PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER
LESSON 1: WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
PHILOSOPHY
 2 greek words: philos (love) and sophis
(wisdom)
 Refer to a “love for wisdom”
 Is a science or discipline which uses human
reason to investigate the ultimate causes,
reasons and principles which govern all
things.
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY – is primarily concerned
with uncovering the truth through systematic
argumentation and theory. Emphasis on the use of
reason rather than faith, and an increased focused
on man as an individual. This perspective has led to
the development of a more scientific, theory-based
approach in philosophy, and a more individualistic,
self-oriented approach in analyzing the human
condition.
 For a Greek to claim himself as a wise and
learned person, he must know a lot of
things from various discipline.
SOPHISTS – an important group that emerged and
influenced learning in Ancient Greece.
PHILOSOPHOS – a term which means “lovers of
wisdom”
- For the philosophos, arguments and
discussion must be based on sound
reasoning.
THE MOST NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK
PHILOSOPHERS
PYTHAGORAS
 A mathematician and scientist
 Formulated the Pythagorean Theorem.
HERACLITUS
 Proposed that all things are based on higher
plan called logos.
 Change is a permanent aspect of the human
condition.
DEMOCRITUS
 Studied the causes of natural phenomena.
 Proposed that the material world is
composed of atom.
DIOGENES OF SINOPE
 Emphasized austerity and simplicity in life.
 Known as vocal critic
 Influenced the development of several
schools of philosophy such as Cynicism and
Stoicism.
EPICURUS
 Believed that philosophy can help man
achieve happiness and a life free from
suffering.
 Epicureanism – a school of philosophy
which believes that wisdom and simple life
living w ill result to a life free from fear and
pain.
SOCRATES
 Considers himself a “midwife” that
helped inquiring minds achieve
wisdom.
 Formulating the Socratic Method – a
means of examining a topic by devising
a series of questions that let the
learner examine and analyze his
knowledge and view regarding the
topic.
PLATO
 Theory of Forms – believes that idea are
the bases for everything that exists in the
world.
 Dialectic – a method of inquiry where two
opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt
to arrive at new knowledge.
 Academy – an institution of higher learning
which was the first of its kind in the West.
ARISTOTLE
 Believed that reality is based on what we
can sense and perceive.
 Deductive Reasoning – the process by
which specific statements are analyzed to
reach a conclusion or generalization.
ARCHIMEDES
 Applied his philosophical inquiries in
scientific study and inventions such as
mathematics and engineering.
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY DEVELOP INTO MODERN
SCIENCE
From the early developments in Ancient Greece,
various historical developments in Europe and the
Western world led to the gradual shaping of
Western Philosophy from an ancient discourse into
modern science.
 St. Thomas Aquinas
 Petrarch
 Rene Descartes
 Soren Kierkegaard
 Edmund Husserl
 Michel Foucault
>>REFER TO THE TABLE ON THE BOOK (PAGE 12) <<
PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY – consists of school of 2 Important Facts about Philosophizing:

thoughts which are often closely tied with religious
1. Philosophy is a reflective and meditative
beliefs. Described as “wisdom” literature, where
activity, and it has no designated subject
stories, sayings and texts encourage people to adopt
matter of its own.
an ethical and harmonious way of life. Social
2. A method of mental exercise on any type
relations, and the family and community are
of experience.
considered a central aspect of life. The goal of
philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and find
one’s role in society.

 Eastern philosophies are classified

according to theistic (belief in a Supreme
Being deities) and nontheistic philosophies
>>REFER TO THE TABLE ON THE BOOK (PAGE 15) <<
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY AS AN ANALYSIS OF FRAMEWORKS
 Framework – a way of thinking about the
world and is composed of the views and
beliefs of a person.
 Internal Questions – questions dealing with
our own correctness and values which can
be addressed using our own personal
frameworks.
 External Questions – seek to question the
very frameworks upon which people base
their own beliefs and views.
PHILOSOPHY AS AN EXAMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE
- The central principle in Philosophy is
examination and questioning, and this is
often applied in the analysis of frameworks
of other areas or sciences.
- Philosophy goes hand-in-hand with other
disciplines in examining their fundamental
purposes and evaluating the changes they
experience.
There is a Philosophy of Science, which seeks to
understand the fundamental principles that guide
scientific thought.Philosophy of Religion which
examines the basic tenets of any faith.Philosophy of
Education, Philosophy of Law, and Philosophy of
History – every aspect of knowledge can benefit
from the inquiring nature of philosophy.
PHILOSOPHY AS A DISTINCT OF KNOWLEDGE
 Philosophy of the Human Person – looks
into the nature of man
 Aesthetics – deals with beauty and what
makes things “beautiful”.
 Logic – is the branch of philosophy which
deals with correct reasoning.
 Epistemology – discusses the nature of
knowledge and knowing.
 Ethics – is the branch which deals with
moral questions and dilemmas
 Political Philosophy – studies governments
and deals with questions of justice, power
and the rights and obligations of citizens.
 Metaphysics – a branch of philosophy which
deals with questions regarding reality and
existence.
NEED FOR MAN TO PHILOSOPHIZE
Plato trace man’s need to philosophize to his sense
of wonder. Whenever we are confronted with an
experience, we always wonder how it came about.
Man’s over-abounding curiosity drives him to ask
questions, some of which have no definite answers.
This perspective drives the need of philosopher to
question, examine, and learn more.
Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to
doubt. Descartes was famous for rejecting old ideas,
and he even went far as doubting his ideas. In life,
we will be faced with several ideas and arguments
which present themselves as “truths”. A critical
questioning perspective is necessary in order to
determine if indeed these ideas or views are correct
or true.
Karl Jaspers traced the need to philosophize because
of experience. For he believed that man is
confronted by experience which challenge his ideas
and frameworks. He called it limit situations.
Philosophy provide us a means to understand
adverse or challenging conditions, and to rise above
them and gain new knowledge and perspectives.
The need to philosophize is driven by the love for
wisdom. To love wisdom is to have an insatiable
desire for truth. By expanding our knowledge
through philosophy, we begin to realize that learning
is unceasing – there is a lot more to learn and
experience in life.
GENERAL TYPES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. THE THEMATIC TYPES - issues
2. THE POSITIONAL TYPES - solutions
3. THE METHODOLOGICAL TYPES - methods
4. THE REGIONAL (OR GEOGRAPHICAL) TYPES
– regions or place
5. THE HISTORICAL TYPES – history
LESSON 2: DOING PHILOSOPHY
THE MAJOR QUESTIONS THAT PHILOSOPHERS
PONDER UPON
Philosophy is concerned with addressing a variety
topics and issues. The major questions in philosophy
involve the examination of the concepts of reality,
certainty, causality, and ethics.
The first major question that philosophers look into
is the question of reality.
PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER
 Reality – refers to the state of existence of
things independent of human
consciousness. Reality includes physical
things that we see, feel, taste, and smell, as
well as things that we cannot easily
perceive and comprehend. It also includes
things that already existed, things that
presently exist, and things that are yet to
exist.
 Objective and absolute reality – means
that everything exists in reality has a
specific nature or character.
 The most general categories divided reality
into concrete and abstract reality.
 Metaphysics – the branch of philosophy
which addresses questions regarding
reality.
 Ontology – branch of metaphysics that
focuses on the classification of existing
things. Topics related to the discussion
of reality include the concepts of time,
space, the nature of the universe, and
the nature of the human being or what
makes man what he is.
The second major focus of philosophical
investigation is the question of certainty.
 Certainty – refers to the perfect knowledge
that is free from error or doubt. Philosophy
seeks to achieve certainty in its quest for
knowledge. A central concept in the
question of certainty is truth. Although we
cannot be perfectly certain about all things,
philosophers use methods and approaches
to reach conclusions with certain degrees of
certainty or truth in them. Also related to
the question of certainty is the concept of
knowledge and the means by which man is
able to know.
 Rationalism – a theory on knowledge which
believes that knowledge is a priori
knowledge – based on pure reasoning
without the benefit of any experience.
 Empiricism – a theory which considers
knowledge to be a posteriori knowledge –
knowledge gained from experience.
 Skepticism – a theory that questions the
certainty of established doctrines or truths
and believes that the mind has limits in
perceiving and understanding reality – thus,
all knowledge is uncertain.
 Epistemology – the branch of philosophy
which deals with the nature and extent of
knowledge.
Philosophers also tackle the question of causality –
the cause of events and phenomena.
 Philosophers analyze causality by examining
events in the context of a cause-and-effect
relationship. In analyzing the causes of
human actions and events, philosophers are
able to determine the factors and
motivation behind them. Closely related to
the concept of causality are questions
regarding the origin of things. Another
important concept related to causality is
purpose or the explanation of thing’s
function or goal, also refers to the reason
for a thing’s existence. A thing’s purpose
often considered its final or ultimate cause.
 A concept related to causality is agency,
which is the capacity of man to govern or
control his actions.
 Free Will – the ability to choose among
possible actions.
 The concept of choice is an important
aspect of any discussion on agency and free
will.
 Determinism – shows that each event is
determined or influenced by a specific set
of events or factors. A related concept is
destiny, which refers to a predetermined
course of events leading to a specific
outcomes or future.
 Etiology – the branch of philosophy that
studies causality
 Teleology – the branch which deals with the
question of purpose.
The final significant problem that philosophy tackles
is the question of ethics.
 Ethics – deals with the standards of right
and wrong which define human behavior.
Ethics, as a field of study, discusses and
defines concepts and principles which are
mean to govern reasoning and action.
 Ethics or Moral Philosophy – the branch
that seeks to apply and analyze these
concepts in various situations, contexts, and
cultures, and recommends guidelines that
will govern the decisions and action of
people.
METHODS AND TOOLS THAT PHILOSOPHERS USE IN
THE CONDUCT OF THEIR STUDY
Philosophers employs these steps in their
philosophical studies or inquiries.
Systematic doubt –a systematic analysis of
arguments and statements to determine their
truthfulness.
Argument – philosophers engage in discussion and
debate on their ideas. Various perspectives on a
topic are taken into consideration and examined.
Dialectic – varied and differing ideas and
perspectives are analyzed and from the information
gathered, new ideas and views are formulated.
Philosophers may choose to employ various
methods or problem-solving devices in their
discussions.
Socratic Method - a method of analysis which uses a
series of questions to systematically analyze a topic
or issue.
Axioms – assumptions which are taken for granted
in philosophical discussion.
PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

Occam’s razor – a problem-solving device which justified by using one’s perception and
identifies the most acceptable solution as one which senses by appealing to authority or using
has the fewest assumption. reasoning.

Formal logic – it is a systematic analysis of the
validity of the arguments and statements. Logic
often entails the use of syllogisms or logical
arguments presented as a series of related
statements.
Thought experiment and allegory – these are
imagined scenarios used to illustrate a certain
problem or describe a theory.
Correspondence Theory – states that something is
true if it corresponds to what actually exists in
reality.
Coherence Theory – states that the truth of an idea
depends on its context or situation. It is also
important for an idea to be consistent with other
related information within its context for it to be
considered true.

THE PRACTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY IN OUR LIVES
The work of a philosopher requires a set of skills
which can be applied in various academic and
practical endeavors.
Philosophy requires a person to engage in analysis
and interpretation of concepts, definitions,
arguments, and problems. One can apply this critical
and analytical mindset in approaching information
gained from media and addressing certain issues
encountered in life. A philosophical approach can
help us avoid being tricked by false claims or
manipulative schemes.
Constructivist Theory – considers the influence of
social forces, culture, and history in shaping truth.
Knowledge is gained through social interaction and
what is true may possible change due to social and
historical developments.
Consensus Theory – considers knowledge as based
on agreement, and that something is true if it is
believed to be true by a significant number of
people.
Pragmatic Theory – tests the truth of an idea by
applying it in real life. This view uses tests and
experiments to verify the truth.

Problem-solving and decision making are important
aspect in life which can benefit from a knowledge
of philosophy. The ability to analyze a problem or
dilemma, identify its significant aspects, and come
up with alternative solutions is an important skill
learned through philosophy.
 A related theory, verificationism, considers
that ideas must be verified using the senses
or experience.
OTHER THINGS THAT SHOULD WE CONSIDER IN
DETERMINING THE TRUTH

A philosopher is also a good communicator who
can clearly and adequately present his or her ideas.
Discussion and debate require skill in presenting and
communicating ideas. Philosophy can also help us be
more open to new and different ideas. This
openness and acceptance help in facilitating
communication among people of different beliefs
and backgrounds.
Wisdom is one intended product of philosophizing,
and this refers to a person’s ability to apply
knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound
choices and judgements in the practical aspects of
life.
Fallacies – these are faulty arguments made by
flawed reasoning.
>>REFER TO THE TABLE ON THE BOOK (PAGE 45)<<
Facts – generally, established truths, easily verified,
and do not usually change from one situation to
another.
Opinions – more subjective and may express certain
views and beliefs.
Bias – these are tendencies or influences which
affect the views of people.
>>REFER TO THE TABLE ON THE BOOK (PAGE 46)<<

Finally, knowledge of philosophy can contributes to THE NATURE OF TRUTH

self-development. One can be a better students,
scientist, artist, professional, and citizen if one has 1. Bearers of Truth
the capacity for inquiry, critical thinking, and 2. Kinds of Truth
reflection. There are tools to develop one’s own BEARERS OF TRUTH
ideas and view and engage fully in useful activities in
the community, nation, and the world at large. 1. Sentences
2. Beliefs
LESSON 3: DETRMINING THE TRUTH 3. Statements
USE OF PHILOSOPHY TO FIGURE OUT WHAT IS TRUE KINDS OF TRUTH
The first concept about truth is rooted in an ancient 1. Empirical Truth
Greek Philosophy’s concept of knowledge as 2. Rationale Truth
“justified, true belief”. 3. Synthetic Truth
- States that something is true because you 4. Analytic Truth
believe to be true, and that there is 5. Contingent Truth
justification for such belief. A belief may be 6. Necessary Truth
7. Private Truth
PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

8. Public Truth  Ad hominem- attacking the person making

9. Subjective Truth the argument instead of the argument itself
10. Objective Truth  Appeal to force – using the threat of force
11. Universal Truth or an undesirable event to advance an
12. Relative Truth argument
13. Inductive Truth  Appeal to emotion- using emotions such as
14. Deductive Truth pity or sympathy
15. Discipline Truth  Appeal to popular – the idea is presented
16. General Method as acceptable because a lot of people
accept it
KNOWING THE TRUTH
 Appeal to tradition – the idea is acceptable
1. General Methods of Truth because it has been true for a long time
2. Particular Methods of Truth  Begging the question- assuming the thing
or idea to be proven is true; also known as
GENERAL METHODS OF TRUTH
“circular agreement”
1. Correspondence  Cause-and-effect – assuming a “cause-and-
2. Coherence effect” relationship between unrelated
3. Pragmatism events
 Fallacy of composition – assuming that
PARTICULAR METHODS OF TRUTH what is true for a part is true for the whole
1. Observation – using the 5 senses  Fallacy of division – assuming that what is
2. Reasoning – to reason out true for the whole is true for its parts.
3. Intuition –believe without reasoning or not Fact or opinion
knowing the truth
4. Mystical Experience – experience using Fact – are generally established truth, easily verified,
observation, senses, reasoning and do not easily change from one situation
5. Appeal to Authority – something is true to another.
based on the information from the expert. Opinion- are more subjective and may express
Types of knowledge certain views and beliefs
bias – are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but
1. knowledge by acquaintance – familiarity
refer to tendencies or influences which
of person or place
affect the views of people
2. knowledge by practical – skills,
experiences
3. propositional knowledge – beliefs, that Biases:
we claim to know
 Correspondence bias or attribution
Conditions of knowledge effect – tendency to judge a person’s
1. justification personality by his or her actions,
2. true without regard for external factors or
3. belief influences
 We believe that x is true  Confirmation bias – tendency to look
 X is indeed true
for and readily accept information
 X is justified as true
which fits with one’s own beliefs or
Kinds of disagreement
views and to reject ideas or views that
1. disagreement of attitude – disagreeing go against it
using preference  Framing – focusing on a certain aspect
2. disagreement of belief- of a problem while ignoring other
3. Verbal disagreement- nonsense aspect
disagreement, a misunderstanding  Hindsight – the tendency to see past
events as predictable, or to ascribe a
Knowledge vs. Opinions
pattern to historical events
Opinion – limited evidence
 Conflict of interest – a person or group
Knowledge – the truthiness of the
belief you claim. is connected to or has a vested interest
Arguments- ideas and claims are often presented in in the issue being discussed
this form. These arguments are phrased in such a  Cultural bias – analyzing an event or
way that they seem reasonable. issue based on one’s cultural standards
Fallacies – kinds of arguments that a number of
arguments may be based on faulty reasoning

-may be intentional, as the person making

the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his
or her argument