, Indonesia;
$Intemational Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences ITC, Division for Applied
Geomorphology, P.O. Box 6, Enschede, The Netherlands; and /[Staff of Directorate Environmental
Geology (Geologi Tata Lingkungan), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung, Indonesia

(Received 5 March 1996; accepted for publication 21 June 1996)

Abstract-The greater Bandung area (West-Java, Indonesia) is a large intramontane basin

surrounded by volcanic highlands. Geomorphological and sedimentological studies reveal that the
morphology of the central basin and the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic complex developed
during the Middle-Late Quaternary, in particular since 125 kyr B.P. Tectonic subsidence, paroxysmal
eruptions, volcanism-induced faulting/rifting, drainage system adaptations and intramontane
lacustrine sedimentation (partly geomorphology-controlled) constitute the dominant landform-deter-
mining processes. A reconstruction of the regional morphological development is based on
interpretation of morphological features and morphodynamic processes in the volcanic upland, in
combination with analysis of the sedimentary record in the basin. A chronological framework is based
on datings obtained from surficial sediments and deep drill cores.
Initially, long term patterns in volcanicity and tectonic effects determine regional sedimentation
and relief development in the greater Bandung area. Fluvial sedimentation and weathering prevailed
in the basin, while the southern and northern volcanic ranges gradually formed. Basin subsidence,
with contemporaneous volcanism around 125 kyr B.P., resulted in the formation of an enclosed
intramontane basin, and stimulated lacustrine sedimentation. From this time on, concentration of
volcanicity in the northern Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu complex and the resulting morphostructural
developments caused rapid (catastrophic) and localized morphological changes. Cataclysmic
eruptions (around 105 kyr B.P. and 50-35 kyr B.P.) caused voluminous sediment inflow in the
northwestern basin. These events mark the significance of the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic
centre during the Late Quatemary; the Sunda volcano collapsed into a caldera in which later the
Tangkuban Perahu volcano developed. Moreover, these eruptions controlled regional sedimentation
and determined landform development in the greater basin area. In the vicinity of the eruption centre,
volcano-tectonic faulting formed the conspicuous E-W Lembang fault that controlled distribution
of volcaniclastic sediments and the initiation of a new drainage system in the Lembang area. In the
low-lying Bandung plain persistent (fluvio)lacustrine and volcaniclastic sedimentation, followed by
basin subsidence and minor fluvial erosion characterised the younger phases of landform
development. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Introduction cipitation increases to some 4000 mm yr - ‘. The regional

The greater Bandung area consists of a large
intramontane basin and adjacent volcanic highlands
(Fig. 1). The central Bandung plain is situated at ca.
665 m above sea level, and is surrounded by up to
2400 m high Late Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic
terrain (Figs 2, 3 and 4). North of Bandung the
Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic complex is located.
The adjacent Lembang plain (approximately 1200 m
asl), is bordered to the south by the conspicuous
Lembang fault (Fig. 6). The Bandung basin is densely
populated with some 5 million inhabitants (RUDS-
BMA, 1989). The area is connected to the coastal region
near Jakarta, and to Central- and East-Java, by major
rail, road and air links. Bandung plain (approx. 400 km*)
has a mean annual precipitation of around 1700 mm,
and a mean annual temperature of around 24°C
(IWACO-WASECO, 1991). On higher elevations pre-
101
climate is classified as humid-tropical (KGppen type ,4f
to Am). The Citarum river with its tributaries forms the
main drainage system of the Bandung basin catchment
(some 1600 km*). It meanders through the centre of the
basin in a western direction and, after crossing several
topographical barriers through narrow gorges, reaches
the northern coastal lowlands.
Regional geological studies and investigations of basin
sediments (Van Bemmelen, 1934, 1949; Siliitonga, 1973;
Polhaupessy, 1980; Lyon/Indec, 1981/1982; Bannert and
Riyadi, 1989; Suparan and Dam, 1992; Dam et al. 1993;
Dam, 1994), volcanological studies (Dalimin, 1988;
Dvorak et al. 1990; Soetoyo and Hadisantono, 1992) as
well as geomorphological surveys (Pannekoek, 1949;
Nossin et al. 1992; Nossin and Voskuil, 1995) reveal that
the present geologic and morphologic configuration
largely developed during the Quaternary. An overview
of the regional geology and morphological features is
102 M. A. C. Dam et al.

given by a photo reproduction of an excellent SPOT
satellite image (Fig. 2). The basin area, with the northern
and southern volcanic ranges, is depicted on a
generalised morphological map (Fig. 3). A schematic
N-S cross-section through West-Java (Fig. 4) illustrates
the geological structure. Deposits in the basin comprise
coarse volcaniclastics, fluvial sediments and notably a
thick series of lacustrine deposits. The lacustrine
sequence contains a detailed record of local and regional
vegetational developments. Their palaeoclimatic impli-
cations are discussed by Dam (1994) and Van der Kaars
and Dam (1995). The basin deposits provide not only a
dateable sedimentary record but they also reflect the
volcanic events and geomorphic developments in the
surrounding uplands, notably in the mountains north of
the basin. This paper proposes a chronology for the
major geomorphological developments during the Late
Quaternary, and reviews the nature and patterns of
morphodynamic processes that took place.
Regional geologic and morphologic setting
The central West-Java segment of the Sunda arc
subduction system is characterised by active basalt-
andesite volcanism. Quaternary volcanoes form two
major mountain ranges: the Southern Mountains, with
Gn. Malabar as the central edifice south of the
Bandung basin and the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu
complex, that forms part of a larger (40 x 20 km),
WNW-ESE oriented mountain zone north of the basin
(Gn. = Gunung = Mountain). The major geologic and
morphologic features in the area are illustrated in Figs
3 and 4. Along the western border of the basin the deeply
eroded remnants of Late Tertiary volcanic instrusives
form steep ridges and isolated cones. These so-called
Cimahi hills form a major N-S topographic barrier. The
Citarum river presently drains the basin via a narrow
gorge through these hills. In the southwestern comer of
the plain a small alluvial fan is located adjacent to older,
mostly inert volcanic terrain. The southern margin of the
basin is formed by the Late Tertiary-Early Quatemary
intrusives of Gn. Geulis that are partly covered with
undifferentiated volcaniclastics. Further south the
Early-Middle Quaternary Gn. Malabar volcanic com-
plex dominates the area. Its summit rises to some 2300 m
as1 (Fig. 4) and extensive footslopes in the southwest and
southeast reach as far as the central plain. Further east,
steep volcanic footslopes rise to other Middle Quater-
nary volcanic centres. In the surroundings of Bandung
city the large Bandung volcaniclastic fan extends far into
the plain. It is clearly expressed in the local topography
and the radial drainage pattern. East of Bandung
undifferentiated volcanic footslopes associated with the
older Gn. Pulusari volcanic centre border the plain. The

INDONESIA

-8” 106’ 107” 108” 109O

Fig. 1. Location of the Bandung basin area. The study area is situated in the central part of West-Java,
Indonesia, some 150km southeast of Jakarta. The shaded area is the Bandung basin proper. Surrounding
volcanic highlands (over 750 m asl) are indicated with vertical hatching.
Fig. 2. SPOT satellite image (dd. 6 July 1986) of the northern Bandung basin and the Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu volcanic complex. The conspicuous Lembang fault is oriented 280”-100”; approximate scale on A4
size: 1: 180.000, oriented to the north. 0 CNESjSPOT Image.

103
 ERODED UITER
VOIJxNlc SLOFES

ERODED LOWER
voLcuac SLOPES

UNDIFFFRENTIATED
VOLCANIC TERRAIN

voLcANIcLAsnc
ALLUVIAL FAN

LEMEtANCi FAULT
SCARP

CHANNEL ZONE

FAN DELTA

FORMER
LAKE SHORE ZONE . . . . . .
......
......
FORMER
LAKE BOlTOM

Fig. 3. Regional generalised morphology of the Bandung basin. Indicated are major morphogenetic landform units. For a discussion of the main features reference is
made to the text. Specific morphologic features are further illustrated in Figs 7a-g.
106 M. A. C. Dam et al.

Miocene - Pliocene volcanicr * Oliqoccne : Lower Miqfette

marme sedtmats and llmatotw
a Miocene. Pliocene intmsivcs
m Palacogenc - Early Miocene complex
Pliocene vohnic necks
A
block faulting,
@ Neogeae marine sediments J\ tbnlsting

Fig. 4. Schematic cross-section through West-Java across the Bandung area showing the structural setting of
the intramontane Bandung basin and the major geological and morphological features. Most (inferred) faults,
except for the conspicuous Lembang fault, have been obscured by overlying volcanic deposits. Contrary to
the impression given in the section, the extinct Gn. Malabar volcano is the most eroded, least conical volcanic
edifice. The structural setting of the basin as depicted in this section is discussed by Dam (1994) and is based
on a synthesis of the available literature.

smaller Manglayang and Bukitjarian volcanic centres
are presumably also of an Early to Middle Quaternary
age and presently inactive. The nearly flat central plain
varies in elevation between 660 m in the centre and some
675 m towards the margins. Shallow subsurface deposits
comprise minor fluvial sands, a thin veneer of
backswamp deposits and fluviolacustrine clays and,
below this cover, poorly consolidated lacustrine sedi-
ments. In the margin of the plain, fan delta and deltaic
deposits occur.
North of Bandung the morphology is determined by
the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic complex, includ-
ing the large Sunda caldera and other remnants of older
volcanism (Figs 2, 3, 4 and 5). The conspicuous flat
summit of the active Tangkuban Perahu volcano, which
formed inside the Sunda caldera, rises to some 2000 m.
To the east and northeast, in the Bukanegara area, older
volcanics are strongly affected by faulting and gravita-
tional collapse. A relatively flat but dissected zone south
and east of Tangkuban Perahu and adjacent to the town
of Lembang is indicated as the Lembang surface or
Lembang plain (Fig. 6). Southwards, it is bordered
abruptly by the Lembang fault scarp, running practically
East-West. The fault orientation does not conform with
the prevailing local lineament trends nor with important
regional fault system trends and the fault is probably of
a local volcano-tectonic origin. The normal faulting is
ascribed to magmatic depletion as a result of the
eruptions of the Sunda and Tangkuban Perahu
volcanoes (Van Bemmelen, 1934, 1949; Nossin et al.
1992; Noor, 1992).
The geomorphic expression of the Lembang fault
shows two distinctly different zones; the boundary
between these lies near the road from Bandung to
Lembang where it crosses the fault. This coincides with
the boundary between the eastern and western Lembang
surfaces which have formed in response to the faulting
phases. A flat divide zone between these two surfaces
runs roughly along this road between the fault and the
town of Lembang. (Fig. 6; Nossin et al. 1992; Nossin
and Voskuil, 1995). East of the divide, the Lembang
fault scarp is expressed as an imposing cliff with a
relative height increasing from some 75 m near
Lembang, to over 450 m at Gn. Pulusari in the east. This
relative height has increased because of erosive incision
in the volcanic deposits at its foot. The fault scarp in the
eastern zone is developed in older volcanics, which form
the Pulusari block to the south (Fig. 6). The western part
of the fault scar-p is much more modestly expressed in the
terrain, as a distinct ridge of some 40 m relative height.
Both ends of the western Lembang fault are marked by
small cross-faults. The fault scarp in the western part is
developed in younger volcanics.
A chronology for geomorphological
developments
The analysis presented here is based on correlation of
(1) the sequence of volcaniclastic, fluvial and lacustrine
deposits in the basin proper, with (2) the geology and
morphology of the basin’s upland surroundings. More
specifically, detailed analysis of two continuous sediment
cores (104 and 60 m, Fig. 5) and surficial deposits (Dam,
1994) facilitate a correlation of the Late Quaternary
sedimentary record with the contemporaneous geologic
and morphologic evolution of the surrounding volcanic
upland. A chronology for the relief development of the
area is provided by the association of significant
morphological events with radiometrically dated de-
posits. For the younger events, ages are based on 14C
datings on deposits from the upper levels of the cores
and surficial deposits. These provide a consistent
chronologic framework for the younger (~50 kyr)
lacustrine and volcaniclastic deposits, including pyro-
elastic flow and lahar sequences (phase 5). The 50-55 m
palaeosol level of both cores was dated with U/Th
disequilibrium method. The age estimates for the
intermediate levels are based on extra- and interpolation.
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108 M. A. C. Dam et al.

initiated the faulting now expressed as the eastern part
of the Lembang fault scarp. This area subsequently
formed an effective sediment trap for younger volcanic
products. As will be discussed below, northern
volcanism is active until today, indicating that most of
the terrain developed in the Late Quaternary. (See also
Van Bemmelen, 1934,1949; Dalimin, 1988; Soetoyo and
Hadisantono, 1992; Nossin et al. 1992; Dam, 1994.)
Prior to, or contemporaneous with the regional
volcanism, tectonic activity along deep-seated east-west
oriented faults (presumably intra-arc rifting; Hamilton,
1989; Cas and Wright, 1987; Dam, 1994) caused a
topographic low between the northern and southern
volcanic ranges. This initial basin served as an
intermediate to distal depocentre for the volcaniclastics
derived from the adjacent eruption centres. Based on the
geological and morphological configuration of the area,
it is most likely that the sediments found at depths below
50 m in drill cores, form part of these older volcanic
deposits. The basal sequence (50-104 m) in drill core II
(Fig. 5) contains a number of sandy coarsening- and
fining-upward sequences, little coarse volcaniclastics and
no primary volcanic deposits. All are moderately to
strongly weathered. Several pronounced weathering/
palaeosol levels are observed, and the sequence is
capped, at a depth of 50-54 m, with a strongly developed
palaeosol (Dam, 1994). U/Th disequilibrium method
dating of calcareous pedogenic nodules (concretions,
kankar) in the palaeosol indicates that it formed around
126-135 kyr B.P. (Dam, 1994).
Essentially, regional volcanic activity, induced by
widespread, subduction-controlled magmatism, in com-
bination with structural deformations (intra-arc rifting),
determined the major morphodynamic processes in the
area during this early phase. It is reflected in the build-up
of the southern and northern volcanic ranges (Fig. 7a).
Landform development during this phase was character-
ised by a regular occurrence of volcanic events, while
erosive and denudational processes in the volcanic
upland resulted in fluvial and fluviovolcanic deposition
throughout the basin. Deposits probably formed part of
widespread volcaniclastic aprons (much conform to the

Fig. 6. The morphology of the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic centre, the adjacent Lembang surface, and
the east and west Lembang fault. The boundary between the two parts of the Lembang fault, which trend
in the same direction, is made by a cross-fault. 1. Lake Umar located in between the east and west Lembang
surface. 2. Part of the east Lembang surface experiences ongoing subsidence, which affects the drainage
. pattern. 3. The Cikapundung gap in the Lembang fault near the village of Maribaya. 4. The fault-controlled
Cikapundung gorge (valley). 5. (Cross-hatching): blocked valley-infill sediments (fluvial and organic swamp
deposits) behind the west Lembang fault scarp. 6. Crescentic faulting of older Sunda volcanics towards the
north.
 Geomorphological development, West-Java 109

present Bandung fan, Fig. 3), associated with one of the
southern or northern volcanoes. The dissected surfaces
of some major fan bodies can be distinguished in the
southwestern, southeastern and northeastern compart-
ments of the basin (Figs 3,7a). The prevailing weathered
facies of the fluvial deposits in the basin and the absence
of coarse and primary volcanic deposits suggests
sedimentation was intermittent and not truly
catastrophic (without exceptionally large or frequent
eruptions). Denudation and sedimentation rates facili-
tated contemporaneous weathering of these deposits,
either before or after deposition in the basin. Drainage
of the area took place in a western to northwestern
direction (Fig. 7a). Morphological evidence suggests that
southern volcanism terminated earlier. The southern
mountain range is characterised by the eroded, inactive
volcanic centre of Gn. Malabar, with strongly dissected
upper volcanic slopes and incised alluvial fans. In
general, the volcaniclastic deposits are deeply weathered.
The northern Sunda range is still active today. Several
younger cones (Tangkuban Perahu, Bukit Tunggul) are
built on the older, deeply eroded, volcanic edifices, and
relatively young pyroclastic deposits mantle the topogra-
phy north of Bandung.
Phase 2. 125 kyr B.P.-The start of lacustrine sedimen-
tation and the formation of an enclosed intramontane
basin
Analysis of the upper part of the sedimentary
sequence in the basin reveals a radical change in
sedimentation. An ominous tephra layer, directly
overlying the dated palaeosol, preceeds a thick sequence
of fine-grained, organic lacustrine deposits. From
around 12.5kyr B.P. lacustrine sedimentation prevails
throughout the low-relief central basin (Fig. 7b). (See
Dam (1994) for a discussion of the age assessment.) This
persisted until approximately 105 kyr B.P. Basinwide,
the quiet lacustrine environment (with sedimentation
rates of approx. 48-34 cm - kyr) recorded no marked
aberrations in sedimentation, although palaeoecological
evidence suggests that smaller disturbances occurred
continuously (Dam, 1994). It is concluded that on a
smaller scale, morphodynamic processes continued as

125,000 yr B.P.
1 I 1 I 1
I

ACTIVE VOLCANIC COMPLEX WITH NGOING CONE

FORMATION (PYROCLASTIC IkOWS, &VA AND LAIIARS)

&!ii21km8&~~R~%~%~‘c coMPLExEs
ILATETERTIARY INTRUSIVES AND UNDlPFBRENTlATBD
VOLCANIC TERRAIN
;@xNE ENVIRONMENT; FINE-GRAINED, ORGANIC
____I

FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENT FINE- TO MBDIUM-GRAINED

nmm#-a**fmw.
En,. 13rbmu 14l.nr.l I
VOLCANICLASTIC FAN ENVIRONMEN . ACITVE DBVBLOI
MkNT BY MASS-FLOW AND LATRR FLTrVIAL PROCRSSES
FLUVIAL - DELTAIC ENVIRONMENT AND
LAKE SHORE SETTINGS
COARSE VOLCANICLASTIC DEPOSITS (PYROCLASTIC
FLOW AND LAHAR)
0 @ LOCATION DEEP DRILLING I AND 11
ACTIVE BASIN SUBSIDENCE AND RBLARIVR VERTICAL
Tf DISPLACEMENT (UPWARD); FAULT - CONTROLLED.
r)=c FAULT(ORINFFiRREDFAULT)ANDFAULTsCARP

105,000 yl B.P. -, scALEBARwlTHAPPROXIMATEscALE: I UNIT-l.SKM

Fig. 7a-g. Cartoons presenting major sedimentation events and morphological developments (phases l-7) that
shaped the Bandung basin area as it is today. The following specific features are indicated with numbers l-7.
1. The initial Sunda volcanic complex in the northwestern part of the Bandung basin. 2. The Cimahi Hills.
3. The older Malabar volcanic complex. 4. Eastern Lembang fault. 5. Tangkuban Perahu volcano in the
eastern part of the Sunda caldera. 6. Cikapundung gorge and gap through the eastern Lembang fault.
7. Western Lembang fault. 8. The new (and present) Citarum river outlet from the Bandung basin. For further
explanation reference is made to the text.
110 M. A. C. Dam et al.
Fig. 7d-g.
during the previous phase, without significant adap-
tations.
In the upper 50 m of the sedimentary sequence, no
indications for significant activity of the southern
volcanoes are found (only minor sediment inflow took
place, which probably derived from volcanoes in the
southwest). This suggests that the change to lacustrine
sedimentation coincided with a shift in volcanic activity
towards predominantly the northern Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu complex. Sediment properties and heavy mineral
content support this (Dam, 1994). Volcanism-controlled
morphodynamic processes gradually decreased in inten-
sity in the southern highlands. In addition, the change
to lacustrine sedimentation, most likely the result of
further subsidence of the basin, in combination with the
ongoing build-up of volcanic terrain in the northwestern
surroundings of the basin, suggests the low-lying central
basin became completely enclosed by topographically
higher volcanic terrain. As will be discussed below, the
volcanic upland in the north-northwest part of the basin
(Figs 6, 7b) actively developed during the last 125 kyr.
Consequently, the existing, west-northwest oriented
drainage system may have been disturbed from these
early times on, preventing proper drainage of the
intramontane area.
Aftor 16.000 Yr 6.P
Phase 3. 105 kyr B.P.-Paroxysmal volcanic eruptions,
formation of the Sunda caldera and the east Lembang
fault
A thick, massive bed of highly vesicular, andesitic
scoria (in Fig. 5 indicated as volcaniclastic gravelly sand,
bed C), occurs intercalated in organic lacustrine
deposits. The heavy mineral suite of the deposit is
characterized by high amounts of clinopyroxene
(augites), minor olivines and a few zircons. This mineral
suite is typical for northern Sunda volcanics (see also
Dam, 1994). In contrast, deposits from southern sources
contain high amounts of orthopyroxenes (hypersthene
and enstatite). Also the large amount of highly vesicular
scoria in the deposits is typical for the northern
Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic centre. The sedi-
mentary facies show it is deposited by a pyroclastic flow
and secondary, high sediment-concentration afterflows.
A new sequence of organic lacustrine sediments directly
overlies this deposit. It is found in drill cores throughout
the basin, over distances of 25 km apart (Figs 3 and 7~).
The age of the pyroclastic flow deposit is estimated at
105 kyr B.P., based on interpolation between the
radiocarbon ages in the upper part of the cores and the
U/Th datings at 5&55 m depth (see also Fig. 5). The
 Geomorphological development,
6-8 m thick sequence is indicative for extremely high
(instantaneous) sedimentation rates. The area1 distri-
bution and large volume of the pyroclastic flow deposit
suggests it derived from a destructive, Plinian type
eruption at the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic
centre (Cas and Wright, 1985). Likely, this catastrophic
sedimentation strongly affected the regional drainage
system (cf. Smith, 1986; Costa and Schuster, 1988), and
may have created new topographic barriers in the
western to northwestern direction of drainage. This
caused a further deterioration of drainage of the basin
area and facilitated higher lake levels in the central
depression. Hence, voluminous volcaniclastic sedimen-
tation, disturbing the drainage capacity of the upper
Citarum river and stimulating lacustrine sedimentation
immediately afterwards, ultimately controlled landform
development in the western-central Bandung basin. The
repeated occurrence of this phenomenon during younger
phases is further discussed below.
In the northern volcanic range the major paroxysmal
eruption at around 105 kyr B.P. initiated the formation
of the impressive Sunda caldera (Figs 2, 3 and Fig. 7d).
The pressure release in the underlying magmatic body
was compensated with tensional faulting and rifting. A
major off-set of the east Lembang fault and subsidence
of the eastern Lembang surface may have taken place
(Fig. 6). Tentatively, it is concluded that the east
Lembang fault was initiated some 105 kyr B.P. The
geomorphological significance of the east (and west)
Lembang faults is that the fault scarp largely prohibits
the movement of volcanic products towards the plain.
Most of the deposits in the eastern Lembang area,
north of the fault, are thought to derive from the 105 kyr
B.P. eruption phase. Volcanic deposits from the
Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu complex have not been
able to cross the eastern Lembang fault after it was
formed, with the exception of some basaltic lava
flows through the Cikapundung gorge. It should be
noted that the east Lembang area is not the most
likely depocentre for volcanic products from the early
Sunda eruption centre. Most of the southbound
ejectamenta travel straight down the initial volcano
slope, to be deposited in the Bandung basin. Van
Bemmelen (1934) already speculated that part of
the older infill in the eastern basin may be derived
from the eastern volcanoes such as Bukit Tunggul.
However, the nature of the deposits in this area give few
clues as to their source.
Volcaniclastic deposition and the Lembang fault also
exercise strong control over the ongoing development of
the drainage system. Lake Umar is situated in between
the east and west Lembang surface, on a slightly bulging
area (Fig. 6). This lake has no catchment, so it must be
fed by groundwater flow, and the Cipaganti river
originates from it. The position of lake Umar on the
divide between the eastern and western Lembang surface
illustrates the youthfulness of the unadapted drainage
system in the Lembang area. The east Lembang surface
shows the conspicuous anomaly of all drainage
concentrating in the Cikapundung gap at Maribaya
(Fig. 6). Volcaniclastics in the area show a further
post-depositional subsidence of some 30 m; the drainage
system has the Cikapundung gap as the local base level.
On morphological grounds alone, the Cikapundung
gorge may be considered a fault. A distinct fault block
in the Cikapundung valley wall was described by Tjia
West-Java 111
(1968). Apart from the offset in the topography near
Maribaya, there is no other conceivable hypothesis by
which the deep, straight valley could maintain itself
against the developing east Lembang fault. This is a
normal fault where the north wall has subsided with
respect to the south wall. In view of the vertical
displacement it may be assumed that this faulting took
place in several phases, probably initiated by the collapse
of the Sunda volcano and the emptying of the magmatic
reservoir. In conclusion, it is proposed that also the
Cikapundung gorge is a fault that is associated not only
with the eastern Lembang fault but also with the collapse
of the Sunda volcano at 105 kyr B.P.
Phase 4. 105-50 kyr B.P.-Ongoing lacustrine sedimen-
tation
A thick, monotonous sequence of lacustrine sediments
(organic clayey silts) occurs in the central-eastern basin
between 36 and 14 m depth (deep drill core II, Fig. 5).
Thin peaty horizons, some fine-grained iuvial deposits
(with minor soil development) and several distinct tephra
layers are intercalated. The sequence reflects the
low-intensity lacustrine sedimentation that prevailed
during this period (approximately 105 to 50 kyr B.P.) in
the central lake basin. Sedimentation rates extrapolated
for the lacustrine deposits amount to 29-34 cm- kyr.
Palaeoecological evidence (Dam, 1994) confirms a
prevailing shallow lacustrine environment, without
major disturbances. In the central-western part of the
basin there was a more significant inflow of fluvial
sediment, temporary exposure and soil development,
and shorter periods with typical open water, lacustrine
conditions (core I, Fig. 5). The heavy mineral content of
the coarser fluvial deposits (with predominantly
orthopyroxenes and moderate brownish hornblende) is
indicative for a southern provenance of the sediment
(Dam, 1994). In the western part of the basin only minor
lacustrine deposits are encountered and the sequence
mostly consists of moderate- to coarse-grained fluvial
and volcaniclastic deposits.
The regional differences in the sedimentary record
reflect the spatial differentiation in sedimentation
processes, denudation/erosion patterns and conse-
quently, landform development (Fig. 7d). The eastern
and central basin area recorded environmental quies-
cence, with minor effects of volcanism (tephra layers)
and ongoing lacustrine conditions. Essentially, the
central-eastern basin remained a low-lying depression
that formed an effective sediment trap for relatively
small amounts of fine-grained sediment derived from
predominantly inactive volcanic upland. Towards the
western part of the basin the effects of upland volcanism
in the hinterland are noticeable in the form of more
voluminous sediment inflow, i.e. fluvial deposits derived
from more distant, incidental volcanic activity in the
south (Patuha volcano), and increased coarse volcani-
elastics derived from a relatively nearby northern
volcano. These latter deposits indicate the ongoing
activity of the Sunda volcanic complex. Possibly, the
eruption centre was located in the eastern part of the
Sunda caldera (Fig. 7d), were it formed the initial stage
of the Tangkuban Perahu volcano.
112 M. A. C. Dam et al.
Phase 5. Xl-35 kyr B.P.-Bandung volcam’clastic fan
development
Detailed sedimentary facies analysis and stratigraphic
correlation of volcaniclastic deposits in exposures, in
conjunction with radiocarbon dating, indicates that
catastrophic volcaniclastic sedimentation took place
around 50-55 kyr B.P. in the western basin (Dam, 1994).
Geomorphologically and petrologically, these events can
be correlated with eruptions of the Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu volcanic centre (Van Bemmelen, 1934; Dalimin,
1988; Nossin et al. 1992). Probably Plinian-type
eruptions again produced large volumes of volcaniclastic
debris (i.e. sandy scoriaceous breccias and ashes). It is
not clear whether the Sunda caldera was already in full
existence at this stage, or that this phase has contributed
to its further formation, and final collapse of the Sunda
eruption centre. The latter is postulated by Nossin et al.
(1996).
In the western basin, primary pyroclastic flow, debris
flow (lahar) and coarse hyperconcentrated-flood-flow
deposits indicate the catastrophic, instantaneous nature
of the depositional processes. As a result an extensive
(fluvio)volcaniclastic fan body developed in the north-
western part of the basin (in the area of Bandung,
Cimahi and Padalarang cities, Figs 2 and 3). This rapidly
aggrading Bandung fan formed a topographically
distinct sediment wedge of considerable proportions
towards the centre of the western basin (Fig. 7e). In the
central and eastern basin only a distinct ash layer
represents probably the major eruption of this phase; in
a large area lacustrine conditions are little affected. In
core II almost continuous lacustrine settings are
recorded (Dam, 1994) with only a minor interval
indicative of shallow water, swampy environments.
Around 35 kyr B.P. a second series of eruptions
induced renewed sedimentation in the Bandung fan area.
Although less catastrophic, the series of mass-flows and
hyperconcentrated-flood-flows raised the surface of the
intermediate and distal fan body significantly. Away
from the main depocentre, sedimentation intensities
quickly diminished and more fine-grained, distal fan
deposits formed (partly subaqueously) in the fan-lake
transitional zone (Fig. 7e). In the eastern basin lacustrine
conditions prevailed, although temporarily shallow
water conditions are recorded. The eruptions and
resulting depositional events also significantly affected
the morphology in the upland region north of Bandung.
Since large volumes of volcaniclastics were transported
far into the basin by lahars, it seems unlikely that the
west Lembang fault formed a major topographic barrier.
There are no indications that large volumes of
volcaniclastics were trapped behind the fault scarp. In
fact the fault intersects deposits comparable to those in
the basin, and may therefore be considered younger than
35 kyr B.P.
Towards the more recent part of the Bandung basin’s
geologic and morphologic evolution (phases 4 and 5) the
differentiation between the central-eastern and the
(north)western part becomes more pronounced. The
latter area experienced high-intensity sedimentation and
the active development of a large volcaniclastic fan. Also
the adjacent volcanic upland underwent dynamic
adaptations of its morphology (Nossin et al. 1992).
Tangkuban Perahu volcano developed into an important
eruption centre and subsequently formed the youngest
volcanic complex in the northern Sunda range. This
confirms the tendency, as noted by Van Bemmelen
(1949) of (I) a shift of the volcanic activity in the
northern range from east to west, and (2) is further proof
of the effect of the eastern Lembang fault as a major
topographic barrier for volcaniclastic sediment from
the Tangkuban Perahu eruption centre. At the same
time, volcanic landforms in the northeastern and
southern surroundings of the basin stabilized and
fluvial erosion became the dominant morphodynamic
process. Ultimately, (as will be shown below) the lake
system was seriously affected by the newly developing
morphology. It can be concluded that in particular the
series of (Plinian) eruptions at the Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu complex, and the closely associated volcano-de-
positional events, had a major impact on the
morphodynamic processes in the direct vicinity of the
volcano, but also on the morphology of more remote
localities, i.e. the whole lake area.
Phase 6. 35-20 kyr B.P.-High lake levels and lacustrine
sedimentation and the west Lembang fault
The topographically higher morphology of the
Bandung fan (Figs 3 and 7e) considerably raised the
drainage base level of the Bandung basin as a whole.
Consequently, higher lake levels were quickly established
after approximately 35 kyr B.P., facilitating lacustrine
sedimentation over a larger area. Thick organic
sequences developed in the central plain, while in the
margins peaty shallow-water deposits occur on high
topographic positions (684688 m asl). Towards the
lake-shore, sandy fluvial deposits developed in fan-delta
and deltaic settings as a result of periodically increased
coarser sediment inflow (Figs 7f-g). The latter may be
due to smaller volcanic events and lahars that occurred
up to approximately 27 kyr B.P.
With relatively high lake levels persistent for several
thousands of years, lacustrine sedimentation shaped the
morphological features throughout the central basin,
viz. the exceptionally flat central plain, fan deltas and
deltaic features in the gently sloping former lake shore
area (Figs 7f-g). The older morphology (irregular, gently
sloping volcanic foothills) became blanketed with a layer
of younger fluviolacustrine deposits. Although volcani-
elastic sedimentation in the Bandung fan area may have
caused the complete termination of the basin’s original
drainage, a new outlet for the extensive catchment must
have been established fairly soon after. Gradual
downcutting and backward erosion formed the gorge
and incised valley of the Citarum river in the western
margin of the basin (Figs 2 and 3). In the mean time,
infilling of the lake by ongoing sedimentation gradually
led to more shallow water conditions and a decrease in
size of the lake area. The combination of both processes
caused the ultimate disappearance of the lake between 20
and 16 kyr B.P.
During phase 5 and most of phase 6 morphologic
developments in the Tangkuban Perahu volcano and
Lembang areas were determined by the intensive
volcaniclastic sedimentation and subsequent fluvial
erosion. Volcaniclastics from the Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu complex evidently moved unhindered downward
towards and on the Bandung fan, leading to consider-
able aggradation. The present west Lembang fault does
not show signs of having been overtopped by lahars or
 Geomorphological
pyroclastic flows after its formation; rather the fault
breaks deposits of this nature. Therefore, it is postulated
that the west Lembang fault is younger than 27 kyr B.P.,
the upper age of the main volcaniclastic accumulation
phase of the Bandung fan. Exceptionally big pyroclastic
flows, for which the fault would not be an impassable
barrier, predate the formation of the fault. Supposedly
young lava flows from the Tangkuban Perahu eruption
centre have only passed through the Cikapundung and
Cipaganti valleys in the east but not through gaps in the
west Lembang fault (Fig. 6).
The morphology of the drainage pattern is a further
argument for the youth of the west Lembang fault. At
numerous places along the fault there are clear ruptures
of the southward drainage system. The fluvial erosion
gaps in the fault scarp were described by Tjia (1968),
Nossin et al. (1992) and were analyzed in detail by Djodi
Sukardjo (1990). The adjustment of the drainage system
amounts to re-establishing contact with the valleys
below the fault scarp, which had been severed by the
fault. This entails important deviations from the original
system, and hence, significant increases in erosive power
of those valleys where a re-connection has been made.
The fault movement has led to infilling (with young
volcaniclastic products) of valleys above and upward
from the fault scar-p. Infill-plains exist in a number of
localities (Fig. 6). Where erosion increased after
re-connecting with the downstream part, significant
excavation of the infilled valleys has occurred, leading to
impressive gorges like the Cimahi and Cihideung valleys.
In other infill plains erosion is just starting to remove the
valley sediments and the gorges are yet to form. Peat
samples from valley-fill sediments above the western
Lembang fault, near Panjairan village, were radiocar-
bon-dated at about 24 kyr B.P. for peat near the base of
the deposit, and around 20 kyr B.P. for organic deposits
at a depth of 4.30 m (Dam, 1994). As discussed above,
it may be argued that the valley fill was formed as a
result of downstream drainage cut-off by the west
Lembang fault, which would thus be dated at an initial
movement of around or before 24 kyr B.P., but not older
than 27 kyr B.P.
Phase 7. Landform developments after 16 kyr B.P.
During this most recent phase there is evidence for
smaller eruptions of Tangkuban Perahu volcano, viz.
widespread but thin ash layers (Chartres and Van
Reuler, 1985; Dalimin, 1988; Nossin et al. 1992). These
eruptions further shaped the present flat-topped,
multiple-crater cone. Beyond the eruption centre the
morphology was little affected, except for ongoing fluvial
erosion and drainage system development that took
place in accordance with the present structural and
lithological constraints, in particular in the Lembang
area. After the silting up of the lake and the activation
of a new drainage system (the present Citarum),
localised fluvial erosion formed moderately incised
valleys in the basin margin and on the elevated fan
surface. Tectonic subsidence and compaction of the
underlying lacustrine sediments caused a substantial
lowering (some 20-25 m) of the central basin. This may
be inferred from the flat to bowl-shaped topography, but
can also be concluded from detailed, regional chrono-
and lithostratigraphic correlation (Dam, 1994). A veneer
of fine-grained fluviolacustrine and fluvial sediments
development, West-Java 113
formed, locally containing elongated bodies with sandy
channel deposits. In the central plain meandering fluvial
systems formed levees, cut-off meander bends and
backswamp settings. Until recent times, seasonal,
shallow lakes and large swamps occurred in the poorly
drained plain. Human activity (drainage, levelling,
construction, etc.) has obscured many of the less
conspicuous morphological features.
Regional sedimentation and morphodynamic
patterns; conclusions
The proposed morphological evolution of the area,
developed on the basis of an analysis of the upland
morphology and the sedimentary record in the basin,
reflects major changes in regional sedimentation and
morphodynamic processes. In conclusion, the following
trends and spatial patterns are revealed.
(1) Volcanic activity and volcaniclastic sedimen-
tation, initially the major morphodynamic processes in
the basin area, became less persistent and, towards
present times, remained significant only in the north-
western compartment of the basin. There, morphody-
namic processes are associated with the eruption
characteristics and evolution of the Sunda-Tangkuban
Perahu volcanic complex. A significant part of the
evolution of this volcano took place during the last
125 kyr B.P.
(2) Tectonic subsidence is responsible for the initial
development of the structural, intra-arc basin. However,
it is most likely that a combination of ongoing
subsidence and catastrophic volcaniclastic sedimen-
tation first caused the development of a lake in the
central basin. Lacustrine sedimentation started about
125 kyr B.P. and continued almost uninterrupted until
approximately 16 kyr B.P.
(3) As a result of the above mentioned shift in
volcanism-induced landform development and sedimen-
tation, the northwestern basin compartment (around
Bandung city) became the main depocentre for
volcaniclastics. In clear contrast, the central and eastern
basin remained relatively unaffected by this catastrophic
sedimentation, and only fine-grained, organic lacustrine
sediments with a consistent sedimentary facies formed.
(4) Because of (1) the relative proximity of the
Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu volcanic centre to the basin,
and (2) the Plinian nature of the Late Quaternary
eruptions, that caused large, destructive pyroclastic
flows and produced huge quantities of volcanic debris,
catastrophic sedimentation took place in the adjacent
part of the basin and instantaneously deposited thick
sequences of volcaniclastics. Ultimately, this had a
considerable effect on the morphological development of
the whole lake area.
(5) The Sunda volcano, which initially may have been
an imposing and dominating structure, collapsed
probably in two phases of major cataclysms (at 105 and
50-35 kyr B.P.), resulting in the formation of the Sunda
caldera. Within this structure the Tangkuban Perahu
volcano formed and presently fills a large part of the old
caldera.
(6) The already complex tectonic pattern of the
area was further complicated by local volcano-tectonic
faulting, i.e. the formation of the Lembang fault in
114 M. A. C. Dam et
two phases. The eastern part has an age of at least
100 kyr, while the western part formed around 24 kyr
ago. The resulting subsidence created the Lembang
surface, also in two phases, and southward bound by
the Lembang fault. The trend of this fault has no
apparent relation with regional tectonic directions. As
a result of the faulting the drainage system on the
whole south flank of the Sunda-Tangkuban Perahu
complex was disrupted and shows totally anomalous
patterns.
(7) As a result of voluminous sedimentation in the
western basin, the major drainage pathway (of the
proto-Citarum river) became inactive. This caused high
lake levels and lacustrine sedimentation up to exception-
ally high topographic levels (684-688 m asl). Conse-
quently, lacustrine and fluviolacustrine landforms
developed not only in a large area in the low-lying
central basin, but also in the more elevated parts of the
plain.
(8) Surprisingly, the anomalously high lake levels, in
combination with the gradual infilling of the lake,
facilitated a rise of the topographic elevation of the
central plain (i.e. the lake bottom) to a level higher than
the basin’s drainage base level. This caused the ultimate
siltation and drainage of the lake, and the initiation of
fluvial erosional/depositional processes.
(9) Ongoing fluvial incision and backward erosion by
the main Citarum river markedly improved drainage of
the basin. To date, although fluviolacustrine and
low-energy fluvial deposition prevailed since 16 kyr B.P.,
ongoing subsidence (and compaction) have not led to
renewed flooding of the central plain. This is in favour
of the notion that lacustrine sedimentation and the
associated landform development in the intramontane
Bandung basin are jointly caused by the initial
morphologic configuration (determined by the tectonic
and structural setting), and by voluminous volcaniclastic
sedimentation.
(10) Relatively brief periods with catastrophic vol-
caniclastic deposition profoundly control landform
development and sedimentation, although common
fluvial denudation/depositional processes operate con-
tinuously and over much longer periods of time. This
occurs not only in areas close to an active eruption
centre, but indirectly also in larger intramontane plains
and adjacent lowlands. Relief development in the
volcanic upland is almost totally controlled by
volcanism and volcano-tectonic events. Subsequent
fluvial erosion activity is largely predetermined by the
structural features and volcano-depositional events.
Acknowledgements-Research in the Bandung area by M. A. C.
Dam was made possible by NWO/WOTRO research grant
W75-293. The Quaternary Division of the Geological Research
and Development Centre (GRDC) made possible the
contribution of P. Suparan and provided logistical support.
The assistance of J. Vandenberghe and staff of the Faculty of
Earth Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam is gratefully
acknowledged. The fruitful cooperation with staff of Geologi
Tata Lingkungan was made possible with support from the
German-Indonesian CTA 108 project; thanks are due to
P. Silitonga and M. Siebenhfiner and the project staff. All
Indonesian colleagues from GTL and GRDC are thanked for
their support and assistance in the field. Our colleagues at both
faculties of Earth Sciences and the ITC are acknowledged for
their useful remarks and critical examination of the
al.
manuscript. The manuscript benefitted greatly from the
constructive remarks by anonymous reviewers.
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