SUGARCANE BAGGESSE MATERIAL AS CEMENT

REPLACEMENT IN CONCRETE

CHAPATER 1

INTRODUCTION

The name sugarcane bagesse was formed by a French Professor Davidovits

in 1978 to represent a broad range of materials characterized by networks

of inorganic molecules (Sugarcane bagesse Institute 2010)1, 2 &3. The

sugarcane bagesses depend on thermally activated natural materials like

Meta kaolinite or industrial byproducts like fly ash or slag to provide a

source of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al). These Silicon and Aluminium is

dissolved in an alkaline activating solution and subsequently polymerizes

into molecular chains and become the binder.

Professor B. Vijaya Rangan (2008), Curtin University, Australia, stated

that, “the polymerization process involves a substantially fast chemical

reaction under alkaline conditions on silicon-aluminum minerals that

results in a three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure….” 4 The

ultimate structure of the sugarcane bagesse depends largely on the ratio of

Si to Al (Si:Al), with the materials most often considered for use in

transportation infrastructure typically having an Si:Al between 2 and 3.5 5

&6 .

The reaction of Fly Ash with an aqueous solution containing Sodium

Hydroxide and Sodium Silicate in their mass ratio, results in a material with

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three dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure consisting of Si-O-Al-

O bonds7.

Water is not involved in the chemical reaction of Sugarcane bagesse

concrete and instead water is expelled during curing and subsequent drying.

This is in contrast to the hydration reactions that occur when Portland

cement is mixed with water, which produce the primary hydration products

calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This difference has a

significant impact on the mechanical and chemical properties of the

resulting sugarcane bagesse concrete, and also renders it more resistant to

heat, water ingress, alkali–aggregate reactivity, and other types of chemical

attack 3&5.

In the case of sugarcane bagesses made from fly ash, the role of calcium in

these systems is very important, because its presence can result in flash

setting and therefore must be carefully controlled 5. The source material is

mixed with an activating solution that provides the alkalinity (sodium

hydroxide or potassium hydroxide are often used) needed to liberate the Si

and Al and possibly with an additional source of silica (sodium silicate is

most commonly used).

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The temperature during curing is very important, and depending upon the

source materials and activating solution, heat often must be applied to

facilitate polymerization, although some systems have been developed that

are designed to be cured at room temperature 2&3.

The necessity of Sugarcane bagesse Concrete, the Constituents, Properties,

Applications and Limitations are discussed in detail in this paper.

Construction is one of the fast growing fields worldwide. As per the present

world statistics, every year around 260,00,00,000 Tons of Cement is

required. This quantity will be increased by 25% within a span of another

10 years. Since the Lime stone is the main source material for the ordinary

Portland cement an acute shortage of limestone may come after 25 to 50

years. More over while producing one ton of cement, approximately one

ton of carbon di oxide will be emitted to the atmosphere, which is a major

threat for the environment. In addition to the above huge quantity of energy

is also required for the production of cement. Hence it is most essential to

find an alternative binder.

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 CHAPATER 2

LEATURE REVIEW

Sugarcane bagesse materials represent an innovative technology that is

generating considerable interest in the construction industry, particularly in

light of the ongoing emphasis on sustainability. In contrast to portland

cement, most sugarcane bagesse systems rely on minimally processed

natural materials or industrial byproducts to provide the binding agents.

Since portland cement is responsible for upward of 85 percent of the energy

and 90 percent of the carbon dioxide attributed to a typical ready-mixed

concrete (Marceau et al. 2007), the potential energy and carbon dioxide

savings through the use of sugarcane bagesses can be considerable.

Consequently, there is growing interest in sugarcane bagesse applications

in transportation infrastructure. As stated by Rangan (2008), “the

polymerization process involves a substantially fast chemical reaction

under alkaline conditions on silicon-aluminum minerals that results in a

three-dimensional polymeric chain and ring structure….” The ultimate

structure of the sugarcane bagesse depends largely on the ratio of Si to Al

(Si:Al), with the materials most often considered for use in transportation

infrastructure typically having an Si:Al between 2 and 3.5 (Hardjito et al.

2004; Davidovits 2008). This type of sugarcane bagesse will take one of the

following three basic forms (where “sialate” is an abbreviation for silicon-

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oxo-aluminate) (Davidovits 2008): Although the mechanism of

polymerization is yet to be fully understood, a critical feature is that water

is present only to facilitate workability and does not become a part of the

resulting sugarcane bagesse structure. In other words, water is not involved

in the chemical reaction and instead is expelled during curing and

subsequent drying. This is in contrast to the hydration reactions that occur

when portland cement is mixed with water, which produce the primary

hydration products calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This

difference has a significant impact on the mechanical and chemical

properties of the resulting sugarcane bagesse concrete, and also renders it

more resistant to heat, water ingress, alkali–aggregate reactivity, and other

types of chemical attack (Davidovits 2008; Lloyd and Rangan 2009).

Conceptually, the formation of sugarcane bagesses is quite simple. In the

case of sugarcane bagesses based on aluminosilicate, suitable source

materials must be rich in amorphous forms of Si and Al, including those

processed from natural mineral and clay deposits (e.g., kaolinite clays) or

industrial byproducts (e.g., low calcium oxide ASTM C618 Class F fly ash

Although sugarcane bagesse technology is considered new, the technology

has ancient roots and has been postulated as the building material used in

the construction of the pyramids at Giza as well as in other ancient

construction (Davidovits 1984; Barsoum and Ganguly 2006; Davidovits

2008). Moreover, alkali-activated slag cement is a type of sugarcane

bagesse that has been in use since the mid-20th century.

The Cement production generated carbon di oxide, which pollutes the

atmosphere. The Thermal Industry produces a waste called flyash which is

simply dumped on the earth, occupies larges areas. The waste water from

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the Chemical Industries is discharged into the ground which contaminates

ground water. By producing Sugarcane bagesse Concrete all the above

mentioned issues shall be solved by rearranging them.

Waste Fly Ash from Thermal Industry + Waste water from Chemical

Refineries = Geo polymer concrete. Since Sugarcane bagesse concrete

doesn’t use any cement, the production of cement shall be reduced and

hence the pollution of atmosphere by the emission of carbon di oxide shall

also be minimized.

Classification of cements on the basis of phase composition

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 CHAPATER 3

DESIGN AND MATERIALS OF SUGARCANE BAGESSE

CONCRETE

3.1 Concrete and environment impact

Utilization of concrete as a major construction material is a worldwide

phenomenon and the

concrete industry is the largest user of natural resources in the world

(1). This use of concrete is driving the massive global production of

cement, estimated at over 2.8 billion tonnes according to recent industry

data

(2). Associated with this is the inevitable carbon dioxide emissions

estimated to be responsible for 5to 7% of the total global production of

carbon dioxide Significant increases in cement production have been

observed and were anticipated to increase due to the massive increase in

infrastructure and industrialization in India, China and South America

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3.2 Sugarcane bagesse Concrete Development

Sugarcane bagesse concrete is concrete which does not utilize any Portland

cement in its production.

Rather, the binder is produced by the reaction of an alkaline liquid with a

source material that is rich in silica and alumina. Sugarcane bagesses were

developed as a result of research into heat resistant materials after a series

of catastrophic fires The research yielded non-flammable and non-

combustible sugarcane bagesse resins and binders Sugarcane bagesse is

being studied extensively and shows promise as a greener alternative to

Portland cement concrete. Research is shifting from the chemistry domain

to engineering applications and commercial production of sugarcane

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bagesse. It has been found that sugarcane bagesse concrete has good

engineering properties

The use of fly ash has additional environment advantages. The annual

production of fly ash in

Australia in 2007 was approximately 14.5 million tonnes of which only 2.3

million tonnes were utilized in beneficial ways; principally for the partial

replacement of Portland cement Development of sugarcane bagesse

technology and applications would see a further increase in the beneficial

use of fly ash, similar to what has been observed in the last 14 years with

the use of fly ash in concrete and other building materials.

3.3 Sugarcane bagesse Concrete Properties

High-early strength gain is a characteristic of sugarcane bagesse concrete

when dry-heat or steam cured, although ambient temperature curing is

possible for sugarcane bagesse concrete It has been used to produce precast

railway sleepers and other pre-stressed concrete building components. The

early-age strength gain is a characteristic that can best be exploited in the

precast industry where steam curing or heated bed curing is common

practice and is used to maximize the rate of production of elements.

Recently sugarcane bagesse concrete has been tried in the production of

precast box culverts with successful production in a commercial precast

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yard with steam curing. Sugarcane bagesse concrete has excellent

resistance to chemical attack and shows promise in the use

of aggressive environments where the durability of Portland cement

concrete may be of concern. This is particularly applicable in aggressive

marine environments, environments with high carbon dioxide or sulphate

rich soils. Similarly in highly acidic conditions, sugarcane bagesse concrete

has shown to have superioracid resistance and may be suitable for

applications such as mining, some manufacturing industries and sewer

systems. Commercial sugarcane bagesse sewer pipes are in use today.

Current research at Curtin University of Technology is examining the

durability of precast box culverts manufactured from sugarcane bagesse

concrete which are exposed to a highly aggressive environment with wet-

dry cycling in sulphate rich soils. The bond characteristics of reinforcing

bar in sugarcane bagesse concrete have been researched and determined to

be comparable or superior to Portland cement concrete The mechanical

properties offered by sugarcane bagesse suggest its use in structural

applications is beneficial

3.4Sugarcane bagesse Concrete Materials

3.4.1Fly Ash

The fly ash used in the production of sugarcane bagesse concrete at Curtin

University is Class F fly ash

sourced from the coal fired power station approximately 200 km south of

Perth, Western Australia. The results of X-ray fluorescence testing (XRF)

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are shown in Table 1 for the fly ash used in the research program. The class

F fly ash is characterized by high silicon and aluminum contents and low

calcium content, and a loss on ignition of 0.46.

3.4.2Alkaline solutions

Sodium based alkaline solutions were used to react with the fly ash to

produce the binder. Sodium-silicate solution type A53 was used for the

concrete production. The chemical composition Sodium hydroxide

solution was prepared by dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets in water. The

pellets are commercial grade with 97% purity thus 14 molar solutions were

made by dissolving 404 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets in 596 g of

water. The sodium hydroxide solution was prepared one to two days prior

to the concrete batching to allow the exothermically heated liquid to cool to

room temperature. The sodium silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide

solution were mixed just prior to the concrete batching. This is a different

process to that which had been employed previously at Curtin University

where the two alkaline solutions were mixed 24 hour prior to casting.

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3.5Basic mixture proportions

The basic mixture proportions used for the majority of the trial mixtures

was based upon previous research on the sugarcane bagesse mixture

proportions and is detailed. These mixture proportions are characterized by

an alkaline liquid to fly ash by mass of 0.35 and aggregate to total mass

proportion of approximately 75% with the nominal strengths, as shown in

Table 3, and elevated temperature curing in a steam room at 60oC for 24

hours. Modifications to the basic mixture proportions were used to assess

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the impact of different variables, especially aggregate grading and type as

detailed in later sections of this paper.

3.5.1Aggregates

Coarse aggregates with nominal sizes of 7mm, 10mm and 20mm granite

and dolerite, were

sourced from two local quarries. The aggregates had a particle density of

2.6 tonnes/cubic metre for the granite and 2.63 tonnes/cubic metre for the

dolerite. The dolerite aggregate was used in one series of trial mixtures to

assess the impact of aggregate type on workability and strength gain of the

sugarcane bagesseconcrete. Fine sand was sourced from a local supplier.

The sand has a low clay content (less than 4%)and fineness modulus of

1.99.Previous sugarcane bagesse research had been performed with

aggregates being prepared to surface saturated dry (SSD) condition, a state

of aggregate saturation in which the aggregate will not absorb any further

moisture but no surface water is present (Australian Standards AS 1141.5-

2000 and AS 1141.6-2000). In sugarcane bagesse concrete the necessity for

SSD was due to eliminate the absorption of the alkaline solution by the

aggregates thus reducing the polymerization of the fly ash. Conversely the

presence of excessive water may compromise the compressive strength of

the sugarcane bagesse concrete. The preparationof aggregate to surface

saturated dry condition is achieved by soaking the aggregate in water for

24hours, draining, and air drying on trays to remove surface moisture.

Preparation of significant quantities of aggregate is time consuming (4 to 7

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days) and inconsistent with commercial production techniques. The actual

moisture content of aggregates prepared to SSD condition was tested with

the view to replacing SSD aggregates with aggregates sourced from stock

piles with variable moisture contents. The results of moisture content

determination on aggregates prepared to surface saturated dry condition.

The total quantity of free water was adjusted in the mixture by the addition

or reduction of added water to the mixture; in winter when the aggregate

stockpiles were typically saturated, the aggregates were left to dry in the

laboratory for up to three days prior to casting. This technique was used for

most of the mixtures described in this paper, unless otherwise noted.

3.6Sugarcane bagesse Concrete Properties

3.6.1Fresh concrete tests

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The slump test was used to assess workability of the sugarcane bagesse

mixtures as described in AS

1012.3-1988. In addition, some mixtures were assessed using the

compacting factor test AS 1012.3-1988.

3.6.2Hardened Concrete Properties

Hardened properties of the sugarcane bagesse concrete that were assessed

were the compressive

strength using 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high cylinders consistent with

AS 1012.9-1999, and indirect tensile strength using 150 mm diameter by

300 mm cylinders for the Brazilian or splitting tensile test consistent with

AS 1012.10-2000.

3.6.3Aggregate Tests

Tests were performed on some of the aggregates. These were the aggregate

crushing value AS

1141.21-1997, flakiness index AS 1141.5 – 1999, particle size distribution

and moisture content. The results of the aggregate testing are given in Table

3.6.4Curing Regime

Thermocouples were placed in three different sized samples during one of

the sugarcane bagesseconcrete trials to measure the actual temperatures

reached inside the concrete samples; a small compression cylinder, a large

tension cylinder and a compaction beam; a small beam 350 mm long by

85mm square. Thermocouples to control the steam were located 200 mm

above the steam room floor with in the enclosed steam tent consistent with

earlier research (6,7,9,12). The steam curing regime was notionally 80 oC

for 24 hours. Figure 1 shows the results of the Nicolet data logger readings

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taken at 10second intervals in these samples over the curing period. The

ambient temperature in the concrete laboratory was recorded as a control,

indicating temperatures outside the steam room were about 17 to 20°C. The

thermocouple readings inside the compression, tensile and compaction

beam samples in the steam tent were around 50 to 70°C. The variations in

temperature correspond to the to the boiler system cutting in and out to

achieve anapproximately constant temperature in the steam tent of 80°C. At

though the steam tent thermocouple was set at 80°C, the average

temperature in the samples was only around 60°C. This is the same as the

minimum steam room temperature found to be optimum for steam curing of

sugarcane bagesse concrete (6,12).

3.7 Effect of Rest Period

Three mixtures of sugarcane bagesse concrete using the mixture

proportions shown in Table were

produced to examine the impact of delayed steam curing (rest period) on

the strength gain of the

sugarcane bagesse concrete. The trial mixtures had 75% aggregate by mass

consisting of 20 mm and 7 mm coarse aggregate and fine sand, and varying

quantities of added water as shown in Table 4. All mixtures were cured at

80 oC for 24 hours with or without a 24 hour delay or rest day before

curing. The compressive strength data at 28 days is shown in Figure 2. It

can be seen that the in clusion of a 24 hour period before curing, or rest

day, increased the compressive strength of all the mixtures. The

compressive strength for Mixture 1 with no rest day was 37.5 MPa, while 1

rest day increased this value to 46.4MPa. Mixtures 2 and 3 achieved

compressive strengths of 55.8 MP and 63.1MPa with one rest day.

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3.8Effect of Aggregate on Workability and Strength

Four trial mixtures were used to assess the influence of the proportion of

fines on the plastic and

hardened properties of the sugarcane bagesse concrete. The mixtures used a

maximum aggregate size of either10 mm granite or 20 mm dolerite, the

basic mixture was derived from the nominal 40 MPa mixture shown in

Table 3; all mixtures were cured at 60 oC for 24 hours. Comparison of the

three mixtures cast with granite with a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm

found that the decrease in fines from 35% to 27% of the total aggregate

mass resulted in an increase of slump of less than 10% and an increase in

the compaction factor of less than 5% (from 0.93 to 0.97). No segregation

of the mixture was evident with the low fines percentage however there

was a reduction in the compressive strength. The impact of the angularity

of the aggregate on workability was assessed by comparing four trial

mixtures. The mixtures displayed increasing slump and compaction factor

with decreased 7 mm angular aggregate content, similar to the behavior of

fresh Portland cement concrete.

Density

The sugarcane bagesse mixtures with different aggregate types and grading

were used to assess

density at 28 days for mixtures which were cured for 24 hours at 60o C.

The density of the sugarcane bagesse

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concrete was 2360 ±60 kg/m3.

3.9Strength Gain with Age

For 13 sugarcane bagesse mixtures, data was obtained on compressive

strength gain with age by testing compressive strength at ages of 1 day, 3

days, 7 days, 14 days and 28 days for mixtures which were cured for 24

hours at 60oC (in one instance for 36 hours). Compressive strength values

at 28 days aranged from 20 MPa to 50 MPa. A variety of aggregate types

and grading were used. The mixtures were based on the mixture

proportions of Table 3. The ratio of compressive strength at different ages

to the compressive strength at 28 days was

3.9.1Tensile – Compressive Strength Relationship

From the data bank of compressive, tensile and elastic modulus tests from

2007-2008 a total for

41 values for compressive strength and tensile strength were obtained.

Compressive strength values ranged from 19 MPa to 63 MPa. A variety of

aggregate types and grading were used. The mixtures were based on the

mixture proportions of Table curing regimes varied with no rest day or one

rest day and temperature was 60oC or 80 oC in the steam room

3.9.2 Sugarcane bagesse Precast Opportunities

Gourley and Johnson have reported the details of sugarcane bagesse precast

concrete products on a commercial scale. The products included sewer

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pipes, railway sleepers, and wall panels. Reinforcedsugarcane bagesse

concrete sewer pipes with diameters in the range from 375 mm to 1800 mm

have been manufactured using the facilities currently available to make

similar pipes using Portland cement concrete. Tests performed in a

simulated aggressive sewer environment have shown that sugarcane

bagesse concrete sewer pipes outperformed comparable Portland cement

concrete pipes by many folds. Gourley and Johnson also reported the good

performance of reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete railway sleepers in

line tracks and excellent resistance of sugarcane bagesse mortar wall panels

to fire. Siddiqui and Cheema et all demonstrated the manufacture of

reinforced sugarcane bagesseconcrete culverts on a commercial scale. Tests

have shown that the culverts performed well and met the specification

requirements of such products. In this study, reinforced sugarcane bagesse

concrete box culverts of1200 mm (length) x600 mm (depth) x1200 mm

(width), and 100 mmx200 mm cylinders were manufactured in a

commercial precast concrete plant located in Perth, Western Australia. The

drymaterials were mixed for about 3 minutes. The liquid component of the

mixture was then added, and the mixing continued for another 4 minutes.

The sugarcane bagesse concrete was transferred into a kibble from where it

was then cast into the culvert moulds (one mould for two box culverts) and

cylinder moulds. The culverts were compacted on a vibrating table and

using a hand -held vibrator. The cylinders were cast in 2

layers with each layer compacted on a vibrating table for 15 seconds. The

slump of every batch of fresh concrete was also measured in order to

observe the consistency of the mixtures.

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After casting, the cylinders were covered with plastic bags and placed

under the culvert moulds. A plastic cover was placed over the culvert

mould and the steam tube was inserted inside the cover. The culverts and

the cylinders were steam-cured for 24 hours. The steam-curing was carried

out in stages .Initially, the specimens were steam-cured for about 4 hours;

three cylinders were then tested in compression to estimate the strength. It

was considered that the strength at that stage was adequate for the

specimens to be released from the moulds. The culverts and the remaining

cylinders were how everreleased from the moulds when further steam-

curing for another 20 hours was completed. The operationof the precast

plant was such that the 20 hours of steam-curing has to be split into two

parts. That is, the steam-curing was shut down at 2300 and restarted at 0600

next day. In all, the total time taken for steam curing was 24 hours. A box

culvert made of sugarcane bagesse concrete Mix 4 was tested for load

bearing strength in a load testing machine which had a capacity of 370 kN

and operated to Australian Standards, AS 1597.1-1974. Load was applied

and increased continuously so that the proof load of 125 kN was reached in

5minutes. After the application of the proof load, the culvert was examined

for cracks using a crack measuring gauge. The measured width of cracks

did not exceed 0.08 mm. The load was then in creasedto 220kN and a crack

of width 0.15 mm appeared underside the crown. As the load increased to

about300 kN, a crack of 0.4 mm width appeared in the leg of the culvert.

The load was then released to examine to see whether all cracks had closed.

No crack was observed after the removal of the load .According to

Australian Standard AS 1597 a reinforced concrete culvert should carry the

proof load without developing a crack greater than 0.15 mm and on

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removal of the load, no crack should be greater than 0.08 mm. The test

demonstrated that sugarcane bagesse concrete box culvert met these

requirements

3.9.3Sugarcane bagesse Sustainability Opportunity

Coal is often used in the generation of a major proportion of the power not

only in Australia but also in many other parts of the world such as India,

China, and the USA. The huge reserves of good quality coal available

worldwide and the low cost of power produced from these resources cannot

be ignored. Coal-burning power stations generate huge volumes of fly ash;

most of the fly ash is not effectively used. As the need for power increases,

the volume of fly ash would increase. Additionally, concrete usage around

the globe is on the increase to meet infrastructure developments. An

important ingredient in the conventional concrete is the Portland cement.

The production of one ton of cement emits approximately one ton of carbon

dioxide to the atmosphere. Moreover, cement production is not only highly

energy-intensive, next to steel and aluminium, but alsoconsumes significant

amount of natural resources. For sustainable development, the concrete

industry needs to explore alternative binders to Portland cement. Such an

alternative is offered by the fly ash-based sugarcane bagesse concrete, as

this concrete uses no Portland cement; instead, utilises the fly ash from

coal-burning power stations to make the binder necessary to manufacture

concrete. The use of fly ash-based Sugarcane bagesse Concrete contributes

to the potential for reduced global warming. A recent life cycle assessment
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of sugarcane bagesse concretes indicates that the global warming potential

(GWP) of sugarcane bagesse concretes is between 26 and 45% lower

compared to ordinary Portlandcement concrete However, when other

ecological impact factors are considered, sugarcane bagesseconcrete does

not rate as favourably as Portland cement concrete. This is largely ascribed

to the sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide production The impact of each

depends upon the processing employed. The use of alkaline solutions form

waste streams of other processes, such as aluminium processing, may

provide potential reduction in the environmental impact of sugarcane

bagesse concrete.

3.9.4Sugarcane bagesse Economic Opportunity

Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based sugarcane bagesse concrete offers

several economic benefits over Portland cement concrete. The price of one

ton of fly ash is only a small fraction of the price of one ton of Portland

cement. Therefore, after allowing for the price of alkaline liquids needed to

the make the sugarcane bagesse concrete, the price of fly ash-based

sugarcane bagesse concrete is estimated to be about 10 to 30percent

cheaper than that of Portland cement concrete. In addition, the appropriate

usage of one ton of fly ash earns approximately one carbon-credit that has a

significant redemption value. One ton low-calcium fly ash can be utilized

to manufacture approximately three cubic meters of high quality fly ash-

based sugarcane bagesse concrete, and hence earn monetary benefits

through carbon-credit trade. Further more, the very little drying shrinkage,

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the low creep, the excellent resistance to sulphate attack, and good acid

resistance offered by the heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based sugarcane

bagesseconcrete may yield additional economic benefits when it is utilized

in infrastructure applications

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 Compressive Strength at 28 Days

3.9.5DESIGN OF SUGARCANE BAGESSE CONCRETE MIXTURES

Concrete mixture design process is vast and generally based on

performance criteria. Based on the information given in above, some

simple guidelines for the design of heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based

sugarcane bagesse concrete have been proposed [Hardjito et al, 2004;

Rangan, 2008; Sumajouw, 2007]. The performance criteria of a sugarcane

bagesse concrete mixture depend on the application. For simplicity, the

compressive strength of hardened concrete and the workability of fresh

concrete are selected as the performance criteria. In order to meet these

performance criteria, the alkaline liquid-to-fly ash ratio by mass, water-to-

sugarcane bagesse solids ratio by mass, the wet-mixing time, the heat-

curing temperature, and the heat-curing time are selected as parameters.

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With regard to alkaline liquid-to-fly ash ratio by mass, values in the range

of 0.30 and 0.45 are recommended. Based on the results obtained from

numerous mixtures made in the laboratory over a period of six years, the

data given in Table 2 are proposed for the design of low-calcium fly ash-

based sugarcane bagesse concrete. Note that wet-mixing time of 4 minutes,

and steam-curing at 60oC for 24 hours after casting are proposed. Increased

wet mixing time increased the compressive strength by 30%. The data

given in Figures 1 and 2 may be used as guides to choose other curing

temperature, and curing time. The design data given in Table 2 assumes

that the aggregates are in saturated-surface-dry (SSD) condition. In other

words, the coarse and fine aggregates in a sugarcane bagesse concrete

mixture must neither be too dry to absorb water from the mixture nor too

wet to add water to the mixture. In practical applications, aggregates may

contain water over and above the SSD condition. Therefore, the extra water

in the aggregates above the SSD condition must be estimated and included

in the calculation of water-to-sugarcane bagesse solids ratio given in Table

2. Mixes with aggregates not prepared to SSD condition have been found to

produce sugarcane bagesse with high compressive strength and good

workability [Lloyd and Rangan, 2009].The mixture design process is

illustrated by the following Example: Mixture proportion of heat-cured

low-calcium fly ash-based sugarcane bagesse concrete with design

compressive strength of 45 MPa is needed for precast concrete products.

Assume that normal-density aggregates in SSD condition are to be used and

the unit-weight of concrete is 2400 kg/m3. Take the mass of combined

aggregates as 77% of the mass of concrete, i.e. 0.77x2400= 1848 kg/m3.

The combined aggregates may be selected to match the standard grading

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curves used in the design of Portland cement concrete mixtures. For

instance, the aggregates may comprise 277 kg/m3 (15%) of 20mm

aggregates, 370 kg/m3 (20%) of 14 mm aggregates, 647 kg/m3 (35%) of 7

mm aggregates, and 554 kg/m3 (30%) of fine sand to meet the

requirements of standard grading curves. The fineness modulus of the

combined aggregates is approximately 5.0. The mass of low-calcium fly

ash and the alkaline liquid = 2400 – 1848 = 552 kg/m3. Take the alkaline

liquid-to-fly ash ratio by mass as 0.35; the mass of fly ash = 552/ (1+0.35)

= 408 kg/m3 and the mass of alkaline liquid = 552 – 408 = 144 kg/m3.

Take the ratio of sodium silicate solution-to-sodium hydroxide solution by

mass as 2.5; the mass of sodium hydroxide solution = 144/ (1+2.5) = 41

kg/m3; the mass of sodium silicate solution = 144 – 41 =103 kg/m3.

Therefore, the trial mixture proportion is as follow: combined aggregates =

1848 kg/m3, low-calcium fly ash = 408 kg/m3, sodium silicate solution =

103 kg /m3, and sodium hydroxide solution = 41 kg/m3. To manufacture

the sugarcane bagesse concrete mixture, commercially available sodium

silicate solution A53 with SiO2-to-Na2O ratio by mass of approximately 2,

i.e., Na2O = 14.7%, SiO2 = 29.4%, and water = 55.9% by mass, is selected.

The sodium hydroxide solids (NaOH) with 97-98% purity is purchased

from commercial sources, and mixed with water to make a solution with a

concentration of 8 Molar. This solution comprises 26% of NaOH solids and

74% water, by mass.

For the trial mixture, water-to-sugarcane bagesse solids ratio by mass is

calculated as follows: In sodium silicate solution, water = 0.559x103 = 58

kg, and solids = 103 – 58 = 45 kg. In sodium hydroxide solution, solids =

0.26x41 = 11 kg, and water = 41 – 11 = 30 kg. Therefore, total mass of

CJITS Page 26
water = 58+30 = 88 kg, and the mass of sugarcane bagesse solids = 408

(i.e. mass of fly ash) +45+11 = 464 kg. Hence the water-to-sugarcane

bagesse solids ratio by mass = 88/464 = 0.19. Using the data given in Table

2, for water-to-sugarcane bagesse solids ratio by mass of 0.19, the design

compressive strength is approximately 45 MPa, as needed. The sugarcane

bagesse concrete mixture proportion is therefore as follows: 20 mm

aggregates = 277 kg/m3, 14 mm aggregates = 370 kg/m3, 7 mm aggregates

= 647 kg/m3, fine sand = 554 kg/m3, low-calcium fly ash (ASTM Class F)

= 408 kg/m3, sodium silicate solution (Na2O = 14.7%, SiO2 = 29.4%, and

water = 55.9% by mass) = 103 kg/m3, and sodium hydroxide solution (8

Molar) = 41 kg/m3 (Note that the 8 Molar sodium hydroxide solution is

made by mixing 11 kg of sodium hydroxide solids with 97-98% purity in

30 kg of water).

The sugarcane bagesse concrete must be wet-mixed at least for four

minutes and steam-cured at 60oC for 24 hours after casting. The

workability of fresh sugarcane bagesse concrete is expected to be moderate.

If needed, commercially available super plasticizer of about 1.5% of mass

of fly ash, i.e. 408x (1.5/100) = 6 kg/m3 may be added to the mixture to

facilitate ease of placement of fresh concrete. Numerous batches of the

Example sugarcane bagesse concrete mixture have been manufactured and

tested in the laboratory over a period of six years. These test results have

shown that the mean 7th day compressive strength was 56 MPa with a

standard deviation of 3 MPa (see Mixture-1 in Table 1). The mean slump of

the fresh sugarcane bagesse concrete was about 100 mm.

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3.9.6 SUGARCANE BAGESSE CONCRETE PROPERTIES

The elastic properties of hardened sugarcane bagesse concrete and the

behavior and strength of reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete structural

members are similar to those observed in the case of Portland cement

concrete [Sofi et al, 2007; Chang, 2009]. Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-

based sugarcane bagesse concrete also shows excellent resistance to sulfate

attack, good acid resistance, undergoes low creep, and suffers very little

drying shrinkage [Wallah and Rangan, 2006].

The behaviour and failure modes of reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete

columns and beams were similar to those observed in the case of reinforced

Portland cement concrete columns [Sumajouw and Rangan, 2006;

Sumajouw et al, 2007]. Test results demonstrated that the methods of

calculations used in the case of reinforced Portland cement concrete

columns and beams are applicable for reinforced sugarcane bagesse

concrete columns. Mid-span deflection at service load of reinforced

sugarcane bagesse concrete beams was calculated using the elastic bending

theory and the serviceability design provisions given in Standards. Good

correlation of test and calculated deflections at service load was observed.

The bond characteristics of reinforcing bar in sugarcane bagesse concrete

have been researched and determined to be comparable or superior to

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Portland cement concrete [Sofi et al, 2007; Sarker et al, 2007; Chang,

2009]. The shear and bond strength of reinforced fly ash-based sugarcane

bagesse concrete beams can be calculated using the design provisions

currently available in building codes and standards.

Therefore, the design provisions contained in the current Standards and

Codes can be used to design reinforced low-calcium fly ash-based

sugarcane bagesse concrete structural members. The mechanical properties

offered by sugarcane bagesse concrete also suggest its use in structural

applications is beneficial from an enhanced durability and fire resistance

perspective. Its high strength gain at elevated curing temperatures lends

sugarcane bagesse concrete to precast structural applications

CHAPTER – 3

MATERIALS IN CONCRETE

3.1. AGGREGATES:
For both Aggregates are the important constituents in

concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and

effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically

inert materials but now it has been recognised that some of the

aggregates are chemically active and also that certain aggregates

exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The

mere fact that the aggregates occupy 70-80 per cent of the volume
CJITS Page 29
 of concrete, their impact on various characteristics and properties

of concrete is undoubtedly considerable. To know more about the

aggregates which constitute major volume in concrete.

Aggregates are divided into two categories from the consideration

of size

 Coarse aggregate

 Fine aggregate

The size of the aggregate bigger than 4.75 mm is considered as

coarse aggregate and aggregate whose size is 4.75 mm and less is

considered as fine aggregate.

3.2 CEMENT:

Cement is a binder material which sets and hardens

independently, and can bind other materials together. Cement is

made up of four main compounds tricalcium silicate (3CaO SiO2),

dicalcium Silicate (2CaO SiO2), tricalcium acuminate (3CaO

Al2O3), and tetra-calcium alumino ferrite (4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3). In

an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic

symbols, these compounds are designated as C3S, C2S, C3A, and

C4AF, where C stands for calcium oxide (lime), S for silica and

A for alumina, and F for iron oxide. Small amounts of

uncombined lime and magnesia also are present, along with alkalis

and minor amounts of other elements.

3.3. FLY ASH:

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 Fly ash is a by-product from coal-fired electricity

generating power plants. The coal used in these power plants is

mainly composed of combustible elements such as carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen (nitrogen and sulphur being minor

elements), and non combustible impurities (10 to 40%) usually

present in the form of clay, shale, quartz, feldspar and limestone.

As the coal travels through the high-temperature zone in the

furnace, the combustible elements of the coal are burnt off,

whereas the mineral impurities of the coal fuse and chemically

recombine to produce various crystalline phases of the molten ash.

The molten ash is entrained in the flue gas and cools rapidly, when

leaving the combustion zone (e.g. from 1500°C to 200°C in few

seconds), into spherical, glassy particles. Most of these particles

fly out with the flue gas stream and are therefore called fly ash.

The fly ash is then collected in electrostatic precipitators or bag

houses and the fineness of the fly ash can be controlled by how

and where the particles are collected. Fly ash use improves

concrete performance, making it stronger, more durable, and more

resistant to chemical attack. Fly ash use also creates significant

benefits for our environment.

The size of fly ash ranges from 1.0 to 100 micron & the

average size is around 20 microns. It is found that particle size

below 10 microns contributes towards early Development of

strength (7& 28 days). The particle size of fly ash between l0 & 40

microns Contributes towards the development of strength between

28 days & 1 year. The particle size above 45 microns does not

CJITS Page 31
 contribute towards development of strength even after 1 year and

for all practical purpose they should be considered only as sand.

The fly ash is generally used in the concrete in the following ways.

 As partial replace for cement.

 As partial replacement for sand.

 As simultaneous replacement cement and sand.

It is found that fly ash replacement from l0 to 30% increases

the development of Strength up to 3 month or even more

depending on the fineness of fly ash & its reaction with Calcium

hydroxide released during primary hydration of cement.

Addition of fly ash as per replacement of cement improves

the workability of concrete for the same water content. This means

that the water content can be reduced for fly ash based concrete.

This reduced water cement ratio to some extent can offset for initial

gain of Strength can range from 10 to 25 % of the difference in

strength between the strength of Normal concrete & fly ash

concrete.

Fly ash as a partial replacement for sand is uneconomical

and sometimes it is inevitable in pumping concrete especially

when coarser types of fine aggregates are used in concrete. It is

also found that partial replacement of fly ash marginally increases

the strength Concrete due to filler effect in the initial stages and

due to pozzolanic action in 28days.Simultaneous use of fly ash as

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 a partial replacement of cement and sand is good Proposal to

increase strength, workability & pump ability of concrete.

3.4. WATER:

The pH value of water should be in between 6.0 and 8.0 according

to IS 456-2000.

Effect of Mixing Sea Water in Concrete:

The sea Water generally contains salinity of about 3.5% in which

about 80% is sodium chloride. Many researchers have been

conducted to study the corrosion problem of steel Embedded in

concrete where sea water is used as mixing water in concrete

nevertheless the Indian standard is adamant & do not permit using

sea water for mixing or curing in reinforced Concrete

constructions, but allows for using of sea water only for PCC work

that too under unavoidable circumstances.

Quality of Water for Curing Concrete Members:

Generally the water that is fit for mixing of water in concrete is

also fit for curing. However where appearance is important, water

containing impurities which cause stains should not to be used.

The most important elements that cause stains in the concrete are

iron, and organic matters. It is also found that even sea water also

causes stains in concrete. Hence water containing iron, organic

matters and also sea water should not be used for curing of

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 concrete when appearance is also set as criteria for the acceptance

of concrete.

Quality of Water for Curing Concrete Cubes:

The water that is fit for mixing and curing of water for concrete is

also fit for curing of cubes which are cured under water. However

the curing water should not to be allowed to remain in stagnant

condition in water tanks for long time. As a guideline the water

tanks shall be cleaned twice a week or when ph value of water

reaches a value more than 9. The cleaned Water tanks shall be

refilled with fresh water every time.

The cleaning of water is necessary to remove algae and

fungus materials developed inside the water tanks which otherwise

alters the setting and strength gaining properties of Concrete. The

low results of such cubes may call for in situ tests resulting in

consequential Delay of the project.

CHAPTER – 4

TESTS ON CEMENT

Checking of materials is an essential part of civil engineering

as the life of structure is dependent on the quality of material used.

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 Following are the tests to be conducted to judge the quality of

cement.

1. Fineness

2. Consistency

3. Initial And Final Setting Time

4. Soundness

5. Specific gravity

6. Compressive strength

4.1. Fineness of Cement By Dry-Sieving Method (As Per Is-

4031):

Fineness of cement is a measure of size of particle of

cement. It is expressed as specific surface of cement (in sq. cm

/gm.).

The fineness of cement is an important factor in determining the

rate of gain of strength and uniformity of quality. It is measured in

terms of specific surface of the cement and can be calculated from

the particle size distributions are determined by one of the air

permeability.

We have used IS sieve No.9 (90 microns), as for Indian

standards(IS :269- 1975), the percentage of residue left after

sieving a good Portland cement through IS sieve number 9, should

not exceed 10 %.

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Table shows the fineness modulus of cement

Total %
Weight %
Sieve No weight Cumulative Fineness Grading zon
retained passing
retained weight modulus per IS: 383-
(grams) through
(grams) retained
4.75mm 7 7 0.35 99.65
2.36mm 21 28 1.4 98.60
1.18mm 140 168 8.4 91.60

600 332 500 25 75.00 2.0865 Zone-II

300 1110 1610 80.50 19.50

150 250 1860 93.00 7.00
<150 140
2000 208.65

I.S Requirements:

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 1. As per IS 269 the residue of cement sampled on the sieve 90

micron after sieving should not exceed the following % by weight

for different types of cements.

 Ordinary Portland cement 10%

 Rapid hardening cement 5%

 Low heat cement 5%

2. As per IS 269 the specific surface area of cement sample should

not exceed following for different types of cement.

 Ordinary Portland cement 2250 sq. cm per gm.

 Rapid hardening cement 3250 sq. cm per gm.

 Low heat cement 3250 sq. cm per gm.

4.2. Standard Consistency of Cement:

Normal or standard consistency of any given cement

sample is that water content which will produce a cement paste of

standard cons instance. Consistence is determined by the Vi-cat

apparatus, which measures the depth of penetration in paste of a

10 mm diameter plunger under its own weight. Normal or standard

consistency is expressed as that percentage of water, by mass of

dry cement, corresponding to which a specified depth of

penetration in paste is achieved. For Portland cements, the normal

consistency varies from 26 to 33%.

Normal consistency of cement is determined for the

purpose of determining the water to cement ratios for preparing

the specimens to be used for other quality tests such as: times of

set, compressive and tensile strengths, and soundness tests, on the

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 same cement.For finding out initial setting time, final setting time

and soundness of cement and strength a parameter known as

standard consistency has to be used. The object of conducting this

test is to find out the amount of water to be added to the cement to

get a paste of normal consistency i.e., the paste of a certain

standard solidity, which is used to fix the quality of water to be

mixed in cement before performing tests for setting time,

soundness and compressive strength. The test is required to be

conducted in a constant temperature (270 c ± 20 c) and constant

humidity (90%).

Vi-cat apparatus

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Table shows the normal consistency of cement:-

% of water 28% 30% 32%

Initial Reading 50 50 50

in (mm)

Final Reading 32 28 23

in (mm)

Height not 18 22 30
penetrated

RESULT:

Normal consistency of cement for 32% of water = 7mm.

4.3. Initial Setting and Final Setting:

In order that the concrete may be placed in position

conveniently, it is necessary that the initial setting time is not too

quick and after it has been laid, hardening should be rapid so that

the structure can be made use of as early as possible. The initial set

is a stage in the process of hardening after which any crack that

may appear will not re-unite. The concrete is said to be finally set

when it has obtained sufficient strength and hardness.

For Portland cement, the initial setting time should not be

less than 30 minutes and final setting time should not be more than

600 minutes. For quick cement, Initial setting time should not be

less than 5 minutes and final setting time should not exceed 30

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 minutes. The setting time is influenced by temperature, humidity

fair and quantity of gypsum in the cement.

Vi-cat apparatus

Table shows the Initial and Final Setting Time of cement:-

Vi cat Apparatus Readings

Initial Reading 50mm

Final Reading 5mm

Height not penetrated 5mm

RESULT:

Initial setting time= 30min.

Final setting time= 10 hrs.

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 I.S Requirements:

According to IS269, IS112, IS 12269 the setting time of

ordinary Portland cement when tested by the Vi-cat apparatus

method shall confirm to the following requirements.

1. Initial setting time- not less than 30 minutes.

2. Final setting time -not more than 600 minutes.

All concreting operations viz. mixing, transportation,

placing and compaction of concrete should be completed before

initial setting time of cement.

4.4. Soundness of Cement (By Le-Chatelier Method):

This test indicates the liability of cement to expand

sometimes after setting and causes severe cracking of failure of

concrete. The chief test for soundness is the “Le-chatelier” test.

“Le-chatelier” Apparatus

Distance of the plungers after 24 hrs D1 = 1.2mm

Distance of the plungers after

Placing in hot water for 3 hrs D2 = 1.4mm
(D2> D1) > or = 10mm
If > 10mm - Un Sound
If < 10mm - Sound

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RESULT:

Volume of expansion of cement sample

D2 - D1 = 1.4-1.2

= 0.2mm

Scope:

To decide the suitability of given cement sample. The cement is

said to be sound when the percentage of free lime and magnesia is
within specified limits. These materials expand in the structure and
thus the concrete or mortar also expands, causing unequal
expansion of paste. Disintegration of cement compound is
determined by Le- Chatelier apparatus.

I.S Requirements:
As per IS:269, when tested by Le-Chatelier method, un -
aerated ordinary Portland cement shall not have an expansion of
more than 10 mm.

4.5. Specific gravity of Cement:

Specific gravity Bottle

Specific gravity is normally defined as the ratio between the mass

of a given volume of material and mass of an equal volume of

water. One of the methods to determining the specific gravity of

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 cement is by the use of a liquid such as water-free kerosene which

does not react with cement. A specific gravity bottle may be

employed or a standard Le-chatelier flask may be used.

Scope:

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of

aggregate to the weight of an equal volume of water. Water, at a

temperature of 73.4°F (23°C).Specific Gravity is important for

several reasons. Some deleterious particles are lighter than the

“good" aggregates. Tracking specific gravity can sometimes

indicate a change of material or possible contamination.

Differences in specific gravity may be used to separate the

deleterious particles from the good using heavy media liquid.

Specific gravity is critical information for the Hot Mix Asphalt

Design Engineer. This value is used in calculating air voids, voids

in mineral aggregate (VMA), and voids filled by asphalt (VFA).

All are critical to a well performing and durable asphalt mix.

Water absorption may also be an indicator of asphalt absorption. A

highly absorptive aggregate may result in a low durability asphalt

mix. In Portland Cement Concrete the specific gravity of the

aggregate is used in calculating the Percentage of voids and the

solid volume of aggregates in computations of yield. The

absorption is important in determining the net water-cement ratio

in the concrete mix. Knowing the specific gravity of aggregates is

also critical to the construction of water filtration systems, slope

Stabilization projects, railway bedding and many other

applications.
CJITS Page 43
Table shows the Initial and Final Setting Time of cement:-

WEIGHT OF EMPTY BOTTLE ( 40G

W1)

WEIGHT OF BOTTLE + 80G

CEMENT ( W2)

WEIGHT OF BOTTLE + 140G

CEMENT + KEROSENE

( W3)

WEIGHT OF BOTTLE + 110G

KEROSENE

( W4)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF KEROSENE = 0.79

SPECIFIC GRAVITY = [W2-W1/ (W2-W1) - (W3-W4)] X 0.79

RESULT:

Specific Gravity of Cement = 3.12

4.6. Compressive Strength of Cement:

Strength tests generally carried out in tension on samples of heat

cement are of doubtful value as an indication of ability of cement

to make concrete strong in compression. Therefore these are

largely being superseded by the mortars cube crushing tests and

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 concrete compression tests these are conducted on standardized

aggregate under carefully controlled conditions and therefore give

good indications on strength qualities of cement.

Theory and Scope: The compressive strength of cement mortar is

determined in ordered to verify whether the cement conforms to IS

specifications (IS: 269-1976) and whether it will be able to

develop the required compressive strength of concrete.

TABLE: 3.6.1 Shows the physical Tests results of OPC cement

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS AS
OBTAINED RESULTS
TESTS PER IS CODES

Not>10% as per IS
Fineness 0.47%
4031 part 1

Standard
32% IS 4031 part 4
Consistency

Not less than 30

Initial
30 min minutes as per IS
Setting time
4031 part 5

Not more than 600

Final setting
600 min minutes as per IS
time
4031 part 5

Not>10mm as per
Soundness 0.2mm
IS 4031 part 3

Specific IS 2720 part 3 (3.12

3.12
gravity is generally

CJITS Page 45
 assumed)

CHAPTER – 5

TESTS ON AGGREGATE

There are many tests which are conducted to check the quality

of aggregates. Aggregates are very important components of

concrete, so the quality really matters when it comes to aggregates.

Various tests which are done on aggregates are listed below.

1. Sieve analysis for fine aggregate

2. Sieve analysis for Coarse Aggregate

3. Aggregate impact Value

4. Aggregate crushing value

5. Specific gravity and water absorption of Aggregate

5.1. Grain Size Distribution of Fine Aggregate:

To study the particle size distribution of the given fine

aggregate by doing sieve analysis, to draw the grading curve and

to determine the fineness modulus of the given fine aggregate

sample. We have used a set of sieves consist the sizes of 4.75 mm,

2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µ, 300 µ, 150µ and pan. Sample should

be taken for which the sample is thoroughly mixed and spread

over a clean surface. If any further reduction of quantity is

CJITS Page 46
 required the process may be repeated. Weight retained on each

sieve shall not exceed the limits specifies IS code.

Sieve Apparatus

5.2. Grain Size Distribution of Coarse Aggregate:

To study the particle size distribution of the given coarse

aggregate by doing sieve analysis, to draw the grading curve and

to determine the fineness modulus of the given coarse aggregate

sample. We have used a set of sieves consist the sizes of 40 mm,

20 mm,12.5 mm, 4.75 mm,2.36 mm and pan. Sample should be

taken for which the sample is thoroughly mixed and spread over a

clean surface. If any further reduction of quantity is required the

process may be repeated. Weight retained on each sieve shall not

exceed the limits specifies IS code.

Scope:

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 This method of test covers a field procedure for the

determination of particle size distribution of fine and coarse

aggregates, using sieves with square openings.

Significance and Use: The gradation of fine and coarse aggregate

samples must be tested to determine compliance with the

specifications for these materials.

5.3. Aggregate Abrasion value:

Abrasion testing of aggregate is of more direct application

to the testing of stone aggregate for wearing. It has been found that

the aggregate which shows a low loss in this test will general be

hard, tough, resistant to abrasion and strong which are the

desirable and necessary qualities for durability of concrete. The

abrasion test on aggregate is found as per IS-2386 Part IV. The

sieving operation should be conducted by mass of a lateral and

vertical motion of the sieve, accompanied by the jarring action so

as to keep the sample moving continuously over the surface of the

sieve. In no case shall the fragments of the sample be turned or

manipulated through the sieve by hand. Use a coarse sieve first in

order to minimize wear of 1.7 mm IS sieve.

5.4. Aggregate Impact value:

This test may be considered as an alternative to the

aggregate crushing test, the special apparatus needed for aggregate

impact test is simple and relatively cheap and is portable while the

crushing test crushing test requires a 50 tons testing machine,

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 which is expensive. The impact test on an aggregate is a useful

guide to its behavior when subjected and brittleness must also be

taken into account. The aggregate impact test is conducted as per

IS-2386 part IV.

The sample should be subjected to 15 blows of the hammer

at not less than one second interval. The fraction passing and

retained on the 2.36 mm IS sieve should be weighed and sum

should agree within one gram with the original mass of the sample

taken. As the hammer is heavy, be cautions to keep away from

falling mass, to avoid accidents.

5.5. Aggregate crushing value:

This is one of the major Mechanical properties required in

a concrete and road stone. This test helps to determine the

aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386

(Part IV) – 1963. The apparatus used is cylindrical measure and

plunger, Compression testing machine, IS Sieves of sizes –

12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm.

It gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate

sample to crushing under gradually applied compressive load.

Generally this test is made on single sized aggregate passing 12.5

mm and retained on 10 mm IS sieve.

The aggregate is placed in a cylindrical mould and a load of 40 ton

is applied through a plunger. The material crushed to finer than

2.36 mm is separated and expressed as a percentage of the original

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 weight taken in the mould. This percentage is referred as

aggregate crushing value. The crushing value of aggregate is

restricted to 30 percent for concrete used for roads and pavements

and 45 percent may be permitted to other structures. With the

aggregate crushing value 30 % or higher, the result may be

anomalous and in such cases the ten percent fines value test should

be determined instead.

5.6. Specific gravity and water absorption of fine aggregate:

The specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the ratio

of mass of a given volume of sample to the mass of an equal

volume of water at the same temperature.

The specific gravity of fine aggregate is generally required for

calculations in connection with concrete mix design, for

determination of moisture content and for the calculations of

volume yield of concrete. The specific gravity also gives

information on the quality and properties of aggregate. Departure

of specific gravity from its standard value indicted change in shape

and grading.

It influences the behavior of aggregate in concrete in

several important aspects. A highly absorptive aggregate, if used

in dry condition, will reduce effective water-cement ratio to an

appreciable extent and may even make the concrete unworkable

unless a suitable allowance is made. Hence determination of

absorption of aggregate is necessary to determine net water-

cement ratio.

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 Bulking of Sand Apparatus

Table shows the Bulking of fine aggregate:-

% of water by Height of Moist %Bulking

S.No
weight Sand in mm(h1) [(h1-h)/h] x 100
1 1% 5ml 203.0 25.30
2 2% 10ml 230.0 26.54
3 3% 15ml 236.6 41.97
4 4% 20ml 235.0 45.06
5 5% 25ml 233.3 44.01
6 6% 30ml 228.0 40.74
7 7% 35ml 225.0 38.80
8 8% 40ml 219.6 35.50
9 9% 45ml 213.3 31.66
10 10% 50ml 210.0 29.62

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 Graph Shows the Variations in Bulking of fine aggregates :-

240

230

220

210

200

190

180
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height of Moist Sand

The entire sample should be frequently stirred to secure uniform

drying. The air trapped in the aggregate should be brought to

surface by rolling the flask in inclined position. All weighing

should not be allowed to stick to the sides of the jar or flask. The

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 results of different repetitions should not different more than 0.02

for specific gravity and 0.005 percent for absorption.

Obtained Requirements as per

Sl. No Physical Tests results IS 383

Not more than 45%

Crushing (other than wearing

1 Test 38% surfaces)

Not more than 45%

(other than wearing

2 Impact Test 32.95% surfaces)

Los Angeles Not more than 50%

Abrasion (other than wearing

3 Test 28.5% surfaces)

4 Specific gravity

a) Coarse

Aggregates 2.6

b) Fine

Aggregates 2.6

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 Not>2%as per IS:2386-

5 Water absorption Part 3

a) Coarse
0.2%
Aggregates
0.5%
b) Fine

aggregate

TABLE: 5.6.1Shows the physical Tests of Aggregates which were

used in Fly ash used in Concrete Mix.

Weight %Cumulative % Cumulative

Sieve Size retained(kg) %(Retained) Retained Passing

4.75 0.070 7.0 7.0 93

2.18 0.090 9.0 16.4 83.6

1.18 0.290 29.0 45.0 55

0.006 0.356 35.6 80.6 19.4

0.003 0.156 15.6 95.8 4.2

0.0015 0.036 3.6 99.4 0.6

Pan 0.0006 0.6 100 0

Total 0.1000 100

Table No.5.6.2 (a)

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 Fine Aggregate:

Fineness modulus = Sum of cumulative percentage retained on

standard sieves/100

= 444.2/100

= 4.44

From the sieve analysis of table the fine aggregate was under the

zone-II.

100
93
Cumilative percentage Passing

90
80 83.6
70
60
55
50
40
30
20 19.4
10
4.2
0 0 0.6
0.01 0.1 1 10
IS Sieve Size

Graph-Shows the sieve analysis for fine aggregate

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 Table No. 5.6.2(b): Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate:

S. NO Sieve Size Weight %(Retained) %Cumulative %

retained(kg) Retained Cumulative
passing
1 25 0 0 0 100
2 20 1660 1660 33.2 66.8
3 16 2080 3740 74.8 26.2
4 12.5 1035 4775 95.5 4.5
5 10 145 4920 98.4 1.6
6 6.3 40 4960 99.2 0.8
7 4.75 80 5000 100 0
8 Pan 0 5000 100 0
Confirming to table 4 of IS 383-

1970

120
Cumilative Percentage Passing

100 100

80
66.8
60

40
26.2
20

0 0 0.8 1.6 4.5

0.001 0.01 0.1
Seive Size Thousands

Graph: Shows the sieve analysis for coarse aggregate

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 CHAPATER 5

SUGARCANE BAGESSE PRECAST CONCRETE

PRODUCTS

High-early strength gain is a characteristic of sugarcane bagesse concrete

when dry-heat or steam cured, although ambient temperature curing is

possible for sugarcane bagesse concrete. It has been used to produce

precast railway sleepers, sewer pipes, and other prestressed concrete

building components. The early-age strength gain is a characteristic that

can best be exploited in the precast industry where steam curing or heated

bed curing is common practice and is used to maximize the rate of

production of elements. Recently, sugarcane bagesse concrete has been

tried in the production of precast box culverts with successful production in

a commercial precast yard with steam curing [Siddiqui, 2007; Cheema et al,

2009].

Sugarcane bagesse concrete has excellent resistance to chemical attack and

shows promise in the use of aggressive environments where the durability

of Portland cement concrete may be of concern. This is particularly

applicable in aggressive marine environments, environments with high

carbon dioxide or sulphate rich soils. Similarly in highly acidic conditions,

sugarcane bagesse concrete has shown to have superior acid resistance and

may be suitable for applications such as mining, some manufacturing

industries and sewer systems. Current research at Curtin University of

Technology is examining the durability of precast box culverts

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manufactured from sugarcane bagesse concrete which are exposed to a

highly aggressive environment with wet-dry cycling in sulphate rich soils.

Gourley and Johnson [2005] have reported the details of sugarcane bagesse

precast concrete products on a commercial scale. The products included

sewer pipes, railway sleepers, and wall panels. Reinforced sugarcane

bagesse concrete sewer pipes with diameters in the range from 375 mm to

1800 mm have been manufactured using the facilities currently available to

make similar pipes using Portland cement concrete. Tests performed in a

simulated aggressive sewer environment have shown that sugarcane

bagesse concrete sewer pipes outperformed comparable Portland cement

concrete pipes by many folds. Gourley and Johnson [2005] also reported

the good performance of reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete railway

sleepers in mainline tracks and excellent resistance of sugarcane bagesse

mortar wall panels to fire.

Siddiqui [2007] and Cheema et al [2009] demonstrated the manufacture of

reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete culverts on a commercial scale.

Tests have shown that the culverts performed well and met the specification

requirements of such products. Reinforced sugarcane bagesse concrete box

culverts of 1200 mm (length) x600 mm (depth) x1200 mm (width) and

compressive cylinders were manufactured in a commercial precast concrete

plant located in Perth, Western Australia. The dry materials were mixed for

about 3 minutes. The liquid component of the mixture was then added, and

the mixing continued for another 4 minutes. The sugarcane bagesse

concrete was transferred into a kibble from where it was then cast into the

culvert moulds (one mould for two box culverts) as shown in Figure 3. The

culverts were compacted on a vibrating table and using a hand -held

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vibrator. The cylinders were cast in 2 layers with each layer compacted on

a vibrating table for 15 seconds. The slump of every batch of fresh

sugarcane bagesse concrete was also measured in order to observe the

consistency of the mixtures.

After casting, the cylinders were covered with plastic bags and placed

under the culvert moulds. A plastic cover was placed over the culvert

mould and the steam tube was inserted inside the cover. The culverts and

the cylinders were steam-cured for 24 hours. Initially, the specimens were

steam-cured for about 4 hours; the strength at that stage was adequate for

the specimens to be released from the moulds. The culverts and the

remaining cylinders were steam-cured for another 20 hours. The operation

of the precast plant was such that the 20 hours of steam-curing has to be

split into two parts. That is, the steam-curing was shut down at 11 p.m. and

restarted at 6 a.m. next day. In all, the total time taken for steam-curing was

24 hours.

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 Manufacture of Test Culverts and Cylinders

The box culvert made of sugarcane bagesse concrete mix 4 (Table 4) was

tested for load bearing strength in a load testing machine which had a

capacity of 370 kN and operated to Australian Standards, AS 1597.1-

1974. The culvert was positioned with the legs firmly inside the channel

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 supports. Load was then applied and increased continuously so that the

proof load of 125 kN was reached in 5 minutes. After the application of

the proof load, the culvert was examined for cracks using a crack-

measuring gauge. The measured width of cracks did not exceed 0.08 mm

The load was then increased to 220 kN and a crack of width 0.15 mm

appeared underside the crown. As the load increased to about 300 kN, a

crack of 0.4 mm width appeared in the leg of the culvert. The load was

then released to examine to see whether all cracks had closed. No crack

was observed after the removal of the load.

According to Australian Standard AS 1597, a reinforced concrete culvert

should carry the proof load without developing a crack greater than 0.15

mm and on removal of the load; no crack should be greater than 0.08 mm.

The test demonstrated that sugarcane bagesse concrete box culvert met

these requirements [14, 15]. Further test work is in progress.

4.1CONTRIBUTIONS OF SUGARCANE BAGESSE CONCRETE

TOWARDS 4.1.1SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Coal is often used in the generation of a major proportion of the power not

only in in many parts of the world such as India, China, Australia, and the

USA. The huge reserves of good quality coal available worldwide and the

low cost of power produced from these resources cannot be ignored. Coal-

burning power stations generate huge volumes of fly ash; most of the fly

ash is not effectively used. As the need for power increases, the volume of

fly ash would increase if we continue to largely rely on coal-fired power

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generation. On the other hand, concrete usage around the globe is on the

increase to meet infrastructure developments. An important ingredient in

the conventional concrete is the Portland cement. The production of one ton

of cement emits approximately one ton of carbon dioxide to the

atmosphere. Moreover, cement production is not only highly energy-

intensive, next to steel and aluminium, but also consumes significant

amount of natural resources.

For sustainable development, the concrete industry needs an alternative

binder to the Portland cement. Such an alternative is offered by the fly ash-

based sugarcane bagesse concrete, as this concrete uses no Portland

cement; instead, utilizes the fly ash from coal-burning power stations to

make the binder necessary to manufacture concrete. The use of fly ash-

based Sugarcane bagesse Concrete contributes through the process of

Carbon Reduction Scheme between the Power Generators, Coal Producers,

the Government Agencies, and other industries including the cement

producers.

4.2ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SUGARCANE BAGESSE CONCRETE

Heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based sugarcane bagesse concrete offers

several economic benefits over Portland cement concrete. The price of one

ton of fly ash is only a small fraction of the price of one ton of Portland

cement. Therefore, after allowing for the price of alkaline liquids needed to

the make the sugarcane bagesse concrete, the price of fly ash-based

sugarcane bagesse concrete is estimated to be about 10 to 30 percent

cheaper than that of Portland cement concrete. In addition, the appropriate

usage of one ton of fly ash earns approximately one carbon-credit that has a

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significant redemption value. One ton low-calcium fly ash can be utilized

to manufacture approximately three cubic meters of high quality fly ash-

based sugarcane bagesse concrete, and hence earn monetary benefits

through carbon-credit trade. Furthermore, the very little drying shrinkage,

the low creep, the excellent resistance to sulfate attack, and good acid

resistance offered by the heat-cured low-calcium fly ash-based sugarcane

bagesse concrete may yield additional economic benefits when it is utilized

in infrastructure applications

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 Water Absorption of Concrete

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 Pulse Velocity Readings for Accelerated Corrosion Test

CHAPATER 5

RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS

In this study, design mix of M25 grade fabrication in all sorts of

conceivable shapes .About 1.5 tons of raw materials is needed in the
production of every ton of OPC, at the same time about the amount of
carbon dioxide released during the manufacturing of Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) due to the calcinations of limestone and combustion
of fossil fuel is in the order of one ton for every ton of OPC produced. On
the other hand, the abundant availability of fly ash worldwide creates
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opportunities to utilize this by product of burning coal, as a substitute
for OPC to manufacture concrete. It is essential to find alternatives to
make environment friendly concrete. for the tests. Factors such as
Alkaline liquid to Fly Ash ratio =0.4, Sodium Silicate to Sodium Hydroxide
ratio =2.0, Molarity=M14, Curing temperature =750C, Curing Time =
24hours,Rest Period = 1day, Admixture Dosage =2%were kept constant
during the tests. The main objective of the study was to compare the
water absorption capacity and sorptivity of control and sugarcane
bagesse concrete name of the product POZZOCRETE 60. Physical
properties and chemical compositions of the flyash used along with the
specifications are given in Table 1.

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Table 1: Properties of class fly ash

Sr.No. Particulars Unit Specification DIRK

(IS:3812-1981)[24] POZZOCRETE60
(Fly ash)
1 Colour - - Light gray
2
2 Specific surface area m /kg 320 340
(blaine)
2
3 Lime reactivity N/mm 4.5 5.48
4 Loss on ignition(max) % 5 1.6

5 SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3 % 70 min. by mass 92.49

6 SiO2 % 35 min. by mass 57.3
7 MgO % 5 max. by mass 2.13

8 SO3 % 3 max. by mass 1.06

9 Na2O % 1.5 max. by mass 0.73
10 Total Chlorides % 0.05 max. by mass 0.029

Table 2. Properties of sodium silicate solution

Properties
Na2O% 16.8
SiO2% 35.0
Water% 46.3
SiO2/Na2O 2.08
Specific gravity(g/cc) 1.48

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Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide is commonly available in flakes or pellets form. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
in flakes form with 98% purity shown in figure 1 was purchased from local chemical supplier
has been used. Sodium hydroxide solution was prepared by dissolving the flakes in water. Tap
water available in laboratory was used to prepare NaOH solution. The mass of NaOH solids in
a solution varied depending on the concentration of the solution expressed in terms of molar M.
Sodium Silicate

Many types of sodium silicate solution depending upon applications are available in market.
Properties of the sodium silicate solution used are given in the Table 2.

RESULTS:

Sorptivity

Sorptivity property of both type of concrete has been study by performing the at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9,
12, 16, 20 and 25 minutes time interval and change in weight of the specimen after each
interval. The Table 4 and Table 5 show the readings and calculations for each interval for
control concrete and sugarcane bagesse concrete respectively. The Sorptivity curve was found
to be less linear durability property of concrete, was found less in compared to that of control
concrete. The rate of sugarcane bagesse concrete than the control concrete. absorption, which
has significant effect on durability property of concrete, was found less in sugarcane bagesse
concrete than the control concrete.

Water Absorption
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Water absorption characteristics of the concrete plays an important role for the durability of the
structure. Ingress of water detoriates concrete and in reinforced concrete structure, corrosion of
the bars took place which results it no cracking and spalling of the concrete and ultimately
reduce the life span of the structure. Test re RESULTS:

the bars took place which results it no cracking and spalling of the concrete and ultimately
reduce the life span of the structure. Test results of water absorption test are shown in Table 6.
The result indicates that the water absorption of sugarcane bagesse concrete is less compared to
control concrete. Although the difference in % of gain in weight is very less.sults of water
absorption test are shown in Table 6. The result indicates that the water absorption of
sugarcane bagesse concrete is less compared to control concrete. Although the difference in %
of gain in weight is very less.

Table 3.sieve analysis offine aggregate

Fine Aggregate
Sieve Mass Cumulative mass Cumulative Cumulative
Size retained(gm) retain(gm) mass retain(%) Mass passing(%)
4.75mm 0 0 0 100
2.36mm 130 130 13.00 87
1.18mm 19 149 14.9 85.1
600m 86 235 23.5 76.5
300m 508 743 74.3 25.7
150m 180 923 92.3 7.7
Below 150m 64 997 99.7 0
Total 317.7
Fineness Modulus=317.7/100=3.18 and Zone III

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 Table 4: Sorptivity Readings and Calculations of Control Concrete

Time Weight Gainin Cumulativegain Vol.of Surface i(mm) Time

3 2 0.5
(Min.) (kg) wt.(kg) inWt(kg) water(mm ) area(mm ) (min )
0 8.403 0.000 0.000 0.000 22500 0.000 0
1 8.407 0.004 0.004 3666.667 22500 0.163 1.00
2 8.408 0.001 0.005 4666.667 22500 0.207 1.41
3 8.409 0.001 0.006 5666.667 22500 0.252 1.73
4 8.410 0.001 0.007 7000.000 22500 0.311 2.00
5 8.411 0.001 0.008 7666.667 22500 0.341 2.24
9 8.413 0.002 0.009 9333.333 22500 0.415 3.00
12 8.414 0.002 0.011 11000.000 22500 0.489 3.46
16 8.415 0.001 0.012 12000.000 22500 0.533 4.00
20 8.417 0.002 0.014 13666.667 22500 0.607 4.47
25 8.418 0.001 0.015 14666.667 22500 0.652 5.00
0.5
Sorptivity=0.124mm/min

Table 5: Sorptivity Readings and Calculations of Sugarcane bagesse Concrete

Time Weight Gainin Cumulativegain Vol.of Surface i(mm) Time

3 2 0.5
(Min.) (kg) wt.(kg) inWt(kg) water(mm ) area(mm ) (min )
0 8.520 0.000 0.000 0.000 22500 0 0
1 8.523 0.003 0.003 3000.000 22500 0.1333 1.00
2 8.524 0.002 0.005 4666.667 22500 0.2074 1.41
3 8.525 0.001 0.006 5666.667 22500 0.2519 1.73
4 8.526 0.001 0.007 6666.667 22500 0.2963 2.00
5 8.526 0.000 0.007 6666.667 22500 0.2963 2.24
9 8.528 0.001 0.008 8000.000 22500 0.3556 3.00
12 8.529 0.001 0.009 9000.000 22500 0.4000 3.46
16 8.530 0.001 0.010 10000.000 22500 0.4444 4.00
20 8.531 0.001 0.011 11000.000 22500 0.4889 4.47
25 8.531 0.001 0.012 11666.667 22500 0.5185 5.00
0.5
Sorptivity=0.090mm/min

Figure 3: Sorptivity of Control Concrete

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Figure 4: Sorptivity of Sugarcane bagesse Concrete

Table 6: Water Absorption Test Results

Typeof NNotation Initial OvenDry Wt.after Gain Avg.gain

Concrete Wt.(kg) Wt.(kg) immersion % %

GC-1M 8.35 8.27 8.51 2.90

GC 2.76
GC-2M 8.30 8.22 8.44 2.68

GC-3M 8.25 8.17 8.39 2.69

CC-1M 8.60 8.47 8.68 2.48

CC 2.91
CC-2M 8.59 8.46 8.69 2.72

CC-3M 8.47 8.23 8.52 3.52

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 Page 6
Figure 5: Water Absorption of Concrete

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 CHAPATER 6

CONCLUSION

The mix design of M25 sugarcane bagesse concrete was used in the study. The results were
compared to that of control concrete. It was found that the compressive strength of concrete
impregnated with sugar bagesse was slightly higher to that of test specimen of normal concrete.
Addition of sugarcane bagesse material to the tune of 6% had a positive effect on the compressive
strength of concrete. However it had a higher setting time accounting to the fact that sucrose in
bagesse might act as a retarder. The Sorptivity curve is less linear as compared to that of control
concrete. That means the rate of absorption of sugarcane bagesse is less. Test results of water
absorption test shows that the porosity of sugarcane bagesse concrete is less as fly ash is fine than
OPC and results in to less water absorption than the control concrete.

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 CHAPATER 7
REFERENCE

1. Anjan Chatterjee, K. Indian Fly Ashes: Their Characteristics and Potential for

Mechanochemical Activation for Enhanced Usability, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,

Vol. 23, No. 6, pp.783-788, 2011.

2. Anuradha, R., Sreevidya, V., Venkatasubramani, R. and Rangan, B.V. Modified guidelines for

sugarcane bagesse concrete mix design using Indian standard, Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

(Building and Housing) Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 353-364, 2012.

3. Anurag Mishra, Deepika Choudhary, Namrata Jain and Manish, Effect of concentration of

alkaline liquid and curing time on strength and water absorption of sugarcane bagesse concrete,

ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences,Vol. 3, No. 1, pp.14-18,2008.

4. AS 3972- Australian Standards for General purpose and Blended Cement, 2010.

5. ASTM C150/C150M-11, Standard Specification for Portland Cement.

6. ASTM C-150-Standard specifications for Portland Cement: Annual Book of ASTM standards

(Philadelphia).

7. ASTM C-494-Standard specifications for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete: Annual Book of

ASTM standards (Philadelphia).

8. Bakharev, T. Durability of sugarcane bagesse materials in sodium and magnesium sulfate

solutions, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 35, pp. 1233-1246, 2005.

9. Bakharev, T. Sugarcane bagesseic materials prepared using Class F fly ash and elevated

temperature curing, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.35, pp.1224-1232, 2006.

10. Balaguru, P., Kurtz, S. and Rudolph, J. Sugarcane bagesse for Repair and Rehabilitation of

Reinforced Concrete Beams, St Quentin, France, Sugarcane bagesse Institute, 1997.

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