INTRODUCTION

 Wood is the oldest material used by humans for construction after stone. Despite its complex chemical nature, wood has
excellent structural properties which lend themselves to human use.
 However, it also has some drawbacks of which the user must be aware. It is a “natural” material and is available in limited
amount.
 In Zimbabwe timber is mainly grown in Manicaland.

TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS

Retains its importance in engineering because of its versatility, diversity and aesthetic properties.
 20% of the land’s forests covered by forests: 1/3 softwoods and 2/3 hardwoods.
 The overall reduction in world rain forest areas is contributing to the greenhouse effect by reducing the rate of extraction of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
 A renewable resource and environmentally friendly.
 Require little energy for their conversion into usable timber.
CROSS SECTION

Heartwood
 contains blocked cells and is used for waste disposal and strength
 Cells and vessels closed
 Contains waste products from tree growth – extractives – many areharmful to insects and fungi– gives natural durability
 Cell wall thickness stable
Sapwood
 contains cells still used to transport nutrients
 Cells and vessels are open.
 Contains starches used as “food” for the tree – also used as food for insects and fungi – lower durability
 Cell walls increasing in thickness as tree grows
WHY USE TIMBER?
 There have been a lot of newly developed materials but timber is still widely used
 Some of the advantages of timber as a structural material are;
 Exceptionally strong relative to its weight
 Easily machinable and can be fabricated into an infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site building
techniques
 Lightweight
 Economical: wastage is minimum
 Durable A good heat and electrical insulator
 It is a renewable and biodegradable resource.
 Relatively cheaper production cost

TREE CLASSIFICATION
1. Exogens (Exogenous)
 The botanical name for those plants which grow outwardly, acquiring a new sheath of cellular tissue during each growing
season.
 Angiosperms/ Dicotyledons/Deciduous trees with broad leaves and shed leaves in the winter. Classified as
hardwoods e.g teak, oak and mukwa
 Gymnosperms/ Softwoods/ Confers have needle like leaves, are ever greeen and normally classified as softwoods
e.g pine.
2. Endogenous (endogens)
 Grow end wards e.g bamboo.
SOFTWOODS AND HARDWOODS COMPARED

SOFTWOODS HARDWOODS
1. Lighter in colour Darker in colour
2. Grow faster Grow slower
3. Low density High density
4. Annual rings distinct Annual rings indistinct
5. Heartwood and sapwood cannot be distinguished Heartwood and sapwood can be distinguished
6. Strength: strong along the grains Strength: Strong along and across the grains
7. Conversion easy Conversion difficult

CHARACTERICTS OF GOOD TIMBER

1. Narrow growth rings, closer grains hence greater strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. When struck a sonorous sound is produced.
6. Free from defects.
7. Higher density.
8. No wooliness at fresh cut surface
CONVERSION OF TIMBER (PROCESSING)
 Process whereby the felled trunk is converted into marketable sizes of timber.
 Since the trunk is not of the same diameter over the entire length it is not possible to obtain the same amount of marketable
timber over the entire length of the trunk.
 Different strength characteristics are possible with varying methods of sawing the trunk.
 While plain sawing is the most economical method it produces sections in which the angle of grain or the axis of the annual
growth rings is not optimum as might be provided by radial sawing.
TIMBER SAWING
Factors that determine the type of cut
 The type of sawing machine
 The condition of the log
 Economy
 The size of log
 The wood species
 The end use of resulting timber
METHODS OF SAWING TIMBER
The rate at which a tree grows varies with the season. The resulting growth rings of alternate high and low density form the grain
in the sawn timber (lumber).The method of sawing has a considerable effect on the appearance, resistance to warping, shrinking,
paint-holding ability and wear resistance of the final piece. There are several methods of sawing a log into boards and planks,
giving different relationships between the growth rings and the surface, i.e. more or less parallel to the surface in plain sawn timber
and at right angles in radial sawn timber. Radially sawn boards shrink less, are less liable to cup and twist and are easier to season.
Cutting methods that produce a high proportion of quarter-sawn timber are wasteful and therefore only used to produce material
for high-class joinery work.
Offcuts: A tree is tapered and cylindrical, whereas boards and planks are rectangular. This results in the outer pieces (offcuts) with
tapered edges and less than full dimensions throughout the length.
1)PLAIN SAWING (THROUGH AND THROUGH)
The log is cut in parallel cuts in the direction of the grain.
The saw cut forms a tangent to one of the annual rings. There are several variations of plain sawing
Advantages:
 The log is easily-manipulated and frequent turning is not required.
 There is no waste of timber.
 It is a cheaper method
Disadvantages:
 It has the disadvantage that shrinkage may tend to warp and split the boards.
 They also tend to absorb more moisture from the air which can also lead to unwanted movement
2) QUARTER SAWING

This method leaves the annual rings of the converted timber meeting the face of the board at 45 º or more. It is important to note
that the log must be rotated each time a cut is taken. This method can bring the best features in wood as it produces silver grain
which has clearly defined medullary rays
1. Advantages
 An attractive grain pattern is produced
 Boards are more stable and shrink less
 Boards wear more evenly, important for flooring

2. Disadvantages
 Expensive, as the log has to be first quartered then turned for every cut.
 Because the log is quartered then cut again narrower boards are produced
 AIR(NATURAL)
SEASONING

VISUAL AND
TRANSPOPRTATION SAWING INTO
FELLING KILN SEASONING MECHANICAL PRESERVATION FINAL PRODUCT
SEASONABLE SIZES
GRADING

ELECTRICAL
SEASONING

SEASONING OF TIMBER
Can be defined as the process of reducing the moisture content of timber to the fibre saturation point in order to prevent the timber
from possible fermentation and also increase the strength of the timber. It is also the reduction of moisture content of timber to that
of the surrounding air .Timber dries to a moisture content approximately equal to the average humidity of the surroundings. Rapid
seasoning after removal of the bark should be avoided since it causes case hardening and increases resistance to penetration of
preservatives. The moisture content is the quantity of moisture contained in the timber expressed as a % of the dry mass.

Fibre saturation point is the condition when all the cells are empty but the cell walls are still saturated (usually 23-27%). All
timber, being hygroscopic, attempts to achieve an equilibrium moisture content with its environment. After felling the wood will
lose the water held within the cell cavities without shrinkage, until the fibre saturation point is reached then the cells will be empty.
Subsequently, water will be removed from the cell walls and during this process the timber becomes harder and shrinkage occurs.
As cellulose is a hygroscopic material the timber will eventually equilibrate at a moisture content dependent upon the atmospheric
conditions.

Subsequent reversible changes in dimension are called movement. The controlled loss of moisture from green timber to the
appropriate moisture content is called seasoning. The primary aim of seasoning is to stabilise the timber to a moisture content that
is comparable with the equilibrium conditions under which it is to be used, so that subsequent movement will be negligible. If the
moisture loss is too rapid then the outer layers shrink while the centre is still wet and the surface sets in a distended state (case
hardening) or opens up in a series of cracks or checks

METHODS OF SEASONING TIMBER

1. Air (Natural) Seasoning
The log of wood is sawn into planks of convenient sizes and stacked under a covered shed in cross-wise direction in alternate
layers, so as to permit drying without artificial assistance. The timber stack is supported 450mm clear of the ground and adjacent
boards in each layer are kept separate. Timber, protected from both the ground and rain, is stacked in layers separated by strips of
wood called stickers which control the passage of air. The air, warmed by the sun and circulated by the wind, removes moisture
from the surface of the timbers. The timber ends are protected by waterproof coatings (bituminous paint) to prevent rapid moisture
loss which could result in splitting. The duration of drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of the planks.
The advantages are that it is a cheap methods with very little loss in the quality of the timber. The disadvantage is that both timber
and space are immobilised for long periods i.e. the rate of drying is very slow. Moisture movement: Wood is an anisotropic
material, with different moisture movements along the three principal axes: tangential, longitudinal and radial. The highest
moisture movement is tangential to the grain, followed by radial. The least is along the grain.

2. Kiln Drying (Seasoning)

A form of artificial seasoning. Adopted for rapid seasoning on a large scale to any moisture content. Method employs a heated,
ventilated and humidified oven. Used to reduce moisture content to below 17%. The heated moisture in the wood moves rapidly to
the surface where it is removed by circulating the air. Effected by heating within a closed chamber which can be programmed to a
precise schedule of temperature and humidity. Drying to any desired moisture content can be achieved without a significant
degradation of the timber. In order to reduce costs timber is timber is air seasoned to fibre saturation point followed by kiln drying
to the required moisture content
It is necessary to humidify the circulating air in order to control the rate of evaporation and this humidity is lowered as the drying
proceeds.
Essentials of a kiln:
i. Heat, under proper control and sufficient to raise the temperature to the maximum required.
ii. Humidification, also under proper control and sufficient to meet all requirements.
iii. Air circulation, uniform and of sufficient velocity.
iv. Air interchange, controlled at will.

3. Electric Seasoning
The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch the electrodes.
Current is passed through the set up. Since wood is a bad conductor of electricity it resists the flow of current, generating heat in
the process resulting in its drying. The disadvantage of the process is that wood may split

PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
 The properties of wood are based on the grains in the timber.
 The arrangement of grains and the way some forces are applied on the timber structures affects the strength of the wood.
 The properties are mainly divided into physical properties and chemical properties.
 The physical properties are the ones that are usually used to decide when to use timber as a structural component.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1 Specific Gravity (SG):
 Generally, specific gravity (SG) is directly proportional to the major strength properties of wood are directly related. SG
for the major usually used structural species ranges from roughly 0.30 to 0.90.
 Higher allowable design values are assigned to those pieces having narrower growth rings (more rings per inch) or more
dense latewood per growth ring and, hence, higher SG.
 For a structure that is designed to support large loads, timber with higher SG is used.
 Low SG timber can be used for finishes and as a light support material
Hardwoods have generally higher SG as compared to softwoods.
2 Moisture Content (MC) and Shrinkage
 Wood’s reaction to moisture provides more problems than any other factor in its use.
 Wood is hygroscopic, that is, it picks up or gives off moisture to equalize with the relative humidity and temperature in the
atmosphere.
 As it does so, it changes in strength, bending strength can increase by about 50% in going from green wood to a moisture
content (MC) found in wood members in a residential structure, for example.
 Wood also shrinks as it dries and swells as it picks up moisture, with warpage potential

3 Thermal Properties/Temperature Effects

 Although wood is an excellent heat insulator, its strength and other properties are affected adversely by exposure for
extended periods to temperatures above about 38°C
 The combination of high relative humidity or MC and high temperatures, as in unventilated attic areas increase the
potential for attack by decay organisms
 Simple remedies and caution usually prevent any problems
 At temperatures above 104°C, wood takes on a thermoplastic behavior.
  This characteristic, which is rarely encountered in normal construction, is an advantage in the manufacture of some
reconstituted board products, where high temperatures and pressures are utilized.
4 Environmentally friendly
 Timber is the most environmentally responsible building material
 Timber has low production energy requirements and is a net carbon absorber. Timber is a renewable resource
 Well-managed forests produce timber on a sustained continuous basis, with minimal adverse effects on soil and water
value
5 Strong and lightweight
 Timber is strong, light and reliable making timber construction simpler and safer than steel or concrete construction
 A comparison with steel and concrete shows that pine structural timber, for example, has a strength for weight ratio 20
percent higher than structural steel
 It is four to five times better than unreinforced concrete in compression
 The lightweight structures possible in wood confer flow-on advantages in terms of reduced foundation costs, reduced
earthquake loading and easier transport
 Building components and complete constructions are simple and safe to erect
 Timber is cheaper to deconstruct or reuse at the end of a building is useful life
6 Strong and lightweight
 Strength of timber depends on the size of the stressed volume with deep beams are weaker than shallow ones, wide and
long tension members are weaker than narrow and short ones
 Wood and wood products experience a significant loss of strength and stiffness when loaded over a period of time
 The effect of ten years load duration may amount to a strength loss of approximately 40 % for solid wood and
approximately 80 % for some wood based panel products
 This phenomenon of creep-rupture –often called the duration of load (DOL) effect –has therefore been subject of particular
interest for everyone in the timber engineering community concerned with safe and efficient engineering design
7 Safe
 Timber has low toxicity and therefore requires no special safety precautions to work with it, other than normal protection
from dusts and splinters
  Timber frame construction requires little in the way of heavy lifting equipment making building sites safer work places
 Timber being non-conductive has obvious benefits in terms of electrical safety.
Modern timber construction has increased fire resistance due to incombustible linings protecting light frames
8 Flexible
 A particular feature of timber is the flexibility of design forms and finishes that can be used.
 This flexibility also extends to the ease with which existing buildings can be added to or modified to suit changing
circumstances.
 User friendly versatile timber gives building designers creative freedom providing homeowners with flexible design
choices
 High levels of thermal insulation are incorporated within the construction, reducing heating costs and conserving energy
9 Durable
 Well built, coated and maintained timber structures are highly durable. The oldest known timber building - Horyuji temple
- was built around 600AD .Meaning it’s still standing an impressive 1300years after construction
 The key to long life is protection from weather, insect attack and decay, through well-established design detailing, surface
coating systems, selection of durable species, and preservative treatment processes
 In termite-prone areas, all buildings are vulnerable to termite attack of contents, so protection is needed regardless of
construction materials.
 The system may include physical or chemical barriers or in higher risk areas, a termite resistant treated timber or naturally
termite resistant frame may also be chosen
10 Cost effective
 Comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing systems indicate that, in terms of direct building expenses.
 timber frames are consistently the most cost-effective solution
 However, comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing systems indicate that, in terms of direct building
expenses, timber frames are consistently the most cost-effective solution.
 However, this price stability is questionable for materials such as steel, which consume considerable amounts of fossil
fuels in their manufacture
 The smelting of steel is heavily reliant on the continued availability of cheap sources of fossil fuels, a scenario which is
becoming highly uncertain in an increasingly energy and security conscious world
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Wood when compared to other construction materials is considered to be chemically inert
 Though wood is chemically inert as compared to other materials but is affected by some acids and bases
 Timber resist many chemicals
 Some species have proven very useful for food containers (berry boxes and crates) because they are nontoxic and impart no
taste to the foods contained therein
 Wood structures have also found widespread use as storage facilities for salt and fertilizer chemicals
DEFECTS IN TIMBER

Timber may include defects that affect either its appearance, mechanical properties, or both. These defects can have many causes,
such as natural growth of the wood, wood diseases, animal parasites, too rapid seasoning, or faulty processing. Common defect
types are given below;
Knots
Are branch bases that have become incorporated into the wood of the tree trunk or another limb. Knots degrade the mechanical
properties of lumber, affecting the tensile and flexural strengths. However, the presence of sound, tight knots may increase the
compressive strength, hardness, and shear characteristics of the wood.
Shakes
Are lengthwise separations in the wood occurring between annual rings. They develop prior to cutting the lumber and could be due
to heavy winds.
Wane
Is bark or other soft material left on the edge of the board.
Sap Streak
Is a heavy accumulation of sap in the fibers of the wood, which produces a distinctive streak in color.
Common defects in lumber: (a) knots, (b) shakes, (c) wanes, (d) checks and splits, (e) bowing, (f) crooking, (g) cupping, and (h)
twisting.
ORGANISMS THAT DEGRADE WOOD
a) Fungi

Most forms of decay and sap stains are the result of fungal growth. Fungi need four essential conditions to exist: food, proper
range of temperature, moisture, and oxygen. Fungi feed on either the cell structure or the cell contents of woody plants, depending
on the fungus type. The temperature range conducive for fungal growth is from 5°C to 40°C (40°F to 100°F). Moisture content
above the fiber saturation point is required for fungal growth. Fungi are plants and, as such, require oxygen for respiration. Fungi
attack produces stains and/or decay damage. To protect against fungal attack, one of the four essential conditions for growth needs
be removed. The most effective protection measure is to keep the wood dry by using coatings or by correct placement during
storage and in the structure. Fungi can also be contained by treating the wood fibers with chemical poisons through a pressure
treatment process. Construction procedures that limit decay in buildings include the following:
1. Building with dry lumber that is free of incipient decay and excessive amounts of stains and molds
2. Using designs that keep the wood components dry, using wood treated with preservatives
3. Using a heartwood from decay-resistant species in sections exposed to above-ground decay hazards
4. Using pressure-treated wood for components in contact with the ground.
b) Bacteria
Bacteria causes “wet wood” and “black heartwood” in living trees and a general degradation of lumber. Wet wood is a water-
soaked condition that occupies the stem centers of living trees and is most common in poplar, willows, and elms. Black heartwood
has characteristics similar to those of wet wood, in addition to causing the center of the stem to turn dark brown or black. Bacterial
growth is sometimes fostered by prolonged storage in contact with soils. This type of bacteria activity produces a softening of the
outer wood layers, which results in excessive shrinkage when redried.
c) Insects
Beetles and termites are the most common wood-attacking insects. Several types of beetles, such as bark beetles, attack and
destroy wood. Storage of the logs in water or a water spray prevents the parent beetle from boring. Quick drying or early removal
of the bark also prevents activity by beetle attack. Damage can be prevented by proper cutting practices and dipping or spraying
with an appropriate chemical solution. Termites are perhaps the most destructive organism that attacks wood.The annual damage
attributed to termites exceeds losses due to fires. Termites enter structures through wood that is close to the ground and is poorly
ventilated or wet. Prevention is achieved by painting and otherwise prohibiting insect entry into areas of unprotected wood through
the use of screening, sill plates, and sealing compounds.
d) Marine Organisms
Damage by marine boring organisms in the United States and surrounding oceans is principally caused by shipworms, pholads,
Limnoria, and Sphaeroma. These organisms are almost totally confined to salt or brackish waters.
WOOD PRESERVATION
Paints, petroleum-based solutions, and waterborne oxides (salts) are the principle types of wood preservatives. The degree of
preservation achieved depends on the type of preservative, the degree of penetration, and the amount of the chemical retained
within the wood. Paints are applied on the surface, while the other preservatives are applied under pressure to increase penetration
into the wood.
a) Petroleum-Based Solutions
Coal-tar creosote, petroleum creosote, creosote solutions, and pentachlorophenol solutions are the oil-based preservatives. These
preservatives are very effective, but are environmentally sensitive. They are commonly used where a high degree of environmental
exposure exists and human contact is not a concern. Applications include utility poles, railroad ties, and retaining walls.
b) Waterborne Preservatives
The typical solutes used in waterborne preservative mixtures are ammoniacal copper arsenate, chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
and ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate. The advantages of the waterborne preservative over the oil-based are cleanliness and its
ability to be painted. The disadvantage of these treatments is their removal by leaching when exposed to moist conditions over
long periods of time. These preservatives are also environmentally sensitive and must be applied under carefully controlled
conditions. The level of potential danger to humans from contacting wood pressure treated with CCA is controversial. Trade
groups are supportive of the product, but several other agencies see potential health effects. By 2003, the wood preservation
industry agreed to stop using arsenic-based preservatives for products intended for residential use or direct human contact. CCA
can still be used for commercial applications and permanent foundations. Although CCA was removed from the market, the EPA
is not calling for the removal of it from existing structures. The most common replacement preservatives are ammoniacal copper
quat, or ACQ, followed by copper azole, and borate. Borate may be used in home foundation sill plates and other “dry”
applications, but borate-treated wood is not appropriate for outdoor uses (Forintek, 2002).
Application Techniques
Preservatives are applied by superficial treatment or by fluid penetration processes. Superficial treatment techniques include
coatings applied by painting, spraying, or immersion. Liquid penetration into a porous solid is by capillary action and is a function
of surface tension, angle of contact, time, temperature, and pressure. Pressure-treated wood has greater resistance to degradation
than surface treated wood. The preservative is forced into the entire structure of the wood. By thoroughly treating the entire cross
section of the wood, decay can be eliminated for an extended period of time. Some vendors of pressure-treated wood provide a
lifetime warranty for their products when in direct contact with the ground. The key to ensuring long life is the amount of
preservative retained in the wood. Table 10.5 gives the minimum retention requirements for different treatments and applications
of Southern Pine lumber, timber, and plywood.
NR: Not recommended.
For a complete list of wood products see the American Wood Preservative Association (AWPA) standards.