Computers and Chemical Engineering 25 (2001) 571– 576

www.elsevier.com/locate/compchemeng

Shape and terminal velocity of single bubble motion: a novel

approach
G. Bozzano *, M. Dente
CIIC Department, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza L. da Vinci, 32, 20133 Milano, Italy

Received 10 May 2000; accepted 5 January 2001

Abstract

The relative terminal rising velocity of a single gas bubble, moving into a liquid phase, is determined by its size, by the
interfacial tension, by the density and viscosity of the surrounding liquid. Both shape and velocity are strongly interacting. Along
the years several methods have been presented for solving the problem of bubble deformation and relative rising velocity, at least
in connection with some specific regimes of motion and/or shape of bubble. In this work, a new approach is proposed. © 2001
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bubble shape; Bubble rising velocity; Total energy minimization

Nomenclature

Reynolds Re = zLD0U0/vL
number
Eötvös Eo =(zL −zg)gD 20/|
number
Morton Mo =gv 4c /zL| 3
number
e1, e2 eccentricity of the two semi-spheroids defined as e=
1 −b 2/a 2
f friction factor
U absolute bubble terminal velocity
U0 bubble terminal velocity in infinite environment
6D absolute descending velocity
CD drag coefficient
a bubble major semi-axis
b1, b2 bubble minor semi-axes
x b1/R0
y b2/R0
L liquid
G gas
D0 diameter of the equivalent spherical bubble
D equator diameter of the spheroid
Dt tube diameter
R0 radius of the equivalent spherical bubble
| surface tension

* Corresponding author.

0098-1354/01/$ - see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 9 8 - 1 3 5 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 6 3 6 - 6
572 G. Bozzano, M. Dente / Computers and Chemical Engineering 25 (2001) 571–576
1. Introduction
The understanding of bubble motion mechanism is
essential for many gas – liquid operations, not only re-
lated to chemical processes applications. Even if in
practical applications the overall motion regards bub-
bles swarms, the behavior of the single bubble (i.e.
spoiled of the interactions with the other surrounding
bubbles) can support a better knowledge of the overall.
The present work has been concentrated on the single
bubble behavior: this is by itself a quite complex prob-
lem, particularly when the main purpose is to cover a
wide range of liquid phase properties and bubble size.
Some theories have been presented in the literature
covering specific aspects of the problem (Levich, 1962;
Batchelor, 1970; Bhaga & Weber, 1981; Grace, 1973;
Mendelson, 1960; Sadhal, Ayyaswamy, & Chung,
1997). Different bubble shape and fluid-dynamic
regimes, and, in correspondence, drag coefficients have
Fig. 1. Basic shape of the bubble and asymptotic degeneration.
Fig. 2. Wall effect.
Fig. 3. Air bubbles in water.
been studied. The starting point of the studies related to
bubble motion has been the assumption of a spherical
shape for the bubble with internal recirculations
(Hadamard, 1911; Rybczynski, 1911) and creeping flow
regime. They obtained a drag coefficient equal to 2/3 of
that typical of rigid spherical body. However the exper-
imental data indicate that sometimes very small bubbles
of air in water seem to behave like rigid body (and
therefore without internal recirculations). Frumkin and
Levich (1947) justified the phenomenon with the pres-
ence of even small amounts of impurities acting as
tensioactive substances that can be collected at the
gas –liquid interface. This possible accumulation of im-
purities can give place to surface tension gradients and
therefore to an increase of the bubble friction factor
towards that of a rigid sphere.
In the case of bubble in water and Reynolds numbers
greater than 600, significant deformations can be ob-
served. Mendelson (1960) proposed a law valid for the
rising velocity of spheroidal air bubbles in water with
an equivalent diameter larger than 1.3 mm. This rela-
tion however does not have a physical justification even
if it offers a satisfactory representation of some experi-
mental data. The validity of the proposed expression is
restricted to Morton numbers less then 10 − 8. Spherical
cap large bubbles were mainly studied by Davies and
Taylor (1950) and subsequently by other researchers
that have proposed some modifications of the drag
coefficient. The theory governing the motion of spheri-
cal cap bubbles has been reported by Batchelor (1970).
Fig. 4. Air bubbles in nitrobenzene.
Fig. 5. Air bubbles in pyridine.
 G. Bozzano, M. Dente / Computers and Chemical Engineering 25 (2001) 571–576 573

Table 1
Properties of some of the liquid used for the experiments (Figs. 3–8)

Pyridine Nitrobenzene Cottonseed oil Glycerol 90.6% Glycerol 99%

Density (g/cm3) 0.987 0.987 0.910 1.235 1.260

Surface tension (g/s2) 36.6 42.5 35.5 64.0 63.0
Viscosity (g/cm/s) 0.0085 0.0167 0.59 1.8 7.75

The second one is constituted by the approximated

generalization of the drag coefficient.

2. Approximated shape and related total energy

The underlying concept of the work is to cover most

Fig. 6. Air bubbles in cottonseed oil.
part of the fluid-dynamic situations and then, corre-
spondingly, all the possible shapes assumed by the
bubble. A good approximation solution can be ob-
tained by minimizing ‘‘the total energy’’ associated to
the bubble. The bubble shape is represented by means

Fig. 7. Air bubbles in glycerol 90.6%.

Fig. 9. Bubble aspect ratio.

Fig. 8. Air bubbles in glycerol 99%.

Small deformations to ellipsoidal bubbles have been

theoretically treated by Taylor and Acrivos (1964) and
improved by Brignell (1974). The approach was based
on some assumptions on the local balance of forces
normal to the interfacial surface. Similar concepts have
been later used by Pruppacher and Pitter (1971).
The first aspect of the present approach has been to
consider that the shape assumed by the rising bubble is
the one minimizing the total energy associated with it. Fig. 10. Terminal velocity versus radius of curvature.
574 G. Bozzano, M. Dente / Computers and Chemical Engineering 25 (2001) 571–576

and b2/R0. A map of the total energy for each bubble

shape can be calculated and then its minimum.

3. Drag coefficient and extended expression

The purpose of this work has been to obtain a drag

coefficient that can cover a wide range of Eötvös and
Morton numbers. The last one essentially represents the
effect of the liquid viscosity against the interfacial ten-
sion. The bubble motion is assumed linear and sec-
ondary motions (i.e. helicoidal, zigzag, oscillating) are
neglected.
When steady state motion has been reached, the
forces balanced around the bubble gives:
zLU 20
(zL − zG)gVB = pa 2 f. (2)
Fig. 11. Effect of Mo number on terminal velocity. 2
By neglecting the gas density in comparison with that
of the liquid, Eq. (2) gives the terminal rising velocity in
of the superposition of two oblate semi-spheroids (Fig. infinite environment
1) having in common the larger semi-axis. Asymptoti- 4 gD0
cally this shape can degenerate towards something re- U 20 = , (3)
3 CD
sembling a spherical-cap or towards a spherical bubble

 
where
(therefore skirted bubble are neglected). The total en-
ergy associated to the bubble is the following: a 2
CD = f . (4)
R0
Etot =Epot +Esup + Ekin, (1)
The proposed generalized friction factor ( f ) is such to
where Epot is the potential energy with reference to the cover a wide range of Reynolds, Eötvös and Morton
upper pole which is

(zL − zG)gVB(3b1 +5b2)/8
Esup =surface energy=|SB
1 b 2 1 + e1 1 b 2 1 +e2
=| 2ya 2 + y 1ln + y 2ln
2 e1 1 − e1 2 e2 1 −e2
Ekin is the kinetic energy of the virtual mass of adherent
liquid displaced by the bubble motion. The last one,
from a theoretical point of view, is a function extremely
complex to be evaluated (because of the bubble shape
and motion conditions). However, as a first approxima-
tion, it can be deduced by extending the expression
obtained for irrotational motion around a spherical
bubble that is also formally similar to that of a circular
disk (Batchelor, 1970). Therefore at sufficiently high
Reynolds numbers it is estimated as:
numbers.
48 1+ 12Mo1/3 Eo3/2
f= + 0.9 .
Re 1+ 36Mo1/3 1.4(1+ 30Mo1/6)+ Eo3/2
(5)
. The expression is the result of the combination of some
asymptotic behaviors. For instance, at low Reynolds
number, it degenerate towards f“48/Re or f“16/Re,
depending on the value of Mo. On the contrary, at high
Re and Eo numbers the friction factor becomes 0.9, i.e.
the typical figure of the spherical cap.
By using the expression 5 for the friction factor, the
total energy minimization procedure depends only on
Mo, Eo, x and y.
The interpolation of the numerical results obtained
through the minimization procedure can give a first
approximation expression of the deformation factor

 
Ekin $ 23pzLa 3U 2. (DEF), resulting in
2
a 2 10(1+ 1.3Mo1/6)+ 3.1Eo
Of course the bubble volume is given by: DEF = = $ . (6)
R0 x+y 10(1+1.3Mo1/6)+ Eo
VB = 43pR 30 = 23pa 2(b1 +b2).
The drag coefficient can be then estimated by the
In principle, the minimization problem appears to be a product of expressions 5 and 6, and therefore it be-
variational one. However the selection made in favor of comes an approximate explicit function of Eo, Mo and
a simple, realistic and flexible shape makes it easy. In Re numbers. Finally by substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3)
fact, the total energy that has to be minimized becomes a simple second order equation is generated, that gives
a function of only two geometrical parameters b1/R0 place to U0.
 G. Bozzano, M. Dente / Computers and Chemical Engineering 25 (2001) 571–576
4. Riser tube diameter effect
A significant number of experiments on bubble rising
velocity have been performed inside limited diameter
tubes. We will neglect the case of bubbles so large to fill
the tube forming a slug. For relatively large bubbles
(D0/Dt \ 0.2/0.3), the presence of the tube wall has the
main effect of reducing the absolute rising velocity
(compared to that attainable in an infinite environ-
ment). A first approximation of this effect can be
estimated as follows. The flowrate entrained by the
bubble wake is about CD/2(p/4D 20)U. For continuity, an
equal flowrate has to descend, crossing the restricted
section between the tube wall and the bubble equatorial
section. This (negative) contribution gives place to a
maximum absolute descending velocity (6D, see Fig. 2)
equivalent to
CD D 20
6D $ U.
2 D 2t −D 2
Therefore the relative velocity (at the equator of the
bubble) is
U0
U0 =U + 6D [ U =
1+
CD/2
.
n (8)
(Dt/D0)2 −DEF
U0 is assumed to be equal to that of the same bubble
rising in an infinite environment, free of walls.
5. Results
The following figures show the comparison between
the proposed model and literature experimental data,
covering a wide range of conditions. They are a sample
of the total satisfactory comparisons that have been
made. Fig. 3 is related to the experimental data of
Haberman and Morton (1956) on air bubbles in water.
The experimental apparatus was a large size basin (the
David Taylor Model Basin, Bryn, 1949). As it is possi-
ble to observe, the range of bubble size, and, as a
consequence, the fluid-dynamic regimes covered by the
model, is wide and well represented.
Figs. 4–6 are referred to the experiments of Peebles
and Garber (1953) performed in a 2.62 cm diameter
tube. Also in this case the agreement can be considered
satisfactory particularly taking into account that a very
wide range of liquid properties and bubble size has
been covered.
Finally Figs. 7 and 8 show the comparison of simula-
tion results with the data of Calderbank, Johnson, and
Loudon (1970). The system is constituted respectively
by 90.6% and 99% glycerol in water. The tube diameter
is 10.6 cm. These comparisons demonstrate the model
prediction abilities for bubble motion in high viscosity
environments.
575
The physical data of some of the liquids that have
been used for the experiments (Figs. 3–8) are reported
in Table 1. A wide range of the liquid phase physical
properties has been covered. In order to verify also the
ability of the model in predicting the geometrical aspect
of the bubble some comparisons have been made re-
garding the aspect ratio and the radius of curvature of
the bubble. A sample of the obtained results is shown
in Figs. 9 and 10.
Finally Fig. 11 shows the dependence of terminal
velocity from the equivalent diameter at different Mo
numbers. It is worth observing that for low Mo num-
bers (quite less than 10 − 7 –10 − 8) a relative maximum
and minimum are present. However, when Mo number
becomes larger (i.e. for very viscous fluids) the behavior
of the velocity becomes monotonic and for the same
value of Eo number the aspect ratio of the bubble is
higher. A meaningful example of this phenomenon is,
(7) for instance, constituted by the air bubbling into
molten glass furnaces: in this case the Mo number can
be as high as 106 –1010. The bubble behaves as spherical
and moving in creeping flow regime even if the equiva-
lent diameter is 10 cm. The transition value of Mo
between the two different behaviors has been demon-
strated by means of the model to be in the order of
magnitude of 10 − 7 –10 − 8.
6. Conclusions
The presented new approach brings to a unified
model for the description, in extended fluid-dynamic
conditions, of a single bubble motion. Both terminal
velocity and shape of the bubble can be determined.
The comparison with different literature experimental
data, covering a wide range of physical properties and
bubble sizes, is very satisfactory.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Rita Bizzozzero and
Christina Kühlwetter for their contributions to the
computational efforts during their master thesis work
on the present subject.
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