POWER DISTRIBUTION AND INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS

SEMINAR PAPER

“THERMAL PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS”

Mentor: Prof. Dr. Grega Bizjak Marija Chingoska

Student ID No. 64170371
Abstract

Current flowing through any type of conductor generates losses that are manifested as heat. Part
of this heat can be dissipated to the conductor’s surroundings through different means of heat
transfer, such as conduction, convection, and sometimes even radiation. However, a
considerable portion of the generated heat produces a temperature rise in the conductor itself
which can be significantly destructive to the very same conductor if it is not anticipated and
properly dimensioned for it.

In this seminar paper attention is paid to why this resistive heating occurs in conductors, and on
what its magnitude depends on. We explore the thermal properties of the electric conductors,
determining their limits; learn how to adequately dimension them to suit our needs, all in order
to have as efficient and reliable distribution and transmission power system as possible.

2
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Metals with large electrical conductivity .............................................................................................. 5
3. How resistance generates heat .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1. Electrical resistivity and Ohms law .............................................................................................. 6
3.2. Joule heating ................................................................................................................................. 6
4. Resistance of conductors and resistive losses ....................................................................................... 7
4.1. Temperature coefficient of resistance ........................................................................................... 7
4.2. Active resistance ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.2.1. Skin effect ............................................................................................................................. 8
4.2.2. Proximity effect................................................................................................................... 10
4.3. Resistive losses ........................................................................................................................... 11
4.4. Dielectric losses .......................................................................................................................... 11
5. Thermal limits ..................................................................................................................................... 13
5.1. Ampacity ..................................................................................................................................... 13
5.1.1. Calculating ampacity for a conductor in a normal operating state ...................................... 13
5.1.2. Cable operating temperature ............................................................................................... 14
5.1.3. Fault withstand capability of a conductor ........................................................................... 16
5.2. Conductor cooling ....................................................................................................................... 18
5.3. Insulation classes ........................................................................................................................ 18
5.4. Temperature monitoring ............................................................................................................. 20
6. Physical impacts on the conductor due to its increased temperature .................................................. 21
6.1. Elongation ................................................................................................................................... 21
6.2. Sag in an overhead transmission line .......................................................................................... 21
7. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 23
8. Check your knowledge........................................................................................................................ 24
8.1. Questions..................................................................................................................................... 24
8.2. Task ............................................................................................................................................. 26
9. Literature ............................................................................................................................................. 28

3
1. Introduction

The difference in potentials between two charged bodies is called potential difference or voltage
(electromotive force). To cause a directed movement of charge carriers or electric current along a wire,
there is a need for a potential difference between the two ends of the wire. The greater the potential
difference, the greater the speed at which the charge carriers move. Charge carriers in solids (conductors)
are the free electrons and in liquids, those are the ions. In practical electrical engineering, mostly we talk
about free electrons as charge carriers. When electrons do not have a free path (for example, in solid
materials), one electron transfers the energy to the next and so on. This is called an electric current.

Figure 1: Potential difference across a conductor causes a current to flow

Some substances have a large number of free electrons and allow electric current to flow through
easily, and these substances are called electric conductors, while materials that have a small number or
do not have free electrons and resist the free flow of electrical charge are called insulators. Metals are
good conductors of electric current. Their good conductivity (the ability to allow electric current to flow
easily) is due to the formation of their atoms. In a conductor, the outer electrons of the atom are loosely
bound and can freely move through the material when an electric charge is applied. On the other hand,
good electrical insulators are materials such as glass, ceramics, teflon, plastic, air, etc. Between the
conductors and the insulators, there is a large group of substances that can have free electrons in
themselves, but under certain conditions: change of pressure, temperature, various types of radiation,
electric field, lighting, etc. These materials are called semiconductors (silicon, germanium, galena,
gallium, selenium, indium, etc.). Generally, the electrical resistance of metals increases with the
temperature and in some conductors, the resistance at enough low temperatures, (close to the absolute
zero = -273 ° C) drops to zero. For conductors in such a state, we say that they are superconductors.

Table 1: Physical properties of materials

Specific Resistance at 20°C Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity
Material
6.30 10
[Ω/cm] [S/cm] [W/m K]
Silver 1.59 10 420
Copper 1.68 10 5.96 10 401
Gold 2.44 10 4.10 10 314
Aluminium 2.28 10 3.5 10 220
Iron 1.0 10 1.0 10 54.5
Silicon 6.40 10 1.56 10 0.02
Water 2.0 10 2.0 10 5.0 10 5.0 10 0.591
Hard rubber 1.0 10 10 0.16
Glass 10 10 10 10 10 10 1.05

4
2. Metals with large electrical conductivity

Nonmagnetic metals are typically considered to be ideal conductors of electricity. These metals
are most often used for the production of windings of electrical machines, cables, and other installation
conductors. From these materials, several different properties are requested such as:
- low specific electrical resistance,
- low temperature coefficient of resistance,
- sufficient mechanical strength,
- ability for easy processing,
- ability to interconnect,
- competitive prices, and etc.
Of all conductive metals that satisfy these properties, the most important ones in the electrical
engineering are copper and aluminium. Silver is generally considered the best electrical conductor;
however, its high cost and low strength limit its use to special applications such as joint plating and
sliding contact surfaces.

Copper is one of the oldest known conductive materials. Its pliability and electrical conductivity
have been exploited by the early experimenters with electricity, such as Ben Franklin and Michael
Faraday. Copper is one of the most commonly used conductive metals and has become the international
standard. The International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) was created in 1913 to compare the
conductivity of other metals to copper [1]. In addition to copper’s superior electrical conductivity, this
metal has great tensile-strength, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion properties. Copper
conductors are commonly used in power distribution, power generation, and automotive applications.

Even though copper has a long history as the material of choice for conducting electricity, its
demand and scarcity have caused its cost to fluctuate widely. Aluminium, which is abundantly available,
has certain advantages that make it attractive for specific applications. Aluminium has 61% percent of the
conductivity of copper but has only 30 percent of the weight of copper. That means that a bare wire of
aluminium weighs half as much as a bare wire of copper that has the same electrical resistance.
Aluminium is generally more inexpensive when compared to copper conductors; however, it lacks in
mechanical properties compared to copper which is making it less than ideal as a conductor. Today the
most common transmission conductors are typically stranded from aluminium wires with a steel core
added where increased strength is required (ACSR – aluminium conductor steel reinforced).

For large coaxial cables, copper-clad aluminium (CCA) wire can be used to take advantage of the
conductivity of copper while gaining the weight savings of aluminium. CCA is made by bonding a layer
of pure copper onto an aluminium core. These wires obviously contain less copper than pure copper
cable, but due to the skin effect, they deliver virtually the same conductivity with only slightly higher
resistance. However, they have poor flexibility and bend radius making them brittle and easily breakable.

Figure 2: Copper, ACSR, and CCA conductors

5
3. How resistance generates heat
3.1. Electrical resistivity and Ohms law
As mentioned, electrical current is the flow of electrons through a particular material (conductor).
Generally, the moving electrons collide with the atoms of the conductor, which makes it more difficult for
the current to flow, acting as an opposition to the passage of an electrical current through it, also known
as electrical resistance. A low resistance means the electrical charge is allowed to freely flow through the
conductor, while a high resistance indicates the difficult passing of the electrical charge. All materials
have some sort of resistance, with the exception of superconductors. This electrical resistance has
resembling concepts as the notion of friction.

The Ohms law is one of the crucial laws in electrical engineering, which gives the relationship
between voltage and current, and it states that the potential difference (voltage) across a conductor is
proportional to the current through it. This constant of proportionality is represented by the resistance R:

= ∙ (1)

The resistance of a given conductor depends on the:

- material of the conductor,
- area of its cross-section,
- length of the conductor,
- temperature of the conductor.
For example, a long copper wire has a greater resistance than a shorter wire with identical
properties, as in a longer wire the electrons collide more often with the conductors' wire than in a shorter
wire. Due to the fact that a thin wire has fewer electrons to carry then the thick wire, the resistance of a
conductor is inversely proportional to its cross-section area. Also, the temperature of the conductor has an
impact on the conductors’ resistivity because as the temperature increases, the electrons begin to move
faster and collide with each other more often, causing the resistance to increase.

3.2. Joule heating

Whenever electric current flows through a solid or a liquid with finite conductivity, i.e. material
that has some resistance, it is transformed into thermal energy (heat) due to the resistive losses in the
material. The heat is generated by the microscopic friction that happens when the conduction electrons
transfer their energy to the conductors’ atoms by collisions. This conversion of electric energy to thermal
energy is called Joule heating, or also it is referred as resistive or ohmic heating.
Sometimes, this conversion of energy may be intended by design, such as in heating appliances
(toaster, electric space heater, electric blanket, etc.). In these types of appliances, an appropriate conductor
is used; whose resistance will produce the required amount of resistive heating. However, in some
applications, the resistive heating is undesirable, such as in power lines. The main purpose of the power
lines is to efficiently transfer energy, and the energy converted to heat is in fact lost (thus the term
resistive losses). Likewise, this effect is also unwanted in transmission and distribution lines, for the
reason that the heat can cause thermal expansion of the conductors, making them stretch and sag, and also
in some cases, the resistive heating can also cause melting of the wires, mainly during fault conditions.

Because of this, it is of great importance while planning the electrical transmission and
distribution system, to properly dimension the conductors to withstand the required resistive heating
which depends on their current load, environmental temperatures and duration spent loaded.

6
4. Resistance of conductors and resistive losses
As carriers of electrical energy, the conductors are one of the most important elements of an
electrical network. They come in two forms; as overhead conductors (bare, covered or insulated), and as
cables, installed underground in ducts or buried directly in the ground. Due to the fact that a failure in
conductor results in a complete interruption in its network, it is of great importance that such failures are
minimized. As previously mentioned, the resistive heating of a conductor can cause such failures, for the
reason that the temperature rise can affect different properties of the conductor, such as its mechanical
strength and its inner resistance, which influences the power losses.

4.1. Temperature coefficient of resistance

As already stated, the resistance of a conductor does not change only with its length and cross-
section area, but it also depends on its temperature. This is not due to the conductors' changes in
dimension as a result of the temperature variations but mainly caused by the changing activity of the
atoms that make up the material.

The effect of heat on the atomic structure of a material is to make the atoms vibrate, the higher
the temperature the more violently the atoms vibrate. In a conductor, which already has a great number of
free electrons flowing through it, the vibration of the atoms causes many collisions between the free
electrons and the captive electrons. Each collision uses up some energy from the free electron and is the
basic cause of resistance. The more the atoms jostle around in the material, the more collisions are caused
and hence the greater the resistance to current flow.

From Table 1 it can be seen that the specific resistances for the materials were specified at a
temperature of 20°C, which means that the specific resistance of a material may change with the
temperature. Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature
(20°C) have to be determined mathematically, using the following equation:

= [! + #$% − % '] (2)

)= conductor resistance at temperature *

Where,

)+,- = conductor resistance at reference temperature *+,- , usually 20°C

.=
*=
temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor material

*+,- = reference temperature that . is specified for

conductor temperature in degrees Celsius

The “alpha” (. ) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance and symbolizes
the resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. In a material where the resistance increases
with an increase in temperature, the material is said to have a positive temperature coefficient. When
resistance falls with an increase in temperature, the material is said to have a negative temperature
coefficient (semiconductors). In general, conductors have a positive temperature coefficient, whilst (at
high temperatures) insulators have a negative temperature coefficient.

Table 2: Temperature coefficients of resistance [2]

Aluminium Copper Silver Gold

Temperature coefficient α at 20°C 0.004308 0.004041 0.003819 0.003715

7
 Figure 3: Resistance vs. temperature graph for conductors

From Figure 3 we can note that the resistivity of a conductor for temperatures above about 15°K
(i.e. above absolute zero), is limited by thermal vibrations of the atoms and this gives the linear region
(Equation (2)). Below this temperature, the resistivity is limited by impurities and available carriers of the
material [3].

4.2. Active resistance

The active resistance is the resistance of a conductor when an alternating current flows through it.
It has greater value than the resistance of direct current due to the phenomena of skin effect and proximity
effect. The AC resistance of a conductor is the DC resistance increased by a skin effect factor and a
proximity effect factor [4]:

/0 = ∙ 1! + 23 + 24 5 (3)

)67 =
Where,

)=
AC resistance of the conductor

89 =
DC resistance of the conductor

8: =
skin effect factor
Proximity effect factor

4.2.1. Skin effect

The distribution of current over the entire cross-section of the conductor is quite uniform in case
of a DC system. However, in the present era of power system engineering, the alternating current systems
are dominant, where the current tends to flow with higher density through the surface of the conductors
(i.e., the skin of the conductor), leaving the core deprived of a necessary number of electrons. The effect
that emerges from the unequal distribution of current over the entire cross-section of the conductor that is
used for long distance power transmission is referred as the skin effect in transmission lines. This does
not have a large impact when we have a very short line, but with an increase in the effective length of the
conductors, the skin effect increases considerably.

8
 An alternating current in a conductor produces an alternating magnetic field in and around the
conductor. When the intensity of current in a conductor changes, the magnetic field also changes and
creates an electric field which opposes the change in current intensity. This opposing electric field is
called "counter-electromotive force" (back EMF). The back EMF is strongest at the center of the
conductor and forces the conducting electrons to the outside of the conductor. [5]

Figure 4: Forcing of charges to flow to the skin of the conductor [6]

Figure 5: Cross-sectional view of a conductor indicating the distribution of electric field (skin effect)

diameter of the conductors and operational frequency. The skin effect factor 89 is given by:
The skin effect in an AC system depends on factors like a shape of a conductor, type of material,

;<
23 = !=>?@.A∙;< , where ;3 =
A∙B∙
3 >
∙ !@ C
∙ D3 (4)
3

E= supply frequency, Hz
Where,

F9 = skin effect coefficient (from table or graph)

9
 4.2.2. Proximity effect

Along with the skin effect, proximity effect is a common problem found in every electrical system.
Proximity effect is defined as the jumping magnetic field from one conductor to another conductor
nearby. This will cause unequal field distribution which means that the three phase conductors on the
same wire will not carry the same amount of current. For a three phase load to perform properly, the
current distribution in all three phases must be equal. Imbalance in the current distribution leads to
improper function of the load, poor power factor and is less efficient. Proximity effect is the main cause
of imbalanced load distribution. Proximity effect significantly increases the AC resistance of the
conductor, thus resulting in losses. The major causes of proximity effect are the closeness of the wires,
bends in the wire, skin effect and high-frequency noise.

Figure 6: Current distribution because of proximity effect for two adjacent conductors carrying current in the same
direction and in opposite direction [7]

The proximity effect factor 8: is given by:

;<4 H >
24 = !=>?@.A∙;< ∙ G I0J ∙ >. = , where ;>4 =
A∙B∙
∙ !@ C
∙ D4 (5)
4

K7 = diameter of conductor [mm]

Where,

L= distance between conductor’s axis [mm]

F: = proximity effect coefficient (from table or graph)
Table 3: Coefficients F9 and F:
D3 D4
Round stranded or solid 1 1
CopperRound segmental 0.435 0.37
Sector-shaped 1 1
Round stranded or solid 1 1
Round 4 segment 0.28 0.37
Aluminium
Round 5 segment 0.19 0.37
Round 6 segment 0.12 0.37

Overcrowded electrons at the circumference of the conductor, which happens due to the proximity
and skin effect, will not find sufficient room to flow which increases the friction among them. This will
lead to the additional generation of heat energy.

10
 4.3. Resistive losses

To understand why the resistance intensity is important with respect to temperature measurements, it
is important to mention its connection to the losses in the electrical system. The heat created in the
conductor is measured in terms of power, which corresponds to energy per unit time. Therefore, we are
calculating a rate at which energy is being converted into heat inside a conductor. The energy lost due to
its transformation into heat as a result of the resistance of the conductor is called resistive losses. There
are two simple equations for calculating the amount of the resistive losses in a conductor:
M= ∙ (6)
M= >
∙ (7)
Equation (7) has been derived by Equation (6) by substituting N with O and ) (according to the Ohms
law).

It should be noted that the heat generated is in W/m3. Any calculated O ∙ ) power needs to be
converted to W/m3, by dividing the value obtained by the volume over which the power is dissipated.
It is important to point the power dependence on the resistance and the current, so we can expect
that the increase in the resistance will also cause the power to increase, assuming that the current is
constant. Usually, in many situations it is the voltage that remains approximately constant (electric
appliances), which means that the power is more sensitive to the changes in the current values than to the
value of the resistance.
However, there are situations where the current is rather kept constant than the voltage, such as in
transmission and distribution lines. Here the resistive heating, and with it, the resistive losses, are directly
proportional to the resistance of the conductor. The important difference between power lines and
appliances is that due to the insignificance of the power lines resistance compared to that of the
appliances at the end of it, the current is unaffected by the resistance of the line itself. It is determined by
the load or power consumption at the end of the line, so any reasonable change in the resistance of the
line will have a negligible effect on the overall resistance, and thus the current flowing through it.
However, the voltage drop along the line is unconstrained and varies depending on current and
the line’s resistance. Therefore, by applying Equation (7) for resistive heating with the current held
constant, we see that by doubling the resistance of the conductor, we will double also the resistive losses.
Since in practice it is desirable to minimize resistive losses on power transmission and
distribution lines, these conductors are chosen with the minimal resistance that is practically and
economically feasible.

4.4. Dielectric losses

Dielectrics (insulating materials for example) when subjected to a varying electric field, will have
some energy loss. The varying electric field causes a small realignment of weakly bonded molecules,
which lead to the production of heat. The amount of loss increases as the voltage level is increased. For
low voltage cables, the loss is usually insignificant and is generally ignored. For higher voltage cables,
the loss and heat generated can become important and needs to be taken into consideration. In DC
conductors with a static electric field, there is no dielectric loss; we only consider dielectric losses with
AC conductors.

11
 Dielectric loss is measured using what is known as the loss tangent or tan (delta) (tan δ). In simple
terms, tan δ is the tangent of the angle between the alternating field vector and the loss component of the
material. The higher the value of tan δ the greater the dielectric loss will be [8].
Given the tan δ and capacitance of the conductor, the dielectric loss is easily calculated:

PH = Q ∙ R ∙ >
@ ∙ S/TU [V/X] (8)
Conductor capacitance can be obtained from manufacturers or calculated using the following:
Y
R= ∙ !@ =
[`/X]
]
!A ∙ Z[ \ ^ _
H0
(9)

a=
Where,

N=
angular frequency [2πf]

tan e=
conductor rated voltage to earth [V]

f=
loss factor for insulation
insulation relative permittivity
gh = external diameter of insulation [mm]
K7 = diameter of conductor [mm]

12
5. Thermal limits
Power will be generated in any conductor which has some resistance and is carrying a load, and
as mentioned before, that generated power, due to the energy conservation, is converted to heat energy, so
it is normal for conductors to heat up. Distribution lines and transmission lines are limited in their
capacity to transmit power by resistive heating. It is thus the magnitude of the current, continuing over
time and increasingly heating the conductor that limits the loading; this is the so-called thermal limit [9].

5.1. Ampacity

According to Equation (7), the amount of current load is of great importance with the respect to
power dissipated in the conductor due to their quadratic connection (if the load doubles the power
increases by a factor of four; if the load triples the power increases by a factor of nine; and etc.). So it is
crucial to determine the maximum amount of electric current a conductor can carry before sustaining
immediate or progressive deterioration. The RMS electric current value which a conductor can
continuously carry while remaining within its temperature rating is called current-carrying capacity, also
known as ampacity.

The ampacity of a conductor depends on:

- its insulation temperature rating;
- the electrical resistance of the conductor material;
- frequency of the current, in the case of alternating current;
- ability to dissipate heat, which depends on conductor geometry and its surroundings;
- ambient temperature.

5.1.1. Calculating ampacity for a conductor in a normal operating state

A conductors’ temperature depends on the thermal balance of heat inputs and losses. Those
conductors through which no current flows absorb the ambient temperature. Thus, for a specific outdoor
ambient temperature 25°C is taken, for indoor areas 35°C, and for underground channels 15°C. For
conductors where there is a constant flow of electric current, a thermal equilibrium occurs where the
resistive heat from the conductor emitted to the surrounding. The energy balance is given by the equation:

ij = kl m + kl 3 − kl 0 − kl H − kl (10)

nl o =
Where,
resistive heating of the conductor [W/m3]
nl 9 = radiation heat transfer from the sun to conductor [W/m3]
nl 7 = convective heat loss from the conductor to air [W/m3]
nl p = conductive heat loss from the conductor [W/m3]
nl + = radiation heat loss from the conductor to the surroundings [W/m3]

Assuming steady-state conditions (qr =0) for an overhead conductor (nsl ≠ 05, and taking into
account that the conduction is negligible due to a small surface area and can be negligible (npl 05, the
energy balance of a conductor can be resolved into four heat transfer components:

13
 kl 0 + kl = kl 3 + klu (11)

Knowing that the resistive heating of the conductor is a function of the current I transferring

)1*7vwp 5 −(Equation (7)), the heat balance equation can be rearranged to give the maximum allowable
through the conductor and the resistance of the conductor at a given conductor temperature

current (ampacity):

k0l + k l − k3l
=x
1%0yTH 5
(12)

In expanded form, the ampacity of an overhead conductor can be expressed in terms of ambient
weather conditions (sun, wind and temperature), and cable properties (diameter, surface area and material
properties) [10]:

B ∙ z ∙ ] ∙ 1%0yTH − %/{| 5 + B ∙ Y ∙ } ∙ ] ∙ 1%<0yTH − %</{| 5 − U ∙ ] ∙ /3

= x
1%0yTH 5
(13)

ℎ=
Where,

g=
average heat transfer coefficient

*6•€ =
conductor diameter

f=
ambient air temperature

•=
emissivity of the conductor surface

e=
Stefan-Boltzmann constant

‚9 =
incident solar radiation
coefficient of absorption of a conductor surface

If there is a change in the ambient and conductor temperature, we can use the value obtained with
Equation (13), and calculate a new value for the ampacity using a simplified equation [6]:

%0yTH,T ƒ − %/{|,T ƒ
= ∙x
T ƒ y„H
%0yTH,y„H − %/{|,y„H
(14)

where Ow,† is the new ampacity based on a new conductor limit *7vwp,w,† and a new ambient
temperature *6•€,w,† . Likewise, Ov‡p is the original ampacity based on a conductor limit *7vwp,v‡p and an
ambient temperature *6•€,v‡p .

Temperature limits in use today range from 50°C to 150°C. However, temperatures limits above
95°C may result in significant annealing of aluminium and total time duration at high temperature over
the life of the line is normally specified to limit the resulting loss of strength.

5.1.2. Cable operating temperature

At zero current the cable conductor temperature will be the same as the ambient temperature. At
the maximum sustained current rating, the cable will be at the insulation limiting temperature (typically
70 °C for thermoplastic insulation and 90 °C for thermosetting insulation). At current ratings between
these extremes, the cable temperature will be at a value between ambient and the limiting temperature.

14
The cable operating temperature can be found from:
>
%0yTH,T = \ _ ∙ $%0yTH,y„H − %/{|,y„H ' + %/{|,T
|
ƒ ƒ (15)
ˆ

O€ = cable design current [A]

Where,

O‰ = sustained current rating of cable [A]

Tables 3 and 4 show the ampacity of all-aluminium and copper conductors:

Table 4: Ampacities of All-Aluminium Conductor [6]

15
Table 5: Ampacities of Copper Conductor [6]

5.1.3. Fault withstand capability of a conductor

Even though fault currents have short durations when short circuit happens very large currents
can flow through the conductor until a fuse or other interrupter breaks the circuit. During these abnormal
conditions the conductor’s temperature increases rapidly, and for short-duration events, we ignore
convection and radiation losses and assume that all heat stays in the conductor, thus increasing its
temperature. One of the important aspects of over-current protection is to ensure that the fault arc and
fault currents do not cause further, possibly more permanent, damage. The two main considerations are:

- Burndowns: Fault-current arcs can damage overhead conductors. The arc itself generates
tremendous heat and where an arc attaches to a conductor (hotspot); it can weaken or melt the
conductor until it breaks apart. They are mostly associated with lightning-caused faults.

16
 - Conductor annealing: During high current from faults, conductors can withstand significant
temperatures for a few seconds losing strength, but at higher temperatures, we have a higher risk
of a permanent damage to the conductors. Heating relaxes the strands which cause elongation and
weakening of the conductor. This damage is called annealing. Annealing damage is permanent
and accumulates over time. Remaining strength for an AAC can be calculated by:

@.!
3 = D! ∙ S H
1@.@@!%0 @.@=Š5
(16)

)9 =
Where,

K=
remaining strength, percent of initial strength
strand diameter [in.]

*7 =
= exposure time [h]

F = (0.24*7 +135), F ≤100

conductor temperature [°C]

Figure 7: Loss of strength of AAC due to exposure to high temperature

Considering the heat inputs and the conductor characteristics, the conductor temperature during a
fault is related to the current as [4]:

>
%> + •
\ _ ∙ S = • ∙ ZŽ• !@ \ _
!@@@ ∗ Œ %! + •
(17)

O=
Where,

‘=
fault current [A]
cross-sectional area of the conductor [kcmil] (1 kcmil=5.067*10-4 mm2)
*=
*=
conductor temperature before fault [°C]
conductor temperature from the fault [°C]
K= constant depending on the conductor (copper: 0.0289; aluminium: 0.0126)
λ= inferred temperature of zero resistance [°C] (copper: 234; aluminium: 228.1)

17
 5.2. Conductor cooling

As we can see from Equation (11) the ampacity of a conductor mainly depends on the heat
generated in it and the heat exchange between the conductor and its surroundings. The dissipation of heat
can be done in three ways: radiation, convection, and conduction. The cooling of the overhead power
line depends mainly on convection, whereas for underground cables heat is dissipated mainly by
conduction.
Heat radiation is heat transfer with electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths, from a
heated body to the environment. The intensity of the radiation depends on the material, colour,
temperature and the surface treatment. The heat emitted from area unit of the conductor with radiation can
be calculated by the following formula:

k = Y ∙ Œ ∙ $%<0yTH − %</{| ' [V] (18)

f= emissivity of the conductor surface (0.04÷1)

Where,

‘= area [m ]
2

Convection is the process of heat transfer by the movement of fluids. We distinguish two types
of convection: natural and forced. In the natural convection, the movement of the particles of the fluid
adjacent to the heated conductor is conditioned by the difference in the density of the heat between the
heated and cold particles, while in the forced convection the particle movement is the result of the action
of special devices (eg. ventilators). The transfer of heat by convection depends on many factors, from the
shape and dimension of the heated body and weather conditions such as wind.
To consider the effect of convection (natural or forced) Newton’s law of cooling is used:

k0 = z ∙ Œ ∙ 1%0yTH − %/{| 5 [V] (19)

For air (a common conductor installation medium) the convection heat transfer coefficient h,
flowing at velocity v, can be obtained from:

z = C. ’C! + “. <’ ∙ ”@.CŠ [V/X ] (20)

•= Velocity of air (wind speed) [m/s]

Where,

5.3. Insulation classes

An electrical insulator is a material who has high resistivity and their internal electric charges do
not flow freely; very little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field.
Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical conductors without allowing
current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other
equipment is called insulation. The electrical insulation system for wires used in generators, electric
motors, transformers, and other wire-wound electrical components is divided into different classes by
temperature and temperature rise. The electrical insulation system is sometimes referred to as insulation
class or thermal classification. According to the world standards, there are several classes of isolation
depending on the allowed temperature:

18
 Figure 8: Thermal (insulation) classification

If the upper-temperature limit of the insulation material is exceeded the life of the insulation will
be reduced as illustrated below. The selection of insulation class is critical to the life of the electrical
components. A common rule of thumb is that the life of the insulation will be halved for every 8 to 10 °C
temperature rise of operation above the rated insulation temperature.

Figure 9: Insulation life and temperature

Overhead insulated cables for high-voltage electric power transmission are rarely used,
sometimes for short distances (less than a kilometre). They are usually bare and insulated by the
surrounding air. An overhead line with bare conductors insulated by air is typically less costly than a
cable with insulated conductors. Conductors for lower voltages in distribution may have some insulation
but are often bare as well.
For underground cables, a suitable thickness of insulation is provided on each core or conductor
so that the conductors of the underground cable may withstand the operating or designed voltage. The
thickness of insulation on the core increases as the operating or design voltage is increased. Normally the
insulation materials are made of impregnated paper, varnish cambric or rubber mineral compound.

19
 5.4. Temperature monitoring

To provide electricity without interruption to a growing economy is a challenge for power

engineers. For proper transmission of power in overhead transmission lines temperature control is a major
parameter that needs to be kept in mind. For safety measurements, this monitoring should be done on a
continuous basis. Some of the ongoing temperature-monitoring methods are the usage of stainless steel
temperature probes, thermocouples, RTDs, and infrared sensors.
Temperature monitoring of power cables can offer the following advantages:
1. Means to monitor the cable condition since a rise in temperature indicates an insulation
breakdown or a change in its operating environment.
2. The option of comparing the load to temperature changes and the actual temperature can be
compared to theoretical values.
3. Ability to postpone circuit investment, since if the cable temperature is known in relation to
load, maintenance and replacement can be properly scheduled according to its behaviour
rather than doing prediction.

20
6. Physical impacts on the conductor due to its increased temperature

6.1. Elongation

Power lines, which are generally supported by transmission towers, cover large distances. Due to
the force of gravity, power lines intrinsically tend to sag. This initial sag increases with line temperature
because the conducting material of which the line is made expands as line temperature increases,
effectively lengthening the line (linear expansion).
The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be:
∆—
= #— ∆%
—
(21)

∆%=
Where,

#— =
change in temperature [°C]

—=
linear expansion coefficient

∆—=
particular length measurement
particular change in length

Figure 10: Change in length due to thermal expansion

6.2. Sag in an overhead transmission line

A small increase in line length produces a large and potentially hazardous increase in sag. The
problem of sagging power lines is well known to the electric power industry and is associated with
problems which are hazardous and both time-consuming and expensive to rectify. Sagging power lines
pose an electrocution hazard to persons and vehicles and can lead to an interruption in power supply, and
are known to cause hugely destructive and expensive forest and brush fires. Present techniques to
compensate for such sag caused by a temperature increase can be to limit the electrical current load
capacity to compensate for increased ambient temperature.

21
Figure 11: Sagging of overhead transmission lines

22
7. Conclusion
The fundamental purpose of the electric transmission system is to transmit power from generating
units to the distribution system that ultimately supplies the loads. This objective is served by transmission
lines that connect the generators into the transmission network, interconnect various areas of the
transmission network, interconnect one electric utility with another, or deliver the electrical power from
various areas within the transmission network to the distribution substations.

Transmission system design is the selection of the necessary lines and equipment which will
deliver the required power and quality of service for the lowest overall average cost over the service life.
Their designing is a very meticulous process that depends on a large number of parameters, and one of
them is the design of the conductors.

The choice of a conductor for a transmission line depends on the specific application. They can
vary in physical properties such as material from which are made, their surface area and length; electrical
properties like inner resistance and electrical current flow; mechanical properties such as their strength,
tension and also their temperature, and etc.

The temperature of a conductor is one of the main factors that can affect many of his other
properties. Its increase can cause an increased resistance of the conductor, or lead to its linear expansion
(elongation) which results in over-dimensioned sagging of the power line or simply generate hot spots
which can significantly damage the line or provoke a burndown. Because of this, it is essential during the
transmission system design, to undertake different calculations, for the purpose of properly planning the
conductors' parameters. It is important to know in advance the maximal temperature a conductor can
withstand without consequences, and what can be done in order to maintain the temperature in those
limits. By doing this, we are making sure to avoid hazardous effects that can result in electrical network
faults or in more grave accidents where casualties can occur.

23
8. Check your knowledge
8.1. Questions

1. How does the increase in conductor temperature affect its resistance? Write the equation that
calculates the resistance of a conductor whose temperature is different from the reference
temperature (20°C).

The increased heat in the conductor causes the atoms in the material to start vibrating. The vibrations
of the atoms lead to increased collisions between the free and captive electrons, which in fact is the
resistance of the conductor. The higher the temperature the more atoms vibrate, and the greater is the
resistance.

Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard temperature (20°C) are
calculated using equation:

) = )+,- [1 + .$* − *+,- ']

2. What are the two effects that increase the resistance of an AC conductor? Why does the
increased resistance have negative impact on the conductors' properties?

The AC resistance of a conductor is increased by two effects called skin effect and a proximity effect.
The increase of the temperature in the conductor is actually energy being converted into heat inside the
conductor. The energy lost due to its transformation into heat as a result of the resistance of the
conductor is called resistive loss.

˜ =O ∙)
3. What is ampacity, and what does its value depend on? Write the simplified equation.

The RMS electric current value which a conductor can continuously carry while remaining within its
temperature rating is called ampacity. It depends on the thermal balance of heat inputs and losses, and
the resistance of the conductor.

n7l + n+l − n9l

O=x
)1*7vwp 5

4. What is conductor annealing and when does it happen?

The weakening of the conductors’ strength due to high temperature is called annealing. Mainly it
happens during high current from faults, due to the conductor temperature increasing greatly.

24
5. How does the temperature rise of the conductors affect power line length? Why is this
undesirable?

The conducting material from which the power line is made of, as the temperature increases, starts to
expend in length, which is called linear expansion. A small increase in line length produces a large and
potentially hazardous increase in sag, which poses an electrocution hazard to persons and vehicles and
can lead to an interruption in power supply, and also is known to cause hugely destructive and
expensive forest and brush fires.

25
8.2. Task

At a temperature of 20°C the resistance of a copper conductor was )™š = 3.6 [Ω]. After a certain time,

increases and its resistance becomes )™š = 4.12 [Ω]. The temperature coefficient of resistance of
when there is flow of electrical current through the conductor, the temperature of the conductor

copper is .™š = 0.004 [1/°œ].

adding, in series with the copper conductor, a graphite semiconductor with resistance )• with a
In order to compensate the increase of the conductors’ resistance due to heat losses, we consider

negative temperature coefficient of resistance of .• = −0.2 ∙ 10 [1/°œ].

a) Calculate the new temperature of the copper conductor *™š,w,† without adding graphite
semiconductor with resistance )• ?

b) Calculate the value of the resistance of the graphite semiconductor )• , at 20°C, that should be

conductor that happens as a result of the generated heat, in such way that the total resistance )
added in series with the copper conductor to compensate the increase of resistance of the copper

would not change with the temperature change? We assume that both of the conductors are
heated to the same new temperature *w,† .

Solution:

a) In order to calculate the new temperature of the copper conductor, we are using the equation for
calculating the resistance of a conductor at any temperature other than the reference temperature

)™š,w,† = )™š,+,- ∙ [1 + .™š ∙ $*™š,w,† − *™š,+,- ']

(20°C):

¡
From here we express the temperature: *™š,w,† = *™š,+,- + ž ∙ \ ¡Ÿ ,¢£¤
− 1_ and we get the new
Ÿ Ÿ ,¥£¦
temperature of the copper conductor:

1 4.12
*™š,w,† = 20 + ∙\ − 1_ ≅ Š“, ! °R
0.004 3.6

b) When we add the graphite semiconductor in series, we need to write the resistance equation for the
copper conductor and the graphite semiconductor:

)™š = )™š,+,- ∙ [1 + .™š ∙ $*™š,w,† − *™š,+,- ']

)• = )•,+,- ∙ [1 + .• ∙ $*•,w,† − *•,+,- ']

We know that: *™š,+,- = *•,+,- = *+,- = 20 [°œ] and *™š,w,† = *•,w,† = *w,† so we rewrite the
previous equations:

)™š = )™š,+,- ∙ [1 + .™š ∙ $*w,† − *+,- ']

)• = )•,+,- ∙ [1 + .• ∙ $*w,† − *+,- ']

26
The total resistance of the series is: ) = )™š + )• so we get:

) = )™š + )• = )™š,+,- + )•,+,- + 1*w,† − *+,- 5 ∙ 1.™š ∙ )™š,+,- + .• ∙ )•,+,- 5

The resistance R would not change with the increase of temperature if:

.™š ∙ )™š,+,- + .• ∙ )•,+,- = 0

From there we express the resistance of the graphite semiconductor )•,+,- , and we calculate the
appropriate value for it, which will make the total resistance of the series ), not dependant from the
temperature:
.™š 0.004
)•,+,- = − ∙ )™š,+,- = − ∙ 3.6 = C> [©]
.• −0.2 ∙ 10

27
9. Literature

[1] “Copper vs. Aluminum Conductors | Anixter.” [Online]. Available:

https://www.anixter.com/en_uk/resources/literature/wire-wisdom/copper-vs-aluminum-
conductors.html. [Accessed: 28-Mar-2018].
[2] “Temperature Coefficient of Resistance | Physics Of Conductors And Insulators | Electronics
Textbook.” [Online]. Available: https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-
12/temperature-coefficient-resistance/. [Accessed: 31-Mar-2018].
[3] “Temperature Coefficient of Resistance | Electronics Notes.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/basic_concepts/resistance/resistance-resistivity-
temperature-coefficient.php. [Accessed: 31-Mar-2018].
[4] T. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook. CRC Press, 2003.
[5] H. W. Beaty, “STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS,” p. 1829.
[6] Environmental Potentials, “Electrical Losses due to Skin Effect and Proximity Effect.” EP2009.
[7] U. S. Gudmundsdottir, “Proximity effect in fast transient simulations of an underground transmission
cable,” Electr. Power Syst. Res., vol. 115, pp. 50–56, Oct. 2014.
[8] “myCableEngineering.com > Dielectric loss in cables.” [Online]. Available:
https://mycableengineering.com/knowledge-base/dielectric-loss-in-cables. [Accessed: 02-Apr-2018].
[9] A. von Meier, Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
[10] M. Bartos et al., “Impacts of rising air temperatures on electric transmission ampacity and peak
electricity load in the United States,” Environ. Res. Lett., vol. 11, no. 11, p. 114008, Nov. 2016.

28