metalik 18
soumya Soman 1 dan AR Ajitha 2
University, Kottayam, Kerala, India, 2 Internasional dan Inter University Center untuk
Abstrak
Kata kunci: biomaterial logam; kobalt kromium paduan; titanium dan paduannya;
korosi; sensitivitas logam
18.1 Pendahuluan
Peningkatan pelayanan kesehatan medis selama beberapa tahun terakhir telah menyebabkan
peningkatan penggunaan implan [1] . peningkatan kemajuan medis dan tuntutan biologis
menentukan persyaratan implan. biomaterial metalik adalah kelompok yang paling dominan dari
bahan yang digunakan dalam implan yang sangat ketegangan-loaded. Mereka sistem rekayasa
dikembangkan untuk memberikan dukungan internal untuk jaringan biologi [2] . Mereka digunakan
sebagian besar dalam penggantian sendi (sendi buatan misalnya sendi pinggul), alat fiksasi tulang
belakang, kuku, tulang pelat dan sekrup, implan gigi, stent, dan fiksasi ortopedi. Selain itu,
penggunaannya untuk membentuk perangkat kardiovaskular (katup jantung buatan, saluran darah,
dan komponen lain dari hati membantu perangkat, stent pembuluh darah) dan implan neurovaskular
(klip aneurisma) telah mendapatkan perhatian yang cukup besar. Konduktivitas listrik yang baik dari
Implan
koklea
Intacts
Implan Gigi
kardiovaskuler
prostesis Implan
Pacemaker Bahu
Penggantian
artroplasti
prostetik
Lumbar Disc
acetabular
prosthesis
Lutut Joint
fiksasi
tulang
perangkat stimulasi neuromuskuler, contoh yang paling umum adalah alat pacu
jantung. biomaterial logam dapat digunakan tidak hanya sebagai pengganti jaringan
keras yang gagal tetapi juga dalam rekonstruksi jaringan lunak seperti pembuluh
darah.
Perkembangan biomaterial metalik biofunctional tergantung pada pemahaman
sifat-sifat jaringan biologi dan organ. Cara-cara di mana biomaterial bereaksi dengan
tubuh juga harus dipahami dengan baik untuk pengembangan lebih lanjut dari
biomaterial logam yang aman untuk digunakan dalam tubuh manusia. Oleh karena
itu, modifikasi permukaan bioaktif atau biofunctional harus dilakukan pada
biomaterial metalik untuk mencapai sifat biologis yang diperlukan. Gambar. 18.1
menggambarkan biomaterial untuk aplikasi manusia.
Unsur-unsur utama dari paduan ini termasuk kobalt, kromium, molibdenum dan.
Hal ini memungkinkan pembuatan implan disesuaikan, untuk frame misalnya
subperiosteal.
(Ti-6AI-4V, Ti-5AL-2,5 Fe,
Bahan
paduan Cobalt-Chromium
Titanium,
Nitinol,
paduan titanium
prostesis penggantian sendi, stent,
kateter rekonstruksi Orbit, implan gigi,
piring fraktur ortopedi, katup jantung,
batang tulang belakang, prostesis
aplikasi besar
penggantian sendi piring tengkorak,
rekonstruksi orbit, rekonstruksi rahang
piring kranial, ortopedi
atas, gigi implan , kabel gigi, ortopedi
piring fraktur, implan gigi,
fraktur piring, prostesis penggantian
batang tulang belakang,
sendi, stent, kateter ablasi
Gambar 18.2 logam biomedis utama dan paduan mereka dan aplikasi [4] .
414 Biomaterial mendasar: Logam
Kobalt komponen menyediakan fase kontinyu untuk sifat dasar sementara kromium
memberikan ketahanan korosi karena lapisan oksida dan molibdenum memberi
kekuatan dan ketahanan korosi [5,6] .
18.2.2 Titanium
Ini memiliki catatan yang baik dari berhasil digunakan sebagai bahan implan karena
biokompatibilitas yang sangat baik dan karena pembentukan lapisan oksida stabil di
permukaan [7,8] . Ti adalah bahan pilihan untuk banyak aplikasi karena
kemampuannya untuk memperbaiki dirinya sendiri dan ketahanan terhadap serangan
kimia [7,8] . Salah satu kelemahan utama menggunakan Ti sebagai biomaterial adalah
warna abu-abu titanium menjadi menonjol dan dapat dilihat melalui mukosa tipis.
18.2.4 Zirconia
Pada awal 1990-an, zirconia digunakan untuk operasi prostetik gigi. Cranin dan
rekan kerja adalah yang pertama untuk melaporkan zirkonia pada tahun 1975
[13] . Struktur zirconia polimorfik hadir dalam tiga bentuk kristal zirkonia, yaitu
monoklinik (M), kubik (C), dan tetragonal (T). Tetragonal zirconia polikristal (TZPs),
yang mengandung fase tetragonal hanya dapat diperoleh dengan menambahkan
yttrium pada suhu kamar. Yttriastabilized TZP memiliki porositas rendah,
kepadatan tinggi, lentur, dan kekuatan kompresi dan cocok untuk aplikasi
biomedis [14] .
Di antara logam bioinert yang berbeda, bedah baja stainless (316L), kobalt
kromium (CoCr) paduan, dan titanium (Ti) paduan logam yang paling umum digunakan
untuk fiksasi fraktur, angioplasty, dan remodeling tulang [16] . This is mainly due to
their long-term stability under highly reactive in vivo conditions. Under the highly
reactive microenvironment material degradation may occur, which may induce local
tissue damage and inflammatory reactions. Metal hypersensitivity and gradual
osteolysis of adjacent tissues are the major problems associated with the damage.
The metallic biomaterials are physiologically inert and possess high corrosion
resistance due to the formation of a passive film on their surfaces. These passive and
inert oxide layers are surrounded by the body environment and prevent the adverse
effects like inflammation, restenosis, and stress shielding caused by orthopedic
implants [17] . Thus, the rate of corrosion is low on implants such as stainless steel
(SS), Co Cr, and Ti-based alloys and they are self-protected [18,19] . Therefore, the
success of the implant over a long period is controlled by keeping the corrosion rate
under check. Table 18.1 accounts for the different effects of corrosion caused by
different biomaterials.
The biocompatibility of the metallic implant is one of the major implications to the
corrosion in an in vivo environment. The major material variables that affect the
corrosion are the chemical composition like the type and quantity of alloying
elements. In addition, segregations (impurities), microstructure (grain size and
orientation), and surface properties (coated and uncoated status) also are the major
material variables. The medium properties that affect the corrosion behavior of
biomaterials are type and concentration of chemical ingredients (pH, chloride
content, etc.), temperature, and pressure. In addition, the dominancy of the
corrosion type depends on the working condition of the implant (static, dynamics
loads) and the construction of the implant and the thermomechanical properties
like dislocation density, amounts of thermal or residual stress, point defects, and
deformation ratio
[21,22] .
The types of corrosion that occur with metallic biomaterials are galvanic corrosion,
pitting, crevice, intergranular, stress-corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, and
tribocorrosion or fretting corrosion [23,24] .
Galvanic corrosion: Chaturvedi [25] describes that when two or more dental
prosthetic devices/restorations made of dissimilar alloys come into contact while
exposed to oral fluids, the difference between their corrosion potential results in a
flow of electric current between them. The current passes through the metal/metal
junction and through tissues, which causes pain. The current flows through two
electrolytes, saliva, or other liquids in the mouth and the bone and tissue fluids. Due
to leakage of saliva between implant and tissue the ions from artificial prosthesis
can move to peri implant tissues. This may result in bone reabsorption followed by
instability and failure of the implant. This occurs commonly in pairs of metallic
implants such as Co Cr alloys, gold and ternary Ti dental implants, Ni Cr, silver
palladium.
There are some major factors while considering an implant biomaterial for clinical
uses. It should be corrosion-resistant as the phenomenon of corrosion results in
surface roughness, weakening of the restoration process, release of elements from
alloys, and toxic reactions with the nearby cells and tissues. Due to these, tissues in
the body get discolored and allergic reactions are induced in the body. Therefore,
there are some standards for testing corrosion resistance of metallic materials
under different conditions. One among them, ASTM International (the American
Society for Testing and Materials) is an international standards organization. The
ASTM standards commonly used for testing different corrosion processes of metallic
biomaterials are shown in Table 18.2 .
In order to check the corrosion resistance of the metallic biomaterial used for
implants tests have been standardized. The test for systemic toxicity described by
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) named ISO 10993-11:2017,
specifies the requirements and guidances on procedures that have to be followed in
the biological evaluation of medical device materials [31] .
418 Fundamental Biomaterials: Metals
Standard Specifications
ASTM F746 Standard Test Method for Pitting or Crevice Corrosion of Metallic
Surgical Implant Materials
ASTM F897 Standard Test Method for Measuring Fretting Corrosion of
Osteosynthesis Plates and Screws
ASTM F1089 Standard Test Method for Corrosion of Surgical Instruments
ASTM F1801 Standard Practice for Corrosion Fatigue Testing of Metallic Implant
Materials
ASTM F2129 Standard Test Method for Conducting Cyclic Potentiodynamic
Polarization Measurements to Determine the Corrosion Susceptibility
of
Small Implant Devices
ASTM G5 Standard Reference Test Method for Making Potentiodynamic Anodic
Polarization Measurements
ASTM G31 Standard Guide for Laboratory Immersion Corrosion Testing of Metals
ASTM G48 Standard Test Methods for Pitting and Crevice Corrosion Resistance of
Stainless Steels and Related Alloys by Use of Ferric Chloride Solution
Hallab and Jacobs [38] reported that the implant debris-induced release of the
cytokines and chemokines due to activation of the innate (and the adaptive) immune
system is the major factor that leads to subsequent implant failure through loosening
and osteolysis. The response to implant debris is dominated by local immune
activation of macrophages. Implant debris can elicit inflammation, osteolysis,
hypersensitivity, and neuropathy. Immune reactivity depends on the number of
particles produced or the dose. Elongated particles are generally more
proinflammatory than round particles. In order to produce an in vitro inflammatory
response, particles need to be less than 10 μ m, i.e., phagocytosable. However, both
soluble and particulate debris derived from Co Cr Mo alloy implants can induce
monocyte/macrophage activation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (such
as IL-1 β, TNF α, IL-6 and IL-8) through upregulation of transcription factor NF κβ.
This in turn leads to activation of inflammasome danger signaling in human
macrophages.
Activated macrophages secrete TNF- α, IL-1 β, IL-6, and PGE2, which stimulate
differentiation of osteoclast precursors into mature osteoclasts and increase
periprosthetic bone resorption, which is not replaced by new bone ( Fig. 18.4 ). This
local (and systemic) inflammation results in a decreased osteoblast deposition and
increased osteoclast digestion of bone, wear-debris particles have been shown to
affect and compromise mesenchymal stem-cell differentiation into functional
osteoblasts. Thus, this DTH response can create extensive tissue damage.
The most commonly used investigations to detect metal sensitivity are described
below.
1. Patch testing
The most reliable testing for DTH in in vivo is by skin testing also known as patch
testing or intradermal testing. It is a way of identifying whether a substance that comes
into contact with the skin is causing inflammation of the skin or not. From literature
survey, Ni, Cr, Co, and Hg show high positive rates, and Au and Pd show relatively high
positive rates. Sn, Zn, and Cu are prone to provocative reactions to the skin; there is a
need to reduce the false positive rate caused by these metals.
In a typical patch testing procedure, the antigen is incorporated into a carrier such
as petroleum and this is exposed to dermal tissue by means of affixed bandage. After
exposure for approximately 48 96 h, reaksi yang dinilai pada skala 1 (respon ringan atau
tidak ada) ke 4 (ruam merah yang parah dengan lepuh kecil) [36] .
2. pengujian proliferasi
puing-puing melepaskan sitokin pro-inflamasi jenis sel lokal dan menginduksi zona pelebaran
kerusakan jaringan lunak dan
Gambar 18.4 Langkah-langkah yang terlibat dalam peradangan puing-diinduksi dimediasi oleh
makrofag (makrofag menelan
18.4 Kesimpulan
Referensi
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