INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

GENETICS

Genetics could be the foundation of life, with out it, existence would be impossible.
Inheritance is given by the transmission of genes, from parent to offspring, this will
describe the physical appearance and the molecular composition. Genotype sets the
stage for different characteristics or traits, the expression of this set the basis for the
animals worth, so its necessary to produce animals with he necessary genotype for
maximum value in the target market. Producer and consumer preferences set the
pace for type in the animals that are produced, however priorities on each side are
often different so his is whet genetics appear and is Usually referred as animal
breeding, it is science that helps on the quest to breed better animals, leading to
remarkable changes in animals species.

The gene.
Nucleus of the cell contains the chromosomes that contains smaller units called
genes and these contain the information that control basically all life processes. A
gene is a segment of DNA that code for a specific protein ant the arrangement of
these provides the basis for inheritance.
DNA consists of two strands comprises of alternating sequences of a sugar
(deoxyribose) and phosphate bonds. At each sugar there is a bridge of nitrogen
bases (purines like adenine and guanine) and (pyrimidines like thymine and
cytosine) that are always combined, A and T with double bond and G and C with
triple bonds. The combination of deoxyribose, phosphate and one of the bases is
called nucleotide and several nucleotides constitute a gene which is specifies the
chemical composition of proteins, and this are the end product. The entire genetic
material it’s the genome, this vary in size, with simpler organism having genomes
smaller than those of complex.

There are potential variations in chromosomes numbers because of the many

processes that must first take place before inheritance such as
- Polyploidy: individual has more than one full set of chromosomes
- Aneuploidy: Monosomy (if an organism is missing a chromosome) or Trisomy (if an
organism contains an extra chromosome)

DNA replication is the process of making a copy of DNA molecule, and must occur
accurately so the daughter cell inherits the same information. The process has
different steps, first unzipping the existing DNA strand between base pair and then
the DNA polymerase un presence of an RNA primer forma sugar-phosphate bonds
between adjacent nucleotides producing a complete DNA molecule just like the
initial.

DNA is located in the nucleus, but proteins are in ribosomes located in the cytoplasm
so DNA serves as a template and codes for the manufacture of RNA (transcription)
that its processed to remove sections of base pairs from the primary transcript that
are not part of the coding sequence for the specific protein needed, this is the mRNA
but the DNA also codes a second RNA called tRNA that collects the aa needed to
build the protein. So the mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome and
is used as a template to manufacture the protein, then the tRNA moves into the
cytoplasm and attaches to the aa for which each is code, next, the ribosome moves
along the length of the mRNA and align with the tRNA witch brings the the aa to the
chain, they bond to each other and a chain of aa sequences is constructed
(translation) when the tRNA comes to a three base sequence that don’t match , the
process is complete and the result is a protein.

Principles of inheritance.
Mendel in 1866 discovered the principles of inheritance working with garden peas.
The various forms of a given gene are called alleles, each one causes the production
of a different protein and differences in the way the trait is expressed. Chromosomes
that have the same size and shape and occur in pairs are called homologous
chromosomes. The chromosomes containing the genetic info of an individual differs
among species. An animal that has matching alleles at a given point on the
chromosome or locus is said homozygous (AA) a one with different alleles is
heterozygous (Aa).

The method by witch these alleles are passed is called inheritance, each parent
produce gametes that are the reproductive cells and within each is a single allele for
each gene, when gametes are being produced, the parental alleles separate so that
each gamete contains only half of the genetic code of each parent. Two principles
come into play:

- Segregation: alleles separate so that only one is found in any particular gamete
- Independent assortment: separation of a pair of genes is independent of the
separation of other pairs

These two principles when combined provides a means for randomization of alleles
within the gametes.

When the gametes combine to produce an individual, there alleles are brought
together and coding for a protein begins. Any given gamete contains one allele for
each gene in the genotype (entire composition of the animal)

Sex determination: Male gametes are sperm and the female gametes are eggs. In
mammals female contain a pair of X chromosome and makes hace and X and Y
chromosomes. In the avian species, female gametes contains pairs that do not
match, making her the parent that passes on the chromosomes that carries the
information for sex differentiation and the male passes on only one type of sex
chromosomes.

Each normal body tissue cell (somatic cell) has two sex chromosomes, every
somatic cell has autosomes (other than sex chromosomes), in humans that has 46
chromosomes, two are sex chromosomes that are haploid and he other 44 are
autosomes that are soplos number of chromosomes.
Another feature is the centromere witch is located anywhere along the chromosome
and servers as the point of attachment.

Mitosis: the process of somatic cell division, responsible for everyday maintenance
of he body for growth. A diploid cell goes under division that allows the production
of two diploid cells.

Meiosis: gametogenesis, the development of sex cells, is a reductional process,

responsible for forming cells that contain half of the genetic message. It has 2 steps,
first: one diploid cell divides into two haploid cells and second: a replication of each
of the two haploid cell to produce four haploid.
When combined produce a cell with the full genetic complement of DNA.

Gene expression
Dominant and recessive
Once the alleles have combined to determine the genetic makeup of an individual
the methods by witch they become interpreted into traits can be:

- Dominant: express themselves over recessive alleles, so it masks the recessive

and the phenotype is representative of he dominant allele
- Recesive: to have a phenotype representative, both of the inherited alleles must be
of the recessive form
- Coodominance: An exception to the rule when neither allele masks the other and
both are expressed in the phenotype.
- Incomplete dominance: no dominance exists and a heterozygous individual will
appear as and intermediate between two alleles
- Epistasis: many genes are not actually inherited independently, the expression of
one gene is influenced by the presence of another.

Múltiples alleles: only two alleles can exisist on each locus, how ever there could be
many alleles of a gene present in a population

Test crossing: can determine whether the animal is homozygous or heterozygous. If

an offspring is produced with the recessive phenotype, then it must be homozygous
recessive, witch means the test animal is heterozygous. If all offspring are produced
with the dominant phenotype, we can conclude the test animal is homozygous
dominant (true breeding)

Sex related inheritance: Some genes are located only on the X or Y chromosome,
inherited only when that respective chromosome is passed on.

Sex influenced inheritance: traits they are carried on the autosomes, so phenotypes
are not expressed in the same way in the two sexes.
Sex limited traits: traits that are unique to only one sex, both sexes carry genes for
these traits but only one sex is capable of expression

Population genetics
Gene frequency: Proportion of loci in a population that contain a particular allele.
Genotype frequency: how often a particular genotype occurs in a population.
Phenotypic frequency: proportion of individuals that express a particular phenotype

Animal breeding: is about using the principles o genetics to make improvement in a

livestock species. It was Bakewell from England, the first anima breeder.

Genetic merit of the population is influenced by many interactions among genes, as

well as the frequency of genes in the population.

How gene frequencies remain and how they change?

Mutation: changes in the chemical composition of gene that altere DNA, producen
new alleles that can affect gene and genotypic frequencies.

Genetic drift: changes in gene frequency can be controlled in the amount by the size
of the population

Migration: bringing new breeding stock into a population, with these method we can
make large changes in gene frequencies.

Bringing a new sire into a population si a way to cause migration, but only if the sires
genotype is different from that of the existing population.

Selection: Process of allowing some animals to be parents more than others

Natural selection: some animals are more suited and or have more natural
opportunity to be parents.

Artificial selection: Management decisions to allow certain animals more opportunity

to mate and produce offspring than others (his is limited by the rate at which offspring
are produced or by the generation interval)

In a large random mating population where mutation, migration and selection are
nonexistent, gene and genotypic frequencies will remain stable

Quantity vs quality traits

Qualitative: Phenotypes can be classified into groups (ex: coat color and the
presence of horns)

Quantitative: Numerically measured and usually controlled by many genes, each

having small effect.

If there is no dominance at a locus, it is referred to as additive gene action

Just as the type of inheritance affects a specific trait, the environment in which the
animal is raised has an effect on the expression of quantitative traits so phenotype
si a factor of the genotype and environmental interaction.

Heritability
The proportion of the difference in individuals that is due to additive genes effects
Is a measure of the proportion of phenotypic variation that can be passed form parent
to offspring.

Indicator of the amount of genetic progress that can be achieved by beholding

superior parents, from zero to one.

First step is to calculate a selection differential that is the phenotypic advantage of

those chosen to be parents.

Traits with higher heritability estimates can be selected with much greater efficiency
lowly heritable traits don’t express much change from generation to generation from
selection.

As a rule:
Highly heritable: carcass merit traits (0.4-0.6)
Moderately heritable: growth traits (0.2-0.4)
Low heritable: reproductive ability (0-0.2)
Making genetic improvement in a population, animals begin to share similarities in
their genetic composition.
The relationship between two animals can be though as the proportion of genes they
are expected to have in common

The further back in the animals pedigree a relative exists, the smaller the value of
the relationship

Systems of mating.
- Inbreeding: mating of closely related individuals, its used to increase homozygosity
for desired traits, it decreases the variation in genes, as this happens, detrimental
recessive genes also begin to express themselves because of the increase in
homozygosity so it’s important to maintain control so that expression of bad genes
can be minimized while allowing more expression of the good ones
- Linebreeding: the purpose is to concentrate the genes of an outstanding ancestor
in the linen red individuals. It may result in mild inbreeding if the common ancestor
appears three to four generations back in the pedigree. However, the inbreeding can
be intense with parent offspring matings or after several generations of linebreeding
to the same common ancestor
- Outbreeding: the process of mating lessrelated individuals, it produces individuals
that have more heterozygous gene pairs, this increases the vigor in the animals
(heterosis or hybrid vigor), superiority of an outbred individual relative to the average
performance of the parent population. Traits that are lowly heritable show high levels
of heterosis, contrary to high heritable traits.
- Crossbreeding: Marín animals from different breeds, taking advantage of
outbreeding. The success depends on the quemo tu of the animals used in the
system and wether or not their genetics complement each other so it’s essential to
use breeds that complement each other.

Different methods can be used to evaluate how much genetic contribution an animal
will have in any breeding scheme, to evaluate parents and determinate an estimate
of their breeding value (based on record of the individuals own performance as well
as the performance of all relatives). With this we can get an idea of the additive
genetic merit of an individual and in selecting animals that have the opportunity to
reproduce.

ANIMAL BREEDING

Is the application of genetic principles in the selection of animals that will be parents
of the next generation this si son the productivity of the food produced species can
increase

Beef cattle genetic improvement

Modern breeding requieres selecting for a balance of production performance and
end producto merit to meet consumer expectation
Bulk selection is a primary area in which producers can make directional change in
their herd genetics
The areas of economic importance include mature size, calf growth, maternal
perforce and carcass traits.

Heritability: indicates he proportion of the differences between individuals that is

genetic, isn’t constant, it varies from herd to herd and can vary within a herd if the
management or the system of mating changes
Low heritability: reproductive traits
Moderate heritability: growth traits
High heritability: carcass traits
Reproduction is the most important factor in the efficiency of most beef enterprises,
so it must be considered.

Genetic correlations:
Refers to a situation in witch the or many of the same genes control two traits,
magnitude may vary between -1 and +1 (breeding values tend to vary), and 0 being
tamest different genes influence the two traits, uncorrelated
To design the genetics of the beef animal for a particular production level, selection
objectives must balance many traits of economic importance.

Performance information:
To make genetic change in a desired direction, producers have to know the current
performance level of their herd.
Performance program come in any forms, the challenge is to choose performance
records that are useful in making management decisions.
Commercial producers need an effective program that encourage the culling of
inferior animals and selection of herd replacement breeding stock
A good understanding is the first prioritY, then the sire selections are made using
EPDs to move the herd in the desired direction.

Breeding value is used as an estimate of the transmitting ability of an animal, is

calculated from info on an individuals performance and the performance of relatives,
and this info comes from purebred breeders who report data to the national herd
improvements program.

A mathematical model is used to predict breeding values and this is used to calculate
the EPD: Half of the breeding value is equal to the expected progeny difference
EPDs let us compare or rank the superiority of individual animals, each individual
me members can have EPD values calculated so it can be used to compare.

Breed average: EPD isn’t a comparison to an average bull, a zero EPD represents
the average genetic merit of animals in the database, represents an historic base
point so if the breed has made any change for a trait, the average changes

Accuracy: reliability associated with EPD. Expressed between 0-1. High (>0.7) and
Low (<0.4). Non parent animals have lower accuracy because no progeny
information contributes to their EPD.

Possible change: measure of the potential error associated with EPD values,
expressed as + of - pounds of EPD.

As more info is accumulated, accuracy increases and possible changes sismo

O’Shea

Sire summaries: include a sampling of the available genetic material in each breed.
Such as:

-Maternal trait
-Milk
-Combined maternal
-Carcass
-Mature size

Use of EPDs
For selection in seedstock herds: purebred producers need to consider EPD even
though this could also lead to problems reaching desirable quality grade if they
emphasize a single trait
For selection in commercial herds: producers should demand information from
purebred. At first they have the responsibility of chosen the appropriate breed for
their program

Pedigree estimates:
Data on some bills appear in catalogs with limited of no EPD info, this may be
particularly true for young bulls. By using EPDs on animals in the young bulls
pedigree and the knowledge of how breeding value is transmitted, EPDs can be
computed
By understanding this halving nature of inheritance, the EPDs on ancestors we can
compute pedigree

Across-Breed:
For commercial bull buyers using more than one brad of bull, but to compare cattle
of different breeds additional info is requested, such as:

- Mean breed differences in the environments of interest

- Base year or zero EPD point for the breeds of interest
- Expected effects of heterosis for matings between the breeds of interests

Cross breeding:
To assist beef producers in their choices of breeds, studies try to categorize breeds
into general biological types

Dairy cattle genetic improvement.

Many know techniques for evaluating genetic merit have been derived and tested
initially on diary cattle records. To balance traits of economic importance to address
some of the following goals:

- Achieve profitable milk yield levels.

- Monitor milk composition
- Generate profitable replacements animals that are productive under the stress of
high production levels.
- Sustain and improve cow longevity in the herd.

Association among traits.

A combination of genetics and environment plays a role In expression of the trait,
such as weight or height. Genetic correlations are more difficult to visualize. When
a genetic correlation exists between two traits, it means that the correlation dos not
equal 0.

The genetic improvement program for every dairy herd must have goals to design
the cow herd with the genetics for making a profit. Within-herd genetics and
production performance must be evaluated and scrutinized through effective record
keeping.
There is a DHI system of genetic valuation consists of compraron aire daughters
with contemporaries in the same herd. Superior herds are chosen based on their
ability to pass specific traits to their offspring “.
Animal model.

Compleja lactation yield Information for milk, fat, protein, somatic cell score,
productive life, and pedigree or relationship among animals. The animal model
procedure produces predictions, of the breeding value of an animal. Breeding value
is defined as the value of an individual as a parent. Parents transfer a random sample
of the genes to their off spring. Breeding value gives an estimate of the transmitting
ability of the parent. Some basic values generated from the evaluation are as follows:

- PTA - one half the breeding values is equal to the predicted transmitting ability
.provide a prediction of future purge ft performance of one individual compared to
another individual within a breed for a specific trait.
- REL- reliability is the measure of accuracy or the amount of information in an
evaluation.
- PA parent average is the average of the sire an dam if he individual in question.
Predicted transmitting ability net merit dollars: is an economic index. Combines
evaluation for milk, fat, protein somatic cell score productive life.

Sire selection.
The somatic cell score is a too that allows predícete to select bulls based on their
ability to sire daughters with lower rates of mastitis.
To increase the genetic potential of the herd, follow a few basic rules:

- Use an index such as net merit dollars to weight.

- Use 7 to 10 sires per herd.
- Select sires from the top 10% based on an index such as nm$ or TPI
- Use sires with 70% reloading or higher.
- Consider calving ease bulls for heifers.
- Young sires as a group may be used for up to 30% of semen purchases.

Swine genetic improvement.

The high reproductive rate and short generation interval in swine allow rapid genetic
progress for economically important traits.
The swine industry capitalizes on te advantages of heterosis, particularly maternal
heterosis benefits for reproduction. Crossbred sows are used in rational
crossbreedign systems as well as the maternal side of the terminal cross programs.

The sheep producer is in the business of producing two products, lambs and wool,
as efficiently as possible. The major areas of economic importance to the sheep
producer are lamb growth, prolificacy, and, in some areas, wool quality and quantity.
Breed and breed types.
Breed of sheep available in the US can range from fine-wool breeds, to long-wool
breeds, to hair breeds. Breeds are grouped together and classified. The most
common classification is by use: eww breed, dual- purpose breed, and ram breed.
Ewe breeds.
Are generally the fine wool, white faced breeds and those that were develop from
crosses of the fine-wool breeds (Rambouillet, Merino) with long wool breeds
(Lincoln, border leiscester) ornthe highly profilic breeds (Finnsheep, Romanov)

Ram breeds.
Are the meat type breeds used primarily as terminal sires on the ese breeds or dual-
purpose breed to increase lamb gain and carcass quality for market lamb production.

Dual purpose breeds.

Are those That can be used as either ese breeds or ram breeds; depending on the
environment and production goals of the production.

Selection here it hability.

Describes how easily genetic improvement can be made. Is the proportion of
difference among animals for a trait due to genetic difference, rather than an
environmental factors. Breeding value depends heavily on additive genetic variance.
The higher the the heritability of a trait, the quicker improvements can be made
through selection for that trait.

Cross breeding systems in sheep involve mating ewes and rams. Of different breed
or breed crosses to produce offspring that’s are superior in performance to that of
either of the parent stock. Systematic utilize heterosis. This is defined as the
superiority of crossbred individual relative to the average performance of the
purebreds included the cross. It’s imperative for the sheep produces r to use
crossbreeding systems to improve the economic efficiency of the comercios sheep
operation.

AIMAL HEALTH

It’s a challenge obligation and a necessity to animal stewardship that animals be

maintained as near to a constant state of health as possible. It’s a challenge for the
Constance vigilance of some especies, and obligation because are useful for the
prevention and treatment of some disease.

Disease: is any state other than state of complete health.

Clinical sign: is whats the animal exhibits that is different from the normal function.

Lesión: change in body organs.

Etiology: the cause of the disease.

Causes of the disease.

Animals have a natural defense system against disease under the term resistance.
That include immune system and some behavioral adaptions. This mechanism fail
sometimes. Some pathogens are so destructive because the body has virtually no
defense against them. Disease is usually caused by a combination of predisposing
causes and direct causes. That are referred to a stress factors they make the animal
more susceptible to disease. Poor nutrition predispose to infection. Poor mineral and
vitamins predispose to joint problems. Genetic leave vulnerable to many disease.

Infectious disease: diseases causes by living agents like virus, bacteria’s, fungi,
parasite. Have 4 requerimientos for their perpetuation:
1. entrance in the body of the pathogen
2. Adapt to the host environment and multiply
3. Be able to exit the host
4. Infect another host.

A disease is contagious if it is transmitted deadly from animal to animal.

Not all pathogens are contagious, some boy infect one especies or a group of or
related species.

Toxins can cause disease.

Describing disease.
When clinical sign of a disease is clinical infection. And the absence of signs are
referred as subclinical disease.
In time There are some terms. When a clinical signs has a sudden onset the term is
acute disease. Have two option the death of the animal or the recovery (leat 2-3
weeks). Chronic disease symptoms that develop over a period of weeks or even
months. Some symptoms are milk production off, “off feed” “lacking in bloom”,
performance reduced.

Diagnosis of the disease.

The propose is to identify the cause so the treatment can devised. The prices can
include:

Veterinary services available.

Mobile.
It has been traditionally direct at emergency medicine in a rural setting. Can be use
for routine or emergency care.

Drive-in animals clinics/ hospitals.

Are a model of human clinics. Have the capacity to hospitalize a patient for a
extended period of time if it’s necessary.

Programmed health management.

These programs are designed to be holistic and manage the numerous aspects of a
live stocks operation that can affect animal health. Large kennels, horse and camelid
stables, dairies, beef feedlots, and swine operation are among those most likely to
have need of these program.
Resident veterinarian.
Provide virtually all veterinary services, including programmed health management
for a single or small number of operations.

The body’s defense against disease.

The ability to ward off infection or disease is referred to immunity. The body defense
against infection is the immune system.
Inmune system.
Include physical barriers, in ante and adaptive types of immunity.

Surface barriers: Skin, mucous membranes, digestive and respiratory tract.

Innate immunity: body fist defends against infectious agents that manage to enter
the body despite surface barriers. Is made up of cells and protective mechanisms.

Adaptive immunity: allow the body to recognize infectious agents it has previously
encountered and therefore mont a quicker and strain her reaction.

Antibodies: proteins present in the blood and other bodily fluids. Are able to
recognize infectious agents and attack them.

Passive immunity: is conferred by transfer of antibodies to an animal from his

mother, either thought placenta before it is born or through colostrum shortly after it
is born. They las around 3-4 weeks and deteriorate and are cleared form the blood.

Active immunity: is acquired on its own when antibodies are made by the animals
own immune system. Can be induced by an infectious agent or an vaccine.

- Herd health
The demand of most type of animal have the absolute need for a coordinated herd
or flock health. To be successful are compound of 4 parts.

- Management.
A flexible management for smaller operations is fundamental.

- Nutrition
A sound nutritional program is an essential component of any herd health program.

- Genetics.
The elimination of genetics faults in animals should be a goal of any sound and
complete health program. A few especifica example of some undesirable genetic
trials include ocular disorders such as retinal atrophy or dysplasia. In certain dog
breeds l, bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency in Holstein cattle.
 - Prevention
One important preventive measure is the provision of proper housing or other
protection from environment. Appropriate sanitation measures decrease the
potential for exposure to parasites and other infectious agents.

These strategies are based on a variety of factors l, such as seasonal changes in

the weather, parasite life cycles, and patterns of infection.

Guidelines for herd health:

- Consult a veterinarian. Make him aware of the objectives and goals.

- Hace an operational procedure for the herd health plan. Develop a calendar with
the plan.
- Identify animals in some permanent way and keep records of vaccination history,
previous health problems, medicacations, reproductive information, and other health
related information. A variety of preformatted record books and computer- assisted
programs are available for most species. However, good useful records can be kept
in longhand are in a spiral notebook.
- Choose animals to be added to the herd from healthy, vigorous stock.
- Separate animals by such characteristics as age, source, intended function, and
so on.
- Be sure rations are balanced, mixed properly, and fed as they should be.
- Provide clean water in a way that it will stay clean.
- Vaccinate for the diseases known to be a problem for your species in your area.
- Minimize the number of people to whom your animals are exposed.
- Develop an “eye for desease”.

Animal diseases and human well-being.

Animal diseases and human health.

Certain diseases are zoonotic, which means they may be passed to humans from
birds, fowl, livestock, pests, or wild animals. Over 100 such desease have been
identified. People in close contact with animals- farmers, veterinarians, slaughter
plant workers, have a great risk for some infections. Zoonoses can be transmitted
to humans in the following mayor ways:

- Contamination of animal predicts with infectious agents or contamination of other

food products with infectious agents from an animal source.
- Direct exposure to infected animals or hay, water, or food contaminated by a
diseases animal, or exposure to fetuses or tissues expelled in cases of infected Lloyd
abortion.
- Animal or arthropod bites that can spread rabies, West Nile virus, rocky.

Ways to prevent zoonoses:

- Eradicate the disease from animal population

- Interrupting the cycle of transmission from animals to humans
- Milk pasteurized.

Bioterrorism.
An attack on the food supply or food economy might more attractive to terrorists
because of the secondary effects on humans and the potential for deniability that
might make the response or retribution less likely. Intentional disease attacks against
agricultural would be economically deviating.

Regulatory animal medicine.

Is the sum of the activities directed by the government agencies charged with these
tasks:

- keep foreign animal diseases out of te US.

- Stop or slow the spread of animal diseases across state lines.
- Eradicate selected animal diseases form the US.
- Assist in the protection of the welfare of particular groups of animals.

Federal regulation.
- Custom and border protection: 2700 agricultural specialists that were formerly
inspectors with the PPQ unit of USDA-APHIS. They work at key airports, border
station, and international mail facilities l, where they inspect commercial Cargo,
luggage, and passengers.