Voltage stability assessment for real-time operation

R.B. Prada, E.G.C. Palomino, J.O.R. dos Santos, A. Bianco and L.A.S. Pilotto

Abstract: Network voltage stability is represented by nodal conditions associated with the
maximum active and reactive power flow that can be transmitted from generators to loads. An
analytical assessment tool is derived, based on a simple but sound mathematical background,
modelling a straightforward physical characterisation of the phenomena. Comprehensive and
meaningful indices are introduced. They indicate the MVA margin to the maximum, the region of
operation, the relative importance among buses, the loading ranlung of the buses, the sensitivity to
control actions, and a measure of difficulty for power transmission. Numerical results are presented
for the Itaipu bulk transmission network in the SjSE of Brazil immediately before a voltage
stability blackout in April 1997. Computational efficiency is no burden for real time operation
including contingency analysis.

1 Introduction indices should be necessarily based on real-time measure-

Power systems are operated under increasingly loaded
conditions. Open access, few new transmission lines, and
increased energy consumption necessitate much greater
levels of power transfer. The system is operating near its
limits to achieve maximum economic benefit. Online real-
time network analysis is required to maintain adequate
security margins. This paper addresses the voltage stability
limit. If it is dynamically calculated using actual system
conditions, a typical benefit might be a 15% increase in
transmission capacity across a constrained 1000 MW inter-
face. Assuming that 30% of this increased capacity could be
used on average over a year and a US$lO/MWh price
differential across the line, t h s could result in an annual
financial benefit of US$ 3.9 million [l].
Voltage stability operation problems originate from the
higher use of transmission lines, which was made possible
through extensive use of reactive power compensation [2].
The ability to maintain voltage stability depends on
appropriate analysis of the operating conditions. There is
still a need for analytical tools capable of assessing voltage
collapse proximity, accurately quantifying stability margins
and power transfer limits, identifying voltage-weak points
and areas susceptible to voltage instability.
Modal analysis based on the calculation of 'small eigen-
values' [3] or 'small singular values' [4] although adequate
for expansion planning studies, has never being recommended
for operational purposes. The establishment of voltage
stability indices representing the instantaneous margin of
the current operating point with respect to the instability
limit should be the objective for real-time analysis [5]. These
0IEE, 2002
IEE Procredinys online no. 20020282
DOL IO. 1049/ip-gtd:20020282
Paper first received 1 Ith December 2000 and in revised form 21st June 2001
R.B. Prada and E.G.C. Palomino are with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rua Marquss de SBo
Vicente, 225 Gavea, Rio de Janeiro 22453 900, Brazil
J.O.R. dos Santos is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal
Foundation of Superior Education of SHo Joio del-Rei - FUNREI, P r a y Frei
Orlando 170, SBo Joio del-Rei, Mina Gerais, 36300 000, Brazil
A. Bianco and L.A.S. Pilotto are with the Electric Power Research Center -
CEPEL, Av. Um sino, Cidade Universitaria, Rio de Janeiro, 21941 590, Brazil
IEE Proc.-Gener. Transnz. Distrih., Vol. 149, No. 2,March 2002
ments of the network and its controls, and have to be
computed in a short time (few seconds). Such indices could
trigger an automatic network control and protective action
to delay or avoid unstable operating conditions [5]. With
this objective, t h s paper presents a comprehensive and
meaningful network voltage stability assessment tool.
2 Analytical tool
The primary objective is to identify whether a load voltage
at bus i is in the upper or lower half of the V x P, Q curve
[I], as well as the distance to the 'tip of the nose'. The upper
half is the usual region of operation whle the lower half is
the abnormal region of operation where voltage control
actions may have the opposite effect if loads behave as a
constant power sink. The 'tip of the nose' is the maximum
amount of active and reactive power that can be transmitted
to a load or from a generator. The corresponding voltage
magnitude is the minimum voltage for normal operation [6].
The linearised system of load flow equations is
Rearranging terms by putting the equations related to the
bus under analysis to the bottom of the system (1)
where submatrices'A, B, C and D originate from a partition
of full Jacobian matrix [Jl. Assuming incremental load (or
generation) variation AP and AQ only on bus i, Le.
A€" = AQ' = 0, the system (2) is reduced to dimension
(2 x 2)
(3)
where
[D'] = [D] - [C]* [A-'1 * [B] (4)
Therefore, the voltage magnitude and angle sensitivity
relationships in relation to active and reactive power at bus i
175
taking into account the whole system, can be verified by (3) As in (4): p’]= [D]-[C] * [A-.’] * PI, and using (12) and
[7]. It is to be demonstrated that the determinant sign and (13) it may be written as
magnitude of matrix [D’] indicate, respectively, the region of
operation and the distance to the maximum. det[D’]=det[(’ y i ) + ( b l
2! b2 b4
b3)] (14)

2.1 Matrix [D’l determinant magnitude Therefore

The power flow arriving at the load bus i in a two-bus
det[D’] = [ x . u - y . z ] + [ x . b 4 - y y b 3 ]
system is equal to the power consumed by the load.
Considering k as the generator bus, the matrix p’] + [bl . u - 6 2 . + [bl . b4 - b2 . b3]
Z]
(15)
determinant is calculated by But
det[D] = [ x . u - y . z ] (16)
and then
where
= y2GI,+ K & ( GfkCOS d , k + Blk Sin e l k )
+
det[D’] = det[D] [x . b4 - y . b3]
(6)
+ +
[bl . u - 62 ’ z ] [bl ‘ 6 4 - 62. b3]
(17)

+
Qf = - y2Blz E & ( GfkSin e l k - Blk COS Q l k ) (7) The result obtained in (11) for a two-bus system where
Solving (5) with (6) and (7) p’] [D], is now extended to a multinode system. Multi-
plying both sides of (17) by V ,
det[D’] = - K b2( G i +B i )
det[D’] * = dct[D] * V; - S,2 (18)
+ 2 K2BII( &GIkSin elk - &BIk COS e l k ) (8)
where
- 2 Y2G,,( VkGIk COS e l k + VkBzk Sin elk)
= -K{[xbq yb3] + [biu 6221 + [bib4 b2b3]}
Making Y;, = (e&+ and multiplying both sides of (8)
@k)
- - -

(19)
by VI
det[D’] * K =- [K&xkl2
or
det[D’] * K S,2
+ 2 y2Bll[ 6 & (GZk Sin efk - Blk COS e l k ) ]
=S i - (20)
- S:

-2 c2GI,[ K & (G,k COS e l k f B,k sin elk)]

Expression (20) is the generalisation of (1 1) for a multinode
system. From (18), the new term s‘, of (20) is
(9) Si = (det[D] - det[D’]) * K (21)
On the other hand, the power injected into bus i may be
written as SI = PI+jQI. From (6) and (7) For a multinode system it may be stated that

S,” =e2+ = K4(G: + B:) + Y2. G 2 .qi
+ 2 y 2 G , ,K &(Gk cos + Blk sin
OLk
- 2y2B,,6 &(G,k Sin e l k - Btk COS e l k )
Making SI, = Vf . x, and comparing (9) with (lo), finally
we obtain
det[D’] * V; = S i - S,’
This is an important result. The term S$ is a function of the
admittance matrix diagonal element and of the voltage
magnitude. Supposing constant voltage, and increasing the
load SI,maximum transmission is achieved when is equal
to goand therefore det[D’]* V , = 0.
For a two-bus system it may be stated that
SI is the power injected into bus i at the operating point
under analysis
SI, is the maximum power flow that can be transmitted to
bus i (given by S,, = Vf . Y J .
detp’]+ V, is an indicator of the distance from S: to Si.
The result may be extended to a multinode system. Let [D]
be the matrix of the linear relationships of active and
reactive power with voltage magnitude and angle at bus i.
Sfis the power injected into bus i at the operating point
under analysis
8ik) (10) SI, is the ‘maximum maxirnorum’ power that may be
injected into bus i (gven by S,,= V?. Y,,)
S, is the power related to the whole system and which
limits the injection into bus i (given by
Si = (detp]-det[D’]* VJ
(11) S, = is the maximum power that could be
injected into bus i
det[D’]*V, is the distance frcpm Sf to S$
2 Therefore, S,-Sf is the margin between the injected power
and the maximum calculated for that operating point.
2.2 Matrix D l determinant sign
Fig. 1 shows voltage magnitude and angle locus for Pi
constant, Q, constant and 4, constant where PI is the active
power flow arriving at a load bus i, Q, is the reactive power
flow and 4, is the power factor angle of the active and
reactive flows. Two voltage solutions are shown: point
A is the upper half of the V < P, Q curve and point B is
the lower half. When load increases, the two solutions
come closer and only one exists at the maximum: point C.
The active and reactive power flow gradient vectors are
shown at operating points A, B and C. They may be
written as

VP --
ap, .i 4--
aP,
.j + 0.k
- ae, aK
Let OQ, = 2.i -t 2.j + 0.k
aQ aQ
-[C] * [A-I] * [B] = [:: it] 88,
where i, j and k are the vectors of an orthonormal basis

116 IEE Proc -Gener Trunsm Dwtrib , Vol 149, No 2, Murch 2002

Fig. 1 Locution of gradient vectors oj P,and Q, in the V x Bplane
x-axis voltage angle
y-axls: voltage magmtude
The vectorial product is
and therefore,
VP, x OQ, = det[D']
(24)
As
OP,x OQ, = IVP,/ * lOQ,l * sin fi (25)
then
det[D'] = IVP,I * lOQ,I * sinp (26)
where p is the angle between V P , and OQ,.
As the sign of detp'] is a function of sin jonly, then
det[D']>O if sinp>O i.e. O"<p< 180"
det[D']<O if sinp<O i.e. O">p> - 180"
det[D'] = Oif sinp = 0 Le. ,!I= h180"
Taking VP, as the reference axis in Fig. 1, it may be
observed that O o < ~ < 1 8 0 0 in the normal region of
operation and Oo>p>-lSOo in the abnormal region. At
the maximum, the gradient vectors VP, and OQ, are
aligned and the angle p is _+ 180". Therefore, det[D'] > O
indicates the upper half of the V x P, Q curve and
det[D']<O indicates the lower half. Obviously, det[D'] = 0
indicates the 'tip of the nose'. It is easy to infer that the
angle p is also an indicator of the region of operation and of
the (angular) distance to the maximum.
2.3 Interpretation of indices
The value (Slw-SJis the margin between the injected power
and the maximum calculated for the operating point under
analysis. The sign of the angle p is an indicator of the region
of operation.
All calculated values are only valid instantaneously
because they are calculated for a specific operating point.
They may become meaningless in the following minute
because of load and generation change, reactive compensa-
tion or LTC tap hits limits, the system behaviour is
nonlinear, etc. Therefore, the analysis is to be performed
with caution especially in relation to margins. There is no
index based on a specific operating point capable of
prediction.
The proposed set of indices solved two classical problems.
The first is the interpretation of index size: Is S,, = 100 large
or small? Is it large for one bus and small for another?
Looking at SI solves the question. For example, if S, = 10
IEE Proc -Gener T,unrm Dlstrrh , Vol 149 No 2, Mrrrch 2002
and SI = 1, 'then the margin is nine times the injection. If
S, = 99 and S, = 100, then the margin is around 0.01 of
the amount injected.
The second problem is the relative importance a
buses e.g. for the location of operational control actions or
the installation of new compensation devices. The question
is solved by looking at (S,-SI) (the smaller it is, the worse
the situation) divided by S, (the larger it is, the more
important the bus).
A margin in per unit of S, may be defined, including the
region of operation, for each bus i
M=
(I - -):
The critical bus is the one with the smallest margin M.
Therefore, it is straightforward to classify buses according
to their degree of loading.
A sensitivity index (ST)may also be defined for
i to translate the eff'ects of a control action or load
on the margin
SI = (sign of Po)
E:
-- 1
I
where Mo is the orignal margin and M , is the margin after
the control action or load increase. If SI is positive, the
control action was beneficial to the margin. If SI is negative,
the control action was detrimental to the margin. Therefore,
the effect of reinforcement actions is easily evaluated: it is
straightforward to compare the network loadability of two
different operating points.
Angle translates a measure of transmission difficult.
The maximum is nearby when it approaches 180" even if the
injection is small and the margin large. In that case, a s
increase in SI would cause a substantial reduction in Sn2.
The linearised system model (1) includes local and remote
voltage control mechanisms such as LTCs and variable
reactive power sources. Their inclusion affects the indices
S, and p. Generator reactive production/abso@tion limits
depends on the terminal voltage and active power output.
When a limit is reached, a constant voltage behind the
synchronous reactance models the generator. The location
and number of generation buses responsible for supplying
the incremental generation to balance incremental load
change at bus i and losses variation also affect the indices
S, and /3 and therefore, are modelled in (1).
The value of indices S,wand fi 'jump' whenever voltage
control in a nearby bus is lost. There is no index capable of
predicting that. However, as the nodal indices SI, and p
were designed for real-time operation, and the voltage
stability assessment tool is executed periodically say, every
10min, then the index traclung is retained. All events, which
may lead to 'index jump', are considered as contingencies.
These events include reactive power production exhaustion,
LTC taps reaching limits, tripping of generators and SVCs.
3 Computational aspects
The analysis is to be performed for each bus, for the base-
case and for the contingency cases. Although heuristic rules
may be applied to select a set of representative buses of the
whole system, and also to select subsets of buses affected by
each contingency, it is imperative that the calculation of
matrix [D'] be extremely efficient.
Let [Jl be the load flow Jacobian matnx, with dimension
(2nbus x 2nbus) which may be partitioned into four
submatrices A, B, C and D as previously shown. (The
diagonal elements of [Jl,which are the derivatives of the
active equation in relation to the voltage angle of the swing
177
bus, and the derivatives of the reactive equations in relation Table 1: Network voltage stability assessment results at
to the voltage magnitudes of the voltage controlled buses, 6.00 p.m.
are all substituted by very large numbers).
Matrix @)I' with dimension (2 x 2), is calculated by (4). Bus number and Voltage Si S, M
As 2nbus >>2, all the computational effort consists of name
solving [A] p]= [B] where [XI has the same dimension as
10 ANGRA-lMQ* 1.035 6.85 7.5 178 0.09
PJ
Each system bus analysis requires a new partition of [Jl. 44 GRAJAU-2CSK 0.978 0.35 23.3 -136 -0.98
However, each matrix [A] is exactly as [Jl except that two 48 IBIUNA3CS* 1.039 2.08 67.5 -49 -0.97
rows and columns were taken out. This does not need to be 50 T.PRET0-ICs* 1.000 3.03 11.6 160 0.74
explicitly done, only it is necessary to substitute the two 60 F.IGUACU-765 0.968 639 63.5 41 0.90
diagonal elements by very large numbers. The problem 61 FOZ-500-60HZ 1.024 000 79.6 36 1.oo
summary is
65 IVAIPORA-765 0.990 0 00 46.0 72 1.oo
matrix [Jl dimension (2nbus x 2nbus) is known 66 IVAIPORA-525 0.970 000 48.7 82 1.oo
triangular factors [L] and M are known 67 IVAIPORA-69 1.024 0.00 25.9 85 1.oo
matrix [Jl is (implicitly) modified by the exclusion of two 72 ITABERA-765 0.97 1 6.41 38.8 95 0.83
rows and columns, resulting in matrix [A] 76 T.PRET0-765 0.909 3.00 36.9 134 0.92
solve the modified linear system [A] p]= [B] 77 T.PRET0-500 1.049 0.00 33.5 142 1.oo
78 T.PRET0-345 1.020 6.12 42.5 150 0.86
The problem may be efficiently solved by well known
compensation methods, based on the inverse matrix 79T.PRETO-69 0.896 0.00 18.5 124 1.oo
modification lemma [8]. 86 IBIUNA-345 1.033 80.27 90.0 130 0.1 1
It has been proved [9] that the elements of the inverse of 87 IBIUNA-500 1.067 Ct.00 34.8 130 1.oo
matrix [D'] are triangular factors of [J and to take them 104 C.PAULIS-500 1.021 Cl.00 32.9 160 1.oo
from there only four fast forward substitutions are
105 ANGRA-500 1.028 Cl.00 30.4 157 1.oo
necessary.
It is desirable to assess the reactive power injection into 106 ADRIANO-500 q.999 0.00 27.0 167 1.oo
PV buses. If only incremental reactive power variation is 107 GRAJAU-500 1.005 0.00 26.9 167 1.oo
possible, the critical conditions is to be verified by d e t v ] 108 S.JOSE-500 1.oob 0.00 25.0 166 1.oo
divided by dl,', element of [D']., Each system PV bus 140 ADRIANO-345 0.967 3.14 19.3 165 0.84
analysis requires a new partition of [Jl as before for load 173 ADRIANO-I38 1.023 0.00 12.2 158 1.oo
buses. Each matrix [A] is exactly as [Jl, except that only one
178 GRAJAU-138 0.999 0.00 34.1 169 1.oo
row and column were removed [9].
183 C.PAULIS-I38 0.994 0.00 17.8 144 1.oo
3. I Contingency analysis 185 ANGRA-138 1.032 0.41 5.9 110 0.93
The scheme to avoid the calculation of matrix [D'] for all 1106 ITAIPU60-500 1.026 0.00 83.6 356 1.oo
system buses for every contingency is very simple although 1107 ITAIPUGO-7MQ' 1.030 54.48 72.9 -98 -0.25
efficient: calculate detp'] in the buses directly associated ~~ ~

with the contingency and in the bus layers around the
disturbance until the postcontingency value becomes equal
to the precontingency ones. Tolerances are to be compatible
with those used in power flow calculations [9].
4 Network loading assessment
The ltaipu bulk transmission network in the SjSE Brazilian
system was used for demonstration purposes. The operating
point corresponds to 6:OO p.m. minutes before a major
bhckout occurred on the 24th April 1997. The active power
consumption was going to break the record established nine
days previously. Some reactive power compensation devices
were out-of-service.
Table 1 shows the results for selected buses: the voltage in
per unit, the injected power S, in per unit of 100 MVA, the
maximum power which may be injected into bus i S,, in per
unit of 100 MVA, the angle /3 in degrees, and the margin A4
in per unit of Snl. At the maximum transmission flow,
SI = s,,,, p = f180", M = 0.
At the end of radial lines (not shown in Table 1) SI z S,
and p approaches 180". It may also appear in generator
buses such the bus 10 ANGRA-1MQ in Table 1.
It may happen that SI << S, and p approaches 180".
Therefore, the problem is not caused by the nodal injection
into that bus but rather by the conditions of the system near
by. That is the case for bus 178 GRAJAU-138 in Table 1.
In the case of buses at the end of radial lines (there is no
example in Table 1) it may be that S, z S,, and p is around
* voltage controlled bus
-180". However, in meshed networks, it may be that
SI << S, and there are negative values of 8, far from - 180".
These negative angles appear especially in voltage controlled
buses when voltage control actions have the opposite effect.
Table 1 shows negative angles for PV buses 44 GRAJAU-
2CS, 48 IBIUNA-3CS, and 1107 ITAIPU60-7MQ. Table 1
indicates there was proper koltage control at buses 10
ANGRA-1MQ and 50 T.PRET0-ICs.
The calculation of M provides the most critical buses.
They are 1107 ITAIPU60-7MQ, 48 IBIUNA-3CS, and 44
GRAJAU-2CS with negative values followed by 10
ANGRA-1MQ and 86 IBIUNA-345. This order may vary
from one operating point to another.
Table 2 shows the analysis results for the same system at
3:OO p.m., i.e. three hours previously. It should be noted that
injections S, are smaller than those at 6:OO p.m. except at
bus 44 whch has larger reactive generation, bus 185 with a
larger shunt capacitor, and at bus 1107 with a larger active
and reactive generation. The margins M in MVA in Table 2
are larger than those in Table 1 for all buses (with SI # 0)
denoting a stronger operating point.
Voltage controlled bus 44 GRAJAU-2CS presents
proper voltage control at 3:OO p.m. (p>O) but not at 6:OO
p.m. (p<O). In other words, reactive power generation and
voltage magnitude move in the same direction at 3:OO p.m.

178 IEE Proc.-Gerzer. Trarum. Dbtrib., Vol. 149, No. 2, Murch 2002
Table 2: Network voltage stability assessment results (3:OO p.m.1

Bus number and name Voltage Si srn P M SI

10 ANGRA-1MQ* 1.020 6.06 19.7 107 0.69 -0.87
44 GRAJAU-ZCS* 0.979 0.55 10.1 172 0.95 -0.04
48 IBIUNA-3CS“ 1.021 0.86 13.4 -127 -0.94 -0.04
507.PRETO-1CS* 1.050 2.92 26.2 108 0.89 -0.17
60 F.IGUACU-765 0.964 6.36 69.4 34 0.91 -0.01
61 FOZ-500-60HZ 1.021 0.00 84.1 32 1.oo 0.00
65 IVAIPORA-765 0.987 0.00 57.3 55 1.oo 0.00
66 IVAIPORA-525 1.014 0.00 57.2 64 1.oo 0.00
67 IVAIPORA-69 1.012 0.00 27.1 78 1.oo 0.00
72 ITABERA-765 0.980 6.47 52.3 73 0.87 -0.05
76T.PRETO-765 0.939 3.10 56.6 107 0.95 -0.03
77 T.PRET0-500 1.080 0.00 51.8 115 1.oo 0.00
78T.PRETO-345 1.029 8.23 . 71.1 125 0.88 -0.03
79 T.PRET0-69 0.930 0.00 24.6 102 1.oo 0.00
86 IBIUNA-345 1.042 78.92 104.9 105 0.25 -0.56
87 IBIUNA-500 1.089 0.00 50.5 106 1.oo 0.00
104 C.PAULIS-500 1.062 0.00 54.1 137 1.oo 0.00
105 ANGRA-500 1.061 0.00 46.9 129 1.oo 0.00
106 ADRIANO-500 1.055 0.00 46.0 146 1.oo 0.00
107 GRAJAU-500 1.043 0.00 44.3 145 1.oo 0.00
108 S.JOSE-500 1.054 0.00 41.9 144 1.oo 0.00
140 ADRIANO-345 1.025 3.33 34.2 140 0.90 -0.07
173 ADRIANO-I38 1.046 0.00 21.9 130 1.oo 0.00
178 GRAJAU-138 1.007 0.00 54.1 149 1.oo 0.00
183 C.PAULIS-138 1.044 0.00 25.3 116 1.oo 0.00
185 ANGRA-138 1.025 0.45 7.1 100 0.94 -0.01
1106 ITAIPU60-500 1.023 0.00 87.8 32 1.oo 0.00
1107 ITAIPU60-7MQ* 1.030 56.16 65.5 - 40 -0.14 -0.77

* voltage controlled bus

but in reverse direction at 6:OO p.m. This could have been
the primary cause of the blackout since it has been
described as: ‘progressive voltage decay at bus 44, followed
by bus 1107, and the consequent AC/DC inverter trip-off at
bus 86 due to abnormal low voltage’. The voltage controlled
bus 1107 ITAIPU60-7MQ presents inadequate voltage
control at 3:OO p.m. and also at 6:OO p.m. (p<O).
Comparing Tables 1 and 2 one would conclude that
conditions for system blackout were already present at 3:OO
p.m. and deteriorated with load increase. Table 2 shows the
sensitivity index SI for 6:OO p.m. in relation to the 3:OO p.m.
conditions. For all buses with S, # 0, indices SIare negative
indicating that the 6:OO pm operating point is weaker than
the 3:OO p.m. one.
Table 3 shows the effects of the loss of voltage control at
bus 50T.PRETO-1CS on indices S,,, and p. The operating
point is that one of Table 2. Two situations are considered:
first, the voltage at bus 50 is controlled, i.e. bus 50 is PV;
and secondly, the voltage at bus 50 is not controlled because
the synchronous compensator connected to the bus reached
its limit, Le. bus 50 is PQ. Comparing the values of SLv and
SEQa reduction is recognised when the voltage is no longer
controlled, especially on nearby buses such as 76 T.PRE-
TO-765, 77 T.PRET0-500 and 78 T.PRET0-345. The
reduction of S,, indicates system deterioration. Comparing
the values of pPv and ppQ it seen that there is an increase
when the voltage is no longer controlled. The increase also
indicates system worsening. Table 3 shows the sensitivity
IEE ProcGener. Trunsm. Distrib.. Vol. 149, No. 2. March 2002
index SI for the case when bus 50 is PQ in relation to the
case when bus 50 is PV. In this table SI is defined as
SI = (sign~fp~~)[(~~Q/~~~)-~]
For all buses, indices SI are negative indicating that the
system with bus 50 PQ is weaker than that with bus 50 PV.
The operating point is the same in both situations.
Table 3 also shows that the relationship between the
reactive power and voltage at bus 44 GRAJAU-2CS has
moved from the upper half (/?= + 172) to the lower half
(p = - 179) of the V x Q curve. Furthermore, the relation-
ship between the reactive power and voltage at bus 48
IBIUNA-3CS has slipped down in the V x Q curve, from
S, = 13.4 and p = -127 to S, = 36.1 and p = -82).
Again, these indicate system downfall.
Computational efficiency is adequate for real-time
operation including contingency analysis. The calculation
of the determinant of [D’] for all 1758 buses of the S/SE
Brazilian system took 3.98s on a Pentium I1 300MHz
microcomputer. Each contingency affected 133 buses on
average. The time taken to select the affected buses is
negligible. The time taken to compute the determinant of
[D’] for 133 buses is 0.3 s.
5 Conclusions
This paper has presented a comprehensive and meaningful
network voltage stability assessment tool suitable for
179
Table 3: Network voltage stability assessment results (3:OO p.m.1 with/without voltage control sit bus 50

Bus 50 PV Bus 50 PQ
Bus number and name Voltage Si cv BPV s’,” SI

10 ANGRA-1MQ* 1.020 6.06 19.7 107 18.0 117 -0.09

44 GRAJAU-ZCS” 0.979 0.55 10.1 172 1.8 -179 -0.82
48 IBIUNA-3CSY 1.021 0.86 13.4 -127 36.1 -82 -1.69
50 T.PRET0-1CS** 1.050 2.92 26.2 108 26.2 108 0.00
60 F.IGUACU-765 0.964 6.36 69.4 34 66.2 31 -0.05
61 FOZ-500-60 HZ 1.021 0.00 84.1 32 80.9 29 -0.04
65 IVAIPORA-765 0.987 0.00 57.3 55 52.7 53 -0.08
66 IVAIPORA-525 1.014 0.00 57.2 64 53.7 62 -0.06
67 IVAIPORA-69 1.012 0.00 27.1 78 23.9 75 -0.12
72 ITABERA-765 0.980 6.47 52.3 73 46.9 73 -0.10
76 T.PRET0-765 0.939 3.10 56.6 107 48.8 110 -0.14
77 T.PRET0-500 1.080 0.00 51.8 115 45.6 120 -0.12
78T.PRETO-345 1.029 8.23 71.1 125 57.0 129 -0.20
79 T.PRET0-69 0.930 0.00 24.6 102 23.1 106 -0.06
86 IBIUNA-345 1.042 78.92 104.9 105 99.2 110 -0.05
87 IBIUNA-500 1.089 0.00 50.5 106 46.3 111 -0.08
104 C.PAULIS-500 1.062 0.00 54.1 137 49.2 143 -0.09
105 ANGRA-500 1.061 0.00 46.9 129 44.0 135 -0.06
106 ADRIANO-500 1.055 0.00 46.0 146 42.9 150 -0.07
107 GRAJAU-500 1.043 0.00 44.3 145 41.6 150 -0.06
108 S.JOSE-500 1.054 0.00 41.9 144 39.3 148 -0.06
140 ADRIANO-345 1.025 3.33 34.2 140 32.3 145 -0.05
173 ADRIANO-138 1.046 0.00 21.9 130 20.8 134 -0.05
178 GRAJAU-138 1.007 0.00 54.1 149 51.0 153 -0.06
183 C.PAULIS-138 1.044 0.00 25.3 116 24.0 121 -0.05
185 ANGRA-138 1.025 0.45 7.1 100 6.9 101 -0.03
1106 ITAIPU60-500 1.023 0.00 87.8 32 84.6 29 -0.04
1107 ITAIPUGO-8MQ” 1.030 56.16 65.5 -40 68.5 -56 -0.05

* voltage controlled bus** from PV to PO bus

operational purposes including real-time operation. Active
and reactive power flows that can be transmitted from
generators to loads are evaluated. The proposed two nodal
indices S,,, and p have physical meaning: they indicate the
MVA margin to the maximum and the region of operation.
The size of the margin is correctly interpreted. There is no
problem of scaling, i.e. the relative importance among buses
is well established. A measure of difficulty in power
transmission is given. Indices are calculated for all buses,
including the generator and compensator buses. Although
several popular indices ignore them, results have shown that
Q- I/ relationships must be assessed in PV buses even with
reactive power generation reserve. They play a major rule in
meshed network loadability and long term voltage collapse.
The location of stressed network areas is immediately
shown out because the indices are nodal. There is no
difficulty in classifying buses according to their degree of
loading. The effect of reinforcement actions is easily
evaluated i.e. it is straightforward to compare the network
loadability of two different operating points. The adequacy
and applicability of the proposed indices are corroborated
by the numerical results presented for the Itaipu bulk
transmission network in the S/SE of Brazil immediately
before a voltage stability blackout in April 1997. Computa-
tional efficiency is no burden for real-time operation
including contingency analysis for real systems such as the
1758 bus SjSE one.
Advanced online applications will significantly improve
the security and efficiency of the operation of the electric
power grid for the benefit of all users.
6 Acknowledgments
This work was carried out under contract 16/98 between
CEPEL and PUC/Rio. The first and second authors
acknowledge support from the Brazilian Government
Research Agency (CNPq).
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