NEBOSH International General Certificate in

Occupational Safety and Health

Unit IGC2

Element 8: Physical and

Psychological Health Hazards
and Risk Controls

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Learning Outcomes
On completion of this element, you should be able to demonstrate
understanding of the content through the application of knowledge to
familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular you should be able to:

• Outline the health effects associated with

exposure to noise and appropriate control
measures
• Outline the health effects associated with
exposure to vibration and appropriate control
measures
• Outline the health effects associated with heat,
ionising and non-ionising radiation and basic
protection techniques
• Outline the causes and effects of stress at work
and appropriate control measures
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Unit IGC 2
Element 8.1

Noise

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 Noise
Health effects:
• Temporary:
– reduction in hearing
(temporary threshold shift)
– ringing in ears
• Permanent:
– tinnitus
– noise-induced hearing loss
(permanent threshold shift)
– Physical damage to hearing mechanisms
• Stress
Safety issues:
• Inability to hear vehicles, warnings, conversations
• Concentration problems

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The Human Ear

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The Human Ear

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 Group Syndicate Activity
Identify occupations at risk from noise
induced hearing loss and the potential
causes.

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Occupations at Risk
• Construction workers
− Plant, machinery, e.g. concrete breakers
• Uniformed services
− Small arms and artillery
• Entertainment sector workers
− Loud music
• Manufacturing sector workers
− Industrial machinery
• Call centre workers
− Acoustic shock from headsets

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Terminology
• Sound pressure level
– expressed in decibels (dB)
• Decibel (dB)
– sound pressure level, ‘loudness’
• Frequency
– pitch
– human ear detects 20Hz to 20,000Hz
• A-weighting
– noise measurement scale matching human hearing
• C-weighting
– noise measurement scale accurate for impulse noise
• Daily Personal Noise Dose
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 Decibel Levels
Measurement
Sound
in dB(A)
0 Faintest audible sounds
20-30 Quiet library
50-60 Conversation
65-75 Loud radio
90-100 Power drill
140 Jet aircraft on take-off at 25m

• The decibel scale is logarithmic

• An increase of just 3 dB = a doubling of sound

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Noise Assessment
• Simple sound meter
– measures instant noise levels
– simple surveys
• Integrating sound level meter
– measures noise over a period of time
– used for all surveys

• Dosimeters
– worn by worker
– personal noise exposure
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Noise Exposure Standards

• Subject to national law
• General agreement on daily personal noise dose of
85dB(A)
• Dose depends upon
− Noise level in dB(A)
− Duration of exposure

• The daily personal noise exposure (LEP,d) is usually

measured over 8 hours
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 Noise Exposure Standards
European Standards (by way of example)
Lower Exposure Action Value: 80 dB(A)
• Noise assessment
• Information, instruction and
training
• Provide hearing protection

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Noise Exposure Standards

Upper Exposure Action Value: 85 dB(A)
• Noise assessment
• Reduce noise exposure by engineering
means, SFRP
If noise is still above 85 dB(A)
• Mandatory hearing protection zone
• Information, instruction and training
• Provide hearing protection and enforce use
• Health surveillance

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Group Syndicate Exercise

A noise survey has been carried
out and there are 2 work areas of
concern:
• Machine shop - noise levels
83 dB(A) throughout the shift
• Wood working area - noise
levels 87 dB(A) throughout the
shift
Discuss the actions that would
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 Noise Exposure Control

Reflected Noise Path

Direct Noise Path

Noise
Source
Structure
pathway

Noise: source, pathway, receiver

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Noise Exposure Control

Source Receiver
• Eliminate • Acoustic haven
• Substitute • Hearing protection
• Modify process
• Damping
• Silencing
• Maintenance
Pathway
• Insulation
• Isolation
• Absorption
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Group Syndicate Exercise

Discuss why hearing protection is an
inefficient method of reducing noise
exposure in a noisy workplace

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 Hearing Protection
Ear Defenders (muffs)
• Encase the ear and bones surrounding the
ear

Ear plugs
• Fit into the ear canal

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Hearing Protection
Ear defenders or muffs
Advantages Limitations
Easy to supervise and Uncomfortable
enforce use as visible
Less chance of ear Efficiency affected by long
infections hair, spectacles etc
Higher level of Must inspected, cleaned and
protection possible maintained
Can integrate with other PPE
Reusable

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Hearing Protection
Ear plugs
Advantages Limitations
Cheap and easy to use Difficult to see when fitted,
supervision and enforcement
difficult
Disposable Risk of infection if dirty or if
cross-contaminated when
inserted
More comfortable, range Need to be correctly sized for
of designs individual
Do not interfere with Effectiveness decreases with
other PPE usage

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 Hearing Protection
• Information, instruction, training
• Safe storage
• Cleaning
• Maintenance
• Replacement

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Hearing Protection
• Attenuation
• Information is required on the:
• Noise in the workplace
− from survey
• Attenuation characteristics of the
hearing protection
− from manufacturer
• Ear muffs give higher attenuation than ear
plugs
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Health Surveillance
Audiometry allows:
• Identification of workers with
- pre-existing hearing damage
- new hearing damage
• Removal/exclusion of such
workers from high noise areas
• Investigation of noise controls
to rectify problems

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 End of Section Quiz
1. What are the health effects of exposure
to high levels of noise?
2. There are 3 main ways of reducing noise
(fill in the blanks)
• Reduce noise at ________________
• Interrupt the __________from source to
receiver
• Protect the ________ through engineering
controls or PPE
3. What types of PPE are available? What
are the pro’s and con’s of each?

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Unit IGC 2
Element 8.2

Vibration

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Effects of Exposure to Vibration

Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
• Vibration white finger (blanching)
• Nerve damage
• Muscle weakening
• Joint damage

Typical vibration white finger

(Source: HSE Guidance)
(Reproduced under the terms of the Click-Use Licence)

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
• What occupations are most at risk of
exposure to vibration?
• How can you reduce the risks?
(Consider the use of a mechanical sander
at home)

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Effects of Exposure to Vibration

• Whole-Body Vibration
• Damage to spinal discs
• Vertigo

• Occupations:
− dumper truck driving
− aircraft cabin crew

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Vibration Assessment

• Vibration “dose” is
determined as a personal
exposure to vibration
averaged over 8hrs
• Vibration dose determined
by:
− vibration magnitude (ms-2 )
− duration of exposure
(hours/mins)

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 Vibration Exposure Standards

• Standards vary according to national law

• At or above the Daily Exposure Action Value
− Vibration risk assessment
− Reduce exposure level
− Training
− Health surveillance
• At or above the Daily Exposure Limit Value
(ELV)
− Vibration risk assessment
− Reduce exposure below the ELV

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Control of Vibration
Source: Duration:
• Eliminate • Limit time
• Substitute exposed
• Change work method • Job rotation
• Maintenance

Pathway: Person:
• Isolate • PPE

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Health Surveillance
At or above the Exposure Action Value
Health surveillance allows:
• Identification of workers with
- pre-existing vibration damage
- new vibration damage
• Removal/exclusion of such
workers from vibration sources
• Investigation of vibration sources to
rectify problems
Reproduced under the terms of
the click-use licence

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 End of Section Quiz
1. What are the symptoms of HAVs?
2. What two factors are considered
when calculating the “dose” of
vibration?

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Unit IGC 2
Element 8.3

Radiation

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Radiation
Two types:
• Ionising
– higher energy
– can change the structure of atoms
• Non-ionising
– lower energy
– heating effects
– does not change the structure of atoms

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 Ionising Radiation

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Types of Ionising Radiation

Can penetrate the body and cause
serious and permanent harm:
• Alpha particles
• Beta particles
• X-Rays
• Gamma rays
• Neutrons

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Alpha Particles
• Weak penetrating power
• Stopped by thin material, e.g. paper, skin
• Health effects:
- outside body - not particularly hazardous
- inside body (ingestion/inhalation) - very
hazardous
• Occupational uses:
- smoke detectors, medical labs

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 Beta Particles
• Can penetrate skin and living tissue
• Health effects:
- inside and outside body – hazardous
• Occupational uses:
- sterilisation, thickness gauges

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X-Rays
• Can be generated and switched off
• High penetrating power
• Health effects:
- inside and outside body - very hazardous
• Occupational uses:
- medical radiography
- baggage security scanners

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Gamma Rays
• Very penetrating
• Health effects:
- Inside and outside body - very hazardous
• Occupational uses
- industrial radiography, e.g. pipelines

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 Neutrons
• Emitted by some radioactive sources
• Very high penetration
• Health effects:
- outside body - very hazardous
• Occupational uses
- nuclear power stations

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Acute Health Effects

• Radiation sickness
• Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea
• Blistering and ulceration of skin
• Hair loss
• Dermatitis
• Cataracts
• Anaemia
• Reduced immune system
• Infertility
The larger the dose, the greater the risk

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Chronic Health Effects

• Cancer
• Genetic mutation
• Birth defects

The larger the dose, the greater the

risk

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
A pregnant lady is in need of an X-Ray for a
suspected broken bone
Discuss the control measures in the X-Ray
department of a hospital using:
• Time
• Distance
• Shielding
to structure your answer

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Protection from Ionising Radiation

Time:
• Minimise exposure
• Dose proportionate to time
• Half life
Distance:
• Alpha, beta can’t travel long distances
through air
Shielding:
• Depends upon type of radiation

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Protection from Ionising Radiation

Shielding

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 Dose Limits
International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP)
Recommendations on exposure:
• General public < 1mSv per year
• Workers < 20mSv per year

Measured with a Geiger

counter

Translated into legal limits in

most countries
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Radon Gas
• Naturally occurring in Devon, Derbyshire, etc.
• Radioactive gas
• Alpha particles
• Health effects:
- outside body - not particularly hazardous
- inside body (ingestion/inhalation) - hazardous

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Radon Gas
• Where naturally occurring levels are high:
- outside - low concern
- inside - poorly ventilated workplaces, e.g.
basements can be a significant risk
• Control of risk above the action level:
- Radiation Protection Supervisor
- positive pressure air fans
- radon sumps and extraction systems

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 Non-Ionising Radiation

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Group Syndicate Exercise

You are going on holiday to a hot country
with long hours of sunshine
Discuss how you will protect yourself
from sunburn from the UV light using:
• Time
• Distance
• Shielding
to structure your answer

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Non-Ionising Radiation
Types Sources Health Effects
Ultra-violet Sunlight Skin burns
(UV) Arc welding Arc eye (photokeratitis)
Skin cancer
Visible light lasers Temporary blindness

Infra-red (IR) Red hot steel Redness and skin burns,

Glass manufacture retinal burns, cataracts
Microwaves Food preparation Internal heating
Telecommunications Organ damage
Radiowaves Radio, TV Internal heating
radar Organ damage

Arc Eye
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 Protection from Non-Ionising
Radiation
Types Protection
Ultra-violet (UV) Cover exposed skin
Protect eyes
Visible light, Low class: avoid shining in eyes
lasers High class: eye protection, shielding,
non reflective surfaces
Infra-red (IR) Cover exposed skin
Protect eyes
Microwaves Safe distance
Isolate and lock off
Radiowaves Safe distance
Isolate and lock off

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Health Surveillance
May be legally required by an approved
physician:
• Before working as a classified worker
• During periodic health reviews (medicals)
• Special surveillance if dose limit is exceeded
• After ceasing work as a classified worker

Special consideration for pregnant or

breastfeeding workers
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Health Surveillance
Types of examination include:
• Skin checks
• Respiratory checks
• Exposure records
• Sickness records

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 End of Section Quiz
1. Identify the different types of ionising
radiation
2. Identify different sources of non-
ionising radiation
3. What are the health effects of
exposure to UV radiation?

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Unit IGC 2
Element 8.4

Stress

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Stress
Stress is:
• An adverse reaction to excessive
pressure
• Health effects:
– psychological
– physical
– behavioural
– serious ill-health if prolonged

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 Group Syndicate Exercise
Discuss what causes stress in your own
life or others you have known to be
stressed

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Causes of Stress
• Change - uncertainty
• Demands - excessive
• Control - weak
• Support - poor
• Relationship - difficult
• Role - undefined

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Group Discussion Point

• Whilst having your lunch outside, a
tiger jumps out at you with a huge
ROAR!!

• What physical, psychological and

behavioural symptoms might you
experience at the time and also in the
days/weeks after?

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 Effects of Stress
Psychological Physical Behavioural
• Anxiety • Sweating • Sleeplessness
• Low self-esteem • Heart rate • Poor
concentration
• Depression • Blood pressure
• Poor decision-
• Skin rashes making
• Muscle tension • Mood swings
• Headache • Irritability
• Dizziness • Alcohol
consumption
• Drug misuse
• Absence from
work

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Prevention Strategies for Stress

• Demand - reasonable demands, sufficient
resources
• Control - given as much control as possible

• Support - information, instruction, training,

additional support
• Relationships - clear anti-harassment and bullying
policies
• Role - clear job descriptions, responsibilities
and authority
• Change - planning and preparation for change,
communication, timescales

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End of Section Quiz

1. What is “stress”?
2. What are the three types of health
effect that can result due to stress?
3. What are the causes of workplace
stress?

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