23
Lipid......................................................23
Biology is a Low Gain – High Pain topic (not Fatty Acid ..............................................23
of much use for mains; many topics to be Healthy Fats – Omega-3 and Omega-6,
covered, subject is complicated for a non- Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated 24 Page
science student, weightage is not significant in
prelims). Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans
|1
Fat ........................................................24
So, you should prepare Biology only after
finishing Indian Polity, Economy, Modern
Adipose tissue .......................................25
History, Geography, Environment….. which Metabolic Basis for Living ......................25
have good weightage in both prelims and
Animal Tissues.....................................25
mains.
Epithelial Tissue ....................................26
Contents
Connective Tissue .................................27
Cell ........................................................ 5 Muscular Tissue ....................................28
Cell Organelles ....................................... 5 Nervous Tissue ......................................29
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane ...... 5 Human Digestive System ................... 30
Cell Wall ................................................. 6 Digestive Glands....................................33
Cytoplasm .............................................. 6 Digestion – Enzyme Action in Stomach ..34
Nucleus .................................................. 6 Digestion – Enzyme Action in Small
Intestine ................................................34
Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells ..... 7
Absorption of Digested Products ............35
Vacuoles ................................................ 8
Disorders of Digestive System ................35
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) .................. 8
Respiration – Breathing and Exchange
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex .......... 9
of Gases ................................................36
Mitochondria .......................................... 9
Human Respiratory System ...................36
Plastids .................................................. 9
Mechanism of Breathing ........................37
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell.......................10
Exchange of Gases ................................38
Biomolecule .........................................11
Transport of Gases ................................38
Carbohydrates .......................................12
Regulation of Respiration.......................39
Importance of Carbohydrates.................14
Disorders of Respiratory System ............39
Amino Acids ..........................................15
Endocrine Glands and Hormones ........39
Proteins .................................................15
Hypothalamus .......................................40
Structure of Proteins .............................16
Pituitary Gland ......................................40
Enzymes ...............................................17
Pineal Gland..........................................41
Primary and Secondary Metabolites .......18
Thyroid Gland .......................................41
Vitamins ...............................................19
Parathyroid Gland .................................41
Deficiency Diseases ...............................20
Thymus .................................................41
Micronutrients – Vitamins and Minerals 20
Adrenal Gland .......................................42
Food Sources of Vitamins and Minerals .22
Pancreas ...............................................42
Dietry Fibers .........................................21
Testis ....................................................43
Ovary ....................................................43 Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ......68
Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Linkage and Recombination...................69
Gastrointestinal Tract............................43 Human Genome Project .........................69
Mechanism of Hormone Action ..............44 Sex Determination .................................70
Neural Control and Coordination ...........45 Sex Determination in Humans ...............71 Page
Human Neural System .........................45 Genetic Disorders ..................................72 | 2
Human Brain ........................................46 Microbes or Microorganisms ...............75
Reflex Action and Reflex Arc ..................47 Diseases Caused by Microorganisms .....75
Types of Movements ..............................47 Useful Microbes – Microbes In Human
Muscular System – Muscle Types ..........47 Welfare ..................................................79
Skeletal System .....................................48 Preservatives .........................................82
DNA ......................................................50 Immunity .............................................83
Chromosomes .......................................50 Acquired Immunity ................................83
Nucleotide and Nucleoside .....................50 Active and Passive Immunity .................84
Nucleic Acids .........................................50 Vaccination and Immunization ..............84
DNA and RNA ........................................51 Allergies ................................................84
Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids – Auto Immunity ......................................85
DNA and RNA ........................................52 Immune System in the Body ..................85
Recombinant DNA .................................52 AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Cell Cycle and Cell Division ................53 Syndrome ..............................................86
Cell Cycle – Phases of Cell Cycle ............53 Prevention of AIDS ................................87
Basic Phases of Cell Cycle – Interphase Cancer ..................................................88
and M Phase or Mitosis .........................53 Drugs and Alcohol Abuse ......................89
Interphase .............................................53 Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse ...............90
Mitosis Phase or M Phase ......................54 Prevention and Control ..........................91
Cytokinesis – Actual Cell Division ..........57 Acute and Chronic Diseases ..................91
Significance of Mitosis ...........................58 Communicable Diseases ........................91
Meiosis ..................................................58 Organ-Specific And Tissue Specific
Meiosis I ................................................58 Diseases ................................................92
Meiosis II ...............................................60 Principles of Treatment ..........................92
Significance of Meiosis ...........................61 Principles of Prevention .........................93
Mitosis – Meiosis Comparison ................61 Diseases in Indian Children ...................94
Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance 62 Some Other Diseases .............................95
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance .................65 Blood ................................................ 96
Incomplete Dominance ..........................66 Blood Vessels ........................................96
Co-dominance .......................................66 Body Fluids and Circulation ..................96
Inheritance of Two Genes - Dihybrid Cross Formed Elements ..................................97
.............................................................67 Coagulation of Blood .............................97
Law of Independent Assortment .............68
Lymph (Tissue Fluid) .............................97 Viruses, Viroids and Lichens ...............124
Blood Groups ........................................98 Plant Parts and Their Functions –
Circulatory System ..............................99 Structural Organization in Plants ........125
Cell
Page
Robert Hooke Discovered and coined the
term cell in 1665 |5
Robert Brown Discovered Cell Nucleus in
1831
Schleiden and Presented The cell theory,
Schwann that all the plants and
animals are composed of
cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of life. Schleiden
(1838) and Schwann (1839).
Diffusion
Lysosomes Plastids
Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal You might have noticed several small colored
system of the cell. bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of
Tradescantia leaf. They are scattered in the
cytoplasm of the leaf cells. These are called Most plant cells have large membranous
plastids. organelles called plastids, which are of two
They are of different colours. Some of them types – chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
contain green pigment called chlorophyll. Chromoplasts that contain chlorophyll are
Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts and they perform
called chloroplasts. They provide green colour photosynthesis. Leucoplasts help in the
to the leaves. storage of oils, starch and protein granules. Page
Chloroplasts are important Most mature plant cells have a large central
for photosynthesis in plants. vacuole that helps to maintain | 10
Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or the turgidity of the cell and stores important
orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll. substances including wastes.
Plastids are present only in plant cells. There Prokaryotic cells have no membrane-bound
are two types of plastids – chromoplasts organelles, their chromosomes are composed
(coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or of only nucleic acid, and they have only very
colourless plastids). small ribosomes as organelles.
Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is an
materials such as starch, oils and protein example of a single cell which can change its
granules are stored. shape.
The internal organization of the plastids Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
consists of numerous membrane layers In egg white material is albumin which
embedded in a material called the stroma. solidifies on boiling. The yellow part is yolk. It
Plastids are similar to mitochondria in is part of the single cell.
external structure. Like the Valonia ventricosa, a species of algae with a
mitochondria, plastids also have their own diameter that ranges typically from 1 to 4
dna and ribosomes. centimetres is among the largest unicellular
species.
Summary
alkane-alkyl
Hydrate == a compound in which water Some of the carbohydrates, which are sweet in
molecules are chemically bound to another taste, are also called sugars.
compound or an element. Eg: α-d-Glucose The most common sugar, used in our homes
hydrate (C6H14O7). is named as sucrose whereas the sugar
present in milk is known as lactose.
For example, the molecular formula of glucose Carbohydrates are also
(C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means
C6(H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into sugar).
this formula may not be classified as Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of
carbohydrates. their behavior on hydrolysis. They have been
broadly divided into following three groups.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general
formula Cx(H2O)y → C2(H2O)2 but is not a Monosaccharides
carbohydrate.
A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed
further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy
aldehyde or ketone is called a
monosaccharide.
About 20 monosaccharides are known to
occur in nature. Some common examples
are Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Galactose, Page
etc.
If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde | 13
group [–CHO], it is known as an aldose and if Glycosidic Linkage
it contains a keto group [=C=O], it is known as
a ketose. Ribose
Optically Active:
All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBELxxG
Amino acids contain amino (–
bzKk
NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
groups.
Depending upon the relative position of amino Proteins
group with respect to carboxyl group, the
amino acids can be classified as α, β, γ, δ and Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules
so on. of the living system.
Only α-amino acids are obtained on
hydrolysis of proteins.
All α-amino acids have trivial names, which
usually reflect the property of that compound
or its source.
Glycine is so named since it has sweet
taste (in Greek glykos means sweet)
and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese
(in Greek, tyros means cheese.)
Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or
neutral depending upon the relative number
of amino and carboxyl groups in their
molecule. Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese,
pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc.
1. Equal number of amino and carboxyl They occur in every part of the body and form
groups makes it neutral; the fundamental basis of structure and
2. more number of amino than carboxyl functions of life.
groups makes it basic and They are also required for growth and
3. more carboxyl groups as compared to maintenance of body.
amino groups makes it acidic.
The word protein is derived from Greek word, If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide,
“proteios” which means primary or of prime the product is called a tripeptide.
importance. A tripeptide contains three amino acids
Proteins are polypeptides. linked by two peptide linkages.
Similarly when four, five or six amino acids
[Peptide == a compound consisting of two or are linked, the respective products are known
more amino acids linked in a chain]. as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide, Page
respectively.
Proteins are linear chains of amino acids When the number of such amino acids is more | 16
linked by peptide bonds. than ten, then the products are
Each protein is a polymer of amino acids. called polypeptides.
A polypeptide with more than hundred amino
[Monomer == a molecule that can be bonded acid residues, having molecular mass higher
to other identical molecules to form a than 10,000u is called a protein.
polymer]. However, the distinction between a
polypeptide and a protein is not very sharp.
Dietary proteins are the source of Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely
essential amino acids. to be called proteins if they ordinarily have a
Therefore, amino acids can be essential or well-defined conformation of a protein such
non-essential. as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
Proteins can be classified into two types on
[Non-Essential Amino Acids == Amino Acids the basis of their molecular shape: Fibrous
that our body can make]. Proteins and Globular proteins.
Globular proteins
You have already read that proteins are the
polymers of α-amino acids and they are
connected to each other by peptide This structure results when the chains of
bond or peptide linkage. polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide [an shape.
organic compound containing the group - These are usually soluble in
C(O)NH2] formed between –COOH group and – water. Insulin and albumins are the common
NH2 examples of globular proteins.
The reaction between two molecules of similar
or different amino acids, proceeds through the Primary structure of proteins
combination of the amino group of one
molecule with the carboxyl group of the Proteins may have one or more polypeptide
other. chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has
This results in the elimination of a water amino acids linked with each other in a
molecule and formation of a peptide bond – specific sequence and it is this sequence of
CO–NH–. The product of the reaction is called amino acids that is said to be the primary
a dipeptide because it is made up of two structure of that protein.
amino acids.
Any change in this primary structure i.e., the
sequence of amino acids creates a different
protein.
Page
| 17
Minerals
Questions
Q1. Besides proteins and carbohydrates,
other elements of nutritional value found
in milk, include [1996]
http://www.thedoctorwillseeyounow.com/con
tent/kids/art3933.html
a. 2%
Q3. Prelims GS 2014: Consider the Glycerol is a simple sugar alcohol compound.
following pairs: A triglyceride is an ester derived from glycerol
and three fatty acids (tri + glyceride)
Vitamin Deficiency Disease Triglycerides are the main constituent of
body fat in humans and animals, as well as
1. Vitamin C Scurvy vegetable fat.
2. Vitamin D Rickets Page
3. Vitamin E Night blindness
| 23
Which of the pairs given above is/ are
correctly matched?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 3 only
c. 1, 2 and 3
d. None
Lipid
The covering or protective tissues in the The squamous epithelium is made of a single
animal body are epithelial tissues. thin layer of flattened cells with irregular
Epithelium covers most organs and cavities boundaries.
within the body. They are found in the walls of blood vessels
It also forms a barrier to keep different body and air sacs of lungs and are involved in Page
systems separate. functions like forming a diffusion boundary.
| 26
The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining Different epithelia show differing structures
of blood vessels, lung alveoli and kidney that correlate with their unique functions. For
tubules are all made of epithelial tissue. example, in cells lining blood vessels or lung
Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and alveoli, where transportation of substances
form a continuous sheet. occurs through a selectively
They have only a small amount of cementing Permeable surface, there is a simple flat kind
material between them and almost no of epithelium. This is called the simple
intercellular spaces. Squamous epithelium.
Obviously, anything entering or leaving the Simple squamous epithelial cells
body must cross at least one layer of are extremely thin and flat and form a
epithelium. delicate lining.
As a result cells of various epithelia play an The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth
important role in regulating the exchange of are also covered with squamous epithelium.
materials between the body and the external
environment and also between different parts Stratified Squamous Epithelium
of the body.
Regardless of the type, all epithelium is The skin, which protects the body, is made of
usually separated from the underlying tissue squamous epithelium.
by an extracellular fibrous basement Skin epithelial cells are arranged in many
membrane. layers to prevent wear and tear.
There are two types of epithelial tissues Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers,
namely simple epithelium and compound the epithelium is called stratified squamous
epithelium. epithelium.
Cuboidal Epithelium
The cuboidal epithelium is composed of a All cells in epithelium are held together with
single layer of cube-like cells. This is little intercellular material. In nearly all
commonly found in ducts of glands and animal tissues, specialized junctions provide
tubular parts of nephrons in kidneys and its both structural and functional links between
main functions are secretion and absorption. its individual cells.
Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) Three types of cell junctions are found in the
forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts epithelium and other tissues. These are called Page
of salivary glands, where it as tight, adhering and gap junctions.
provides mechanical support. Tight junctions help to stop substances from | 27
leaking across a tissue. Adhering junctions
Glandular Epithelium perform cementing to keep neighboring cells
together. Gap junctions facilitate the cells to
Epithelial cells often acquire additional communicate with each other by connecting
specialization as gland cells, which can the cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid
secrete substances at the epithelial surface. transfer of ions, small molecules and
Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue sometimes big molecules.
folds inward, and a multicellular gland is
formed. This is glandular epithelium. Connective Tissue
Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get
specialized for secretion and are called Connective tissues are most abundant and
glandular epithelium. They are mainly of two widely distributed in the body of complex
types: unicellular, consisting of isolated animals. They are named connective tissues
glandular cells (goblet cells of the alimentary because of their special function of linking
canal), and multicellular, consisting of cluster and supporting other tissues/organs of the
of cells (salivary gland). body.
On the basis of the mode of pouring of their They range from soft connective tissues to
secretions, glands are divided into two specialized types, which include cartilage,
categories bone, adipose, and blood.
namely EXOCRINE and ENDOCRINE. In all connective tissues except blood, the cells
Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, secrete fibres of structural proteins
earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other called collagen or elastin.
cell products. These products are released The fibres provide strength, elasticity and
through ducts or tubes. flexibility to the tissue. These cells also
In contrast, endocrine glands do not have secrete modified polysaccharides, which
ducts. Their products called hormones are accumulate between cells and fibres and act
secreted directly into the fluid bathing the as matrix (ground substance).
gland. Connective tissues are classified into three
types: (i) Loose connective tissue, (ii) Dense
Compound Epithelium connective tissue and (iii) Specialized
connective tissue.
The compound epithelium consists of two or
more cell layers and has protective Loose Connective Tissue
function as it does in our skin.
Compound epithelium is made of more than Loose connective tissue has cells and fibres
one layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus has loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground
a limited role in secretion and absorption. substance, for example, areolar tissue present
Their main function is to beneath the skin.
provide protection against chemical and Often it serves as a support framework for
mechanical stresses. epithelium. It contains fibroblasts (cells that
They cover the dry surface of the skin, the produce and secrete fibres), macrophages [a
moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner large phagocytic cell found in stationary form
lining of ducts of salivary glands and of in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell,
pancreatic ducts. especially at sites of infection] and mast
cells [a cell found in connective tissue and
releasing histamine and other substances some bones is the site of production of blood
during inflammatory and allergic reactions]. cells.
Adipose tissue is a type of loose connective Two bones can be connected to each other by
tissue located mainly beneath the skin. The another type of connective tissue called
cells of this tissue are specialized to store the ligament. This tissue is very elastic. It has
fats. The excess of nutrients which are not considerable strength. Ligaments contain very
used immediately are converted into fats and little matrix. Tendons connect bones to Page
are stored in this tissue. muscles and are another type of connective
tissue. Tendons are fibrous tissue with great | 28
Dense Connective Tissue strength but limited flexibility.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue
containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC),
Fibres and fibroblasts are compactly packed
white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. It is
in the dense connective tissues. Orientation of
the main circulating fluid that helps in the
fibres show a regular or irregular pattern and
transport of various substances.
are called dense regular and dense irregular
Areolar connective tissue is found between
tissues.
the skin and muscles, around blood vessels
In the dense regular connective tissues, the
and nerves and in the bone marrow.
collagen fibres are present in rows between
It fills the space inside the organs, supports
many parallel bundles of fibres. Tendons,
internal organs and helps in repair of tissues.
which attach skeletal muscles to bones
and ligaments which attach one bone to
another are examples of this tissue. Muscular Tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue has
fibroblasts and many fibres (mostly collagen) Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical
that are oriented differently. This tissue is fibres arranged in parallel arrays. These fibres
present in the skin. are composed of numerous fine fibrils,
called myofibrils.
Specialized Connective Tissue – Muscle fibres contract (shorten) in response to
Cartilage, Bones, Blood, Areolar stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return
to their uncontracted state in a coordinated
fashion. Muscles contain special proteins
Cartilage, bones and blood are various types
called contractile proteins, which contract
of specialized connective tissues.
and relax to cause movement.
The intercellular material of cartilage is solid
Muscles are of three types, skeletal,
and pliable and resists compression. Cells of
smooth, and cardiac.
this tissue (chondrocytes) are enclosed in
small cavities within the matrix secreted by
them.
Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos
are replaced by bones in adults. Cartilage is
present in the tip of nose, outer ear joints,
trachea, larynx, between adjacent bones of the
vertebral column, limbs and hands in adults.
Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that
is composed of calcium and phosphorus
compounds.
Bones have a hard and non-pliable ground
substance rich in calcium salts and collagen
fibres which give bone its strength. It is the
main tissue that provides structural frame to
the body. Bones support and protect softer
tissues and organs.
The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in the
spaces called lacunae. The bone marrow in
Skeletal Muscle Tissue – Voluntary the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells
Muscles and make them stick together.
Communication junctions (intercalated discs)
at some fusion points allow the cells to
We can move some muscles by conscious will.
contract as a unit, i.e., when one cell receives
Such muscles are called voluntary muscles.
a signal to contract, its neighbors are also
These muscles are also called skeletal muscles
as they are mostly attached to bones and help
stimulated to contract. Page
in body movement. | 29
Under the microscope, these muscles show Nervous Tissue
alternate light and dark bands or striations.
As a result, they are also called striated
muscles. The cells of this tissue are long,
cylindrical, unbranched
and multinucleate (having many nuclei).
Skeletal muscle tissue is closely attached to
skeletal bones. In a typical muscle such as the
biceps, striated (striped) skeletal muscle fibres
are bundled together in a parallel fashion. A
sheath of tough connective tissue encloses
several bundles of such muscle fibres.
Our mouth has the salivary glands which The upper surface of the tongue has small
secrete saliva. The saliva breaks down projections called papillae, some of which
the starch into sugars. bear taste buds.
The saliva secreted into the oral cavity
contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl", Foodpipe/Oesophagus
HCOs) and enzymes, SALIVARY
AMYLASE and LYSOZYME.
The oral cavity leads into a
The chemical process of digestion is initiated
short pharynx which serves as a common
in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of
passage for food and air. The esophagus and
the carbohydrate splitting enzyme,
the trachea (wind pipe) open into the pharynx.
the salivary amylase.
A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents
About 30 per cent of starch
the entry of food into the glottis during
is hydrolysed here by this enzyme (optimum
swallowing. [Glottis == opening of the wind
pH 6.8) into a disaccharide - maltose.
pipe].
The swallowed food passes into the foodpipe
or oesophagus. The oesophagus is a thin, long
tube which extends posteriorly [further back
in position] passing through the
neck, thorax [the part of the body of a
mammal between the neck and the abdomen]
and diaphragm [separates the thorax from the
abdomen in mammals] and leads to a ‘J’
shaped bag like structure called stomach.
Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and
adhering the masticated food particles into a
bolus. The bolus is then conveyed into the
pharynx and then into the oesophagus by
swallowing or deglutition.
Lysozyme present in saliva acts as The bolus further passes down through the
an antibacterial agent that prevents oesophagus by successive waves of muscular
infections. contractions called peristalsis. The gastro-
The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ oesophageal sphincter controls the passage
attached at the back to the floor of the buccal of food into the stomach.
cavity. It mixes saliva with the food during
chewing and helps in swallowing food.
The tongue is attached to the floor of the oral Stomach
cavity by the frenulum (a fold of skin beneath
the tongue).
The inner lining of the stomach The digested food passes into the blood
secretes mucous, hydrochloric vessels in the wall of the intestine. This
acid and digestive juices. process is called absorption.
The inner walls of the small intestine have
1. The mucous protects the lining of the thousands of finger-like outgrowths. These are
stomach. called villi (singular villus). The villi increase
2. The acid kills many bacteria that enter along the surface area for absorption of the Page
with the food and makes the medium in the digested food.
stomach acidic. Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries | 32
3. The digestive juices break down and a large lymph (a colourless fluid
the proteins into simpler substances. containing white blood cells) vessel called
the lacteal.
A muscular sphincter (gastro- The absorbed substances are transported via
oesophageal) [a ring of muscle surrounding the blood vessels to different organs of the
and serving to guard or close an opening] body where they are used to build complex
regulates the opening of oesophagus into the substances such as the proteins required by
stomach. the body. This is called assimilation.
The stomach, located in the upper left portion In the cells, glucose breaks down with the
of the abdominal cavity, has three major parts help of oxygen into carbon
– a cardiac portion into which the oesophagus dioxide and water, and energy is released.
opens, a fundic region and a pyloric The food that remains undigested and
portion which opens into the first part of unabsorbed then enters into the large
small intestine. intestine.
Small intestine is distinguishable into three The large intestine is wider and shorter than
regions, a ‘C’ shaped duodenum, a long small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length.
coiled middle portion jejunum and a highly Its function is to absorb water and some salts
coiled ileum. from the undigested food material.
The opening of the stomach into the The remaining waste passes into the rectum
duodenum is guarded by the pyloric and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The
sphincter. Ileum opens into the large faecal matter is removed through the anus
intestine. from time-to-time. This is called egestion.
The small intestine is highly coiled and is
about 5 meters long. It receives secretions Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption →
from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its Assimilation → Egestion
wall also secretes juices.
It consists of caecum, colon and rectum. forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach
Caecum is a small blind sac which hosts and small finger-like foldings called villi in the
some symbiotic micro-organisms. small intestine. Mucosal
A narrow finger -like tubular projection, the epithelium has goblet cells which secrete
vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ mucus that help in lubrication. Mucosa also
[small remnant of something that was once forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands).
more noticeable], arises from the caecum. Page
| 33
Appendix was helpful in
digesting roughage (fibrous indigestible
material in vegetable foodstuffs which aids the
passage of food and waste products through
the gut). Thousands of years ago, when man
used to eat roots, leaves, etc., it was essential.
But now it has lost its significance.
diffusion.
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a
mixture of gases is called partial pressure.
Transport of Gases
Transport of Oxygen
Haemoglobin is a red
coloured iron containing pigment present in
the RBCs. O2 can bind with haemoglobin in a
reversible manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a
maximum of four molecules of O2. Binding of
oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related
to partial pressure of O2.
Partial pressure of CO2, hydrogen ion
concentration and temperature are the other
factors which can interfere with this binding.
Regulation of Respiration
Midbrain
1. Ball and socket joints Which of the following pairs are correctly
2. Pivotal Joint: The joint where our neck joins matched
the head is a pivotal joint.
3. Hinge joints 1. Knee - Hinge joint
4. Fixed joints 2. Neck joining the head - Ball and socket
joint
3. Pelvic bones - Fixed joint
4. Elbow - Pivotal joint
Codes:
a. All
b. 1 only
c. 1, 3 only
d. 1, 4 only
Nucleic Acids
DNA Fingerprinting
Applications of recombinant DNA
It is known that every individual has unique technology
fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the
fingers and have been used for identification
for a long time but these can be altered by Recombinant DNA is widely used in
surgery. biotechnology, medicine and research.
A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map
a person and information regarding this is and sequence genes, and to determine their
called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every function.
cell and cannot be altered by any known
treatment. Recombinant DNA is used to produce
DNA fingerprinting is now used (i) in forensic
laboratories for identification of criminals. (ii) Recombinant human insulin,
to determine paternity of an individual. (iii) to Recombinant human growth hormone,
Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII, M Phase [Mitosis phase] == Actual cell
Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine, division or Mitosis.
Insect-resistant crops etc.
The sequence of events by which a cell In the 24 hour average duration of cell cycle of
duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other a human cell, cell division proper lasts for
constituents of the cell and eventually divides only about an hour. The interphase lasts
into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle. more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle.
Although cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic The M Phase or Mitosis starts with
increase) is a continuous process, DNA the nuclear
synthesis occurs only during one specific division or karyokinesis [separation of
stage in the cell cycle. daughter chromosomes].
The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then It usually ends with division of cytoplasm
distributed to daughter nuclei by a complex [cytokinesis].
series of events during cell division. These Interphase is called the resting phase.
events are themselves under genetic control It is the time during which the cell is
[DNA]. preparing for division by undergoing
both cell growth and DNA replication.
Cell Cycle – Phases of Cell Cycle
Interphase
A typical eukaryotic cell divides once in
approximately every 24 hours. The interphase is divided into three further
phases.
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic
vs. Prokaryotic Cells|Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell
1. G1 phase (Gap 1)
2. S phase (Synthesis)
However, this duration of cell cycle can vary 3. G2 phase (Gap 2)
from organism to organism and also from cell
type to cell type.
G1 phase
Yeast for example, can progress through the
cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
G1 phase == interval between mitosis and
Basic Phases of Cell Cycle – Interphase beginning of DNA replication [initiation of DNA
replication].
and M Phase or Mitosis
During G1 phase the cell is metabolically
active and continuously grows but does not
Interphase == Phase between two successive replicate its DNA.
M phases.
Cells in this stage remain metabolically
active but no longer proliferate unless called
on to do so depending on the requirement of
the organism.
Metaphase
Mitosis or the equational division is usually [Haploid == only one set of chromosomes from
restricted to the diploid cells only. However, in one of the parent].
some lower plants and in some social insects
haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
Mitosis usually results in the production of
diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement.
The growth of multicellular organisms is due
to mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing
the ratio between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for
the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-
cytoplasmic ratio.
A very significant contribution of mitosis Meiosis ensures the production of haploid
is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, organisms whereas fertilization restores the
and blood cells are being constantly replaced. diploid phase.
Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues -
the apical and the lateral cambium, result in a Meiotic events can be grouped under the
continuous growth of plants throughout their following phases
life.
Meiosis I
Onion root tip cell has 16 chromosomes in
each cell. Can you tell how many Prophase I
chromosomes will the cell have at G1 phase,
after S phase, and after M phase? Prophase of the first meiotic division is
typically longer and more complex when
Also, what will be the DNA content of the cells compared to prophase of mitosis.
at G1, after S and at G2, if the content after M It has been further subdivided into the
phase is 2C? following five phases based on chromosomal
behavior, i.e., Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene,
Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Page
| 59
Leptotene
Cell cycle is divided into two phases called 1. Prophase I == leptotene, zygotene, pachytene,
(i) Interphase – a period of preparation for cell diplotene and diakinesis.
division, and (ii) Mitosis (M phase) – the 2. Metaphase I == bivalents arrange on the
actual period of cell division. equatorial plate.
Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S 3. Anaphase I == homologous chromosomes
and G2. move to the opposite poles with both their
G1 phase is the period when the cell grows chromatids. Each pole receives half the
and carries out normal metabolism. Most of chromosome number of the parent cell.
the organelle duplication also occurs during 4. Telophase I == nuclear membrane and
this phase. nucleolus reappear.
Page
| 62
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of divisions One Two – Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
DNA Replication Occurs during interphase Occurs during interphase
Role Asexual cellular reproduction Asexual cellular reproduction
and cell repair. Produces only that produces gametes.
somatic cells.
Type of cells that divide In animals, mitotic cell division Meiotic cell division is seen only
is only seen in the diploid in diploid cells.
somatic cells.
Incomplete Dominance
Haemophilia
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Chromosomal Disorders
Page
The chromosomal disorders on the other hand | 74
are caused due to absence or excess or
abnormal arrangement of one or more sex
chromosomes. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Failure of segregation of chromatids during
cell division cycle results in the gain or loss of This genetic disorder is also caused due to the
a chromosome(s), called aneuploidy. presence of an additional copy of X-
For example, Down’s syndrome results in the chromosome resulting into a karyotype of 47,
gain of extra copy of chromosome 21. XXY.
Similarly, Turner’s syndrome results due to Such an individual has overall masculine
loss of an X chromosome in human females. development, however, the feminine
Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of development (development of breast, i.e.,
cell division results in an increase in a whole Gynaecomastia) is also expressed. Such
set of chromosomes in an organism and, this individuals are sterile.
phenomenon is known as polyploidy. This
condition is often seen in plants. Turner’s Syndrome
The total number of chromosomes in a normal
human cell is 46 (23 pairs). Out of these 22
pairs are autosomes and one pair of
chromosomes are sex chromosome.
Sometimes, though rarely, either an additional
copy of a chromosome may be included in an
individual or an individual may lack one of
any one pair of chromosomes. These
situations are known
as trisomy or monosomy of a chromosome,
respectively.
Such a situation leads to very serious
consequences in the individual. Down’s
syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s
syndrome are common examples of
chromosomal disorders.
Down’s Syndrome
Peptic ulcers Helicobacter pylori Humans Ulcers in the lining of stomach and
starting part of small intestine
Plague Yersinia pestis Air/ direct contact Humans Unhygienic conditions is the main
cause. [You know why Surat is one
of the cleanest cities in India?]
Foot and Mouth Disease Picornavirus[genus Close-contact animal- Animals Serious problem to animal farming
Aphthovirus] to-animal spread in India.
Hepatitis B hepatitis B virus Blood Exchange, STD Humans Affects the liver. Acute as well as
(HBV) [Sexually transmitted chronic.
disease]
Measles measles virus Air Humans Complications occur in about 30%
and may include
diarrhea, blindness,
inflammation of the brain, and
pneumonia among others.
Polio or Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Water/faecal-mouth Humans Weak muscles leading to
deformations.
Causes of AIDS
Picture Credits: Wikipedia
AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno
Summary Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group
of viruses called Retrovirus, which have
Health is not just the absence of disease. It is an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
a state of complete physical, mental, social Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs
and psychological well-being. by
Diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia,
fungal infections of skin, malaria and many 1. sexual contact with infected person,
others are a major cause of distress to human 2. by transfusion of contaminated blood and
beings. blood products,
Vector-borne diseases like malaria especially 3. by sharing infected needles as in the case
one caused by Plasmodium falciparum, if not of intravenous drug abusers and
treated, may prove fatal. 4. from infected mother to her child through
Our immune system plays the major role in placenta.
preventing these diseases when we are
exposed to disease-causing agents. So, people who are at high risk of getting this
The innate defenses of our body like skin, infection includes
mucous membranes, antimicrobial
substances present in our tears, saliva and 1. individuals who have multiple sexual
the phagocytic cells help to block the entry of partners,
pathogens into our body. 2. drug addicts who take drugs intravenously,
If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to 3. individuals who require repeated blood
our body, specific antibodies (humoral transfusions and
immune response) and cells (cell mediated 4. children born to an HIV infected mother.
immune response) serve to kill these
pathogens. It is important to note that HIV/AIDS is not
Immune system has memory. On subsequent spread by mere touch or physical contact; it
exposure to same pathogen, the immune spreads only through body fluids. It is, hence,
response is rapid and more intense. This imperative, for the physical and psychological
forms the basis of protection afforded by well-being, that the HIV/AIDS infected
vaccination and immunization. persons are not isolated from family and
society.
AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome There is always a time-lag between the
– Causes of AIDS – Mechanism of HIV infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms.
Proliferation in Human Body – Prevention of This period may vary from a few months to
AIDS. many years (usually 5-10 years).
Mechanism of HIV Proliferation in infections that could have been otherwise
Human Body overcome such as those due to bacteria
especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and
even parasites like Toxoplasma. The patient
becomes so immuno-deficient that he/she is
unable to protect himself/herself against
these infections. Page
| 87
Prevention of AIDS
Types of Tumors
ABO grouping
Kidneys
Urine Formation
Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule, is
called the malpighian body or renal Urine formation involves three main processes
corpuscle. namely, glomerular filtration,
reabsorption and secretion, that takes place
in different parts of the nephron.
The first step in urine formation is the
filtration of blood, which is carried out by the
glomerulus and is called glomerular
filtration.
On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is
filtered by the kidneys per minute.
The glomerular capillary blood pressure
causes filtration of blood through 3 layers, i.e.,
the endothelium of glomerular blood
vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s
capsule and a basement membrane between
these two layers.
The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule
called podocytes are arranged in an intricate
The tubule continues further to form a highly manner so as to leave some minute spaces
coiled network - proximal convoluted tubule called filtration slits or slit pores. Blood is
(PCT). filtered so finely through these membranes,
A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part that almost all the constituents of the
of the tubule which has a descending and an plasma except the proteins pass onto the
ascending limb. lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it
is considered as a process of ultra-filtration.
The amount of the filtrate formed by the electrolytes. This concentrates the filtrate as it
kidneys per minute is called glomerular moves down.
filtration rate (GFR). GFR in a healthy The ascending limb is impermeable to water
individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, but allows transport of electrolytes actively or
i.e., 180 liters per day! passively. Therefore, as the concentrated
The kidneys have built-in mechanisms for the filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to the
regulation of glomerular filtration rate. One passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid. Page
such efficient mechanism is carried out
by juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA). |
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
A comparison of the volume of the filtrate 107
formed per day (180 liters per day) with that of
Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water
the urine released (1.5 litres), suggest that
takes place in this segment. DCT is also
nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has to be
capable of reabsorption of HCO3- and
reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This process
selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium
is called reabsorption.
ions and NH3 to maintain the pH and
The tubular epithelial cells in different
sodium-potassium balance in blood.
segments of nephron perform this either by
active or passive mechanisms. For example,
substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, Collecting Duct
etc., in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively
whereas the nitrogenous wastes are absorbed This long duct extends from the cortex of the
by passive transport. Reabsorption of water kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
also occurs passively in the initial segments of Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed
the nephron. from this region to produce a concentrated
During urine formation, the tubular cells urine.
secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia This segment allows passage of small amounts
into the filtrate. Tubular secretion is also an of urea into the medullary interstitium to keep
important step in urine formation as it helps up the osmolarity.
in the maintenance of ionic and acid base It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH
balance of body fluids. and ionic balance of blood by the selective
secretion of H+ and K+ ions.
Function of the Tubules
Mechanism of Concentration of the
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) Filtrate
The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and
lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in avoiding danger at least. When reptiles came
sun unlike those of amphibians. Again we down mammals took over this earth. T
only see their modern day descendents, the here were in South America mammals
turtles, tortoises and crocodiles. resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit,
In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of etc. Due to continental drift, when South
different shapes and sizes dominated on America joined North America, these animals
earth. Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were were overridden by North American fauna.
present along with reptiles but they all fell to Due to the same continental drift pouched
form coal deposits slowly. mammals of Australia survived because
Some of these land reptiles went back into of lack of competition from any other
water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably mammal.
200 mya (e.g. Ichthyosaurs).
The land reptiles were, of course, the Q2. With reference to the evolution of
dinosaurs. The biggest of living organisms, which one of the
them were Tyrannosaurus and Ultrasaurus. following sequences is correct? [2009]
About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly
disappeared from the earth. We do not know a. Octopus-Dolphin-Shark
the true reason. Some say climatic changes b. Pangolin-Tortoise-Hawk
killed them. Some say most of them evolved c. Salamander-Python-Kangaroo
into birds. The truth may live in between. d. Frog-Crab-Prawn
Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
The first mammals were like shrews. Their Answer: Evolution == Single cellular →
fossils are small sized. Mammals Multicellular → Fishes → Amphibians →
were viviparous and protected their unborn Reptiles → Birds → Mammals.
young inside the mother’s body.
Octopus (Mollusc) – Dolphins and Whales Salamander (Amphibian) – Python (Reptile)
(Mammals) – Shark (Fish) – Kangaroo (Mammal)
Pangolin (Mammal – always in news as it is an Frog (Amphibian) – Crab (Crustaceans) –
endangered one – its meat is consumed in Prawn (Crustaceans)
some South-East Asian countries) – Tortoise
(Reptile) – Hawk (Bird)
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113
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114
Origin and Evolution of Man hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate
fruit.
About 15 mya, primates Some of the bones among the bones
discovered were different. This creature was
called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were
existing. They were hairy and walked like called the first human-like being the hominid
gorillas and chimpanzees. Ramapithecus was and was called Homo habilis. The brain
more man-like while Dryopithecus was more capacities were between 650-800cc. They
probably did not eat meat.
ape-like.
Few fossils of man-like bones have been Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed
discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These the next stage, i.e., Homo erectus about 1.5
revealed hominid features leading to the belief mya. Homo erectus had a large brain around
900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked
in eastern Africa. They were probably not The Neanderthal man with a brain size of
taller than 4 feet but walked up right. 1400cc lived in near east and central Asia
Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in between 1,00,000-40,000 years back. They
East African grasslands. Evidence shows they used hides to protect their body and buried
their dead.
Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved 17. Venezuela
across continents and developed into distinct
races. During ice age between 75,000-10,000
years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000
years ago. Agriculture came around 10,000
years back and human settlements started. Page
The rest of what happened is part of human
history of growth and decline of civilizations. |
115
Biological Classification: Monera, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, Animalia, Viruses, Viroids,
Lichens. Biodiversity, Classification,
Taxonomic Categories. Picture credits: Environment.gov.au
Classification of life forms will be closely There is a need to standardize the naming of
related to their evolution. Charles living organisms such that a particular
Darwin first described this idea of evolution in organism is known by the same name all over
1859 in his book, The Origin of Species. the world. This process is
The number of species that are known and called nomenclature.
described range between 1.7-1.8 million. Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only
Rough estimates state that there are about ten possible when the organism is described
million species on the planet. This refers correctly and we know to what organism the
to biodiversity or the number and types of name is attached to. This is identification.
organisms present on earth. For plants, scientific names are based on
The warm and humid tropical regions of the agreed principles and criteria, which are
earth, between the tropic of cancer and the provided in International Code for Botanical
tropic of capricorn, are rich in diversity of Nomenclature (ICBN).
plant and animal life. This is called the region Animal taxonomists have evolved International
of megadiversity. Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The
Of the biodiversity of the planet, more than scientific names ensure that each organism
half is concentrated in a few countries within has only one name.
tropics. Biologists follow universally accepted
principles to provide scientific names to
In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse known organisms. Each name has two
countries are: components - the Generic name and
the specific epithet.
1. Australia This system of providing a name with two
2. Brazil components is called Binomial
3. China nomenclature. This naming system given
4. Colombia by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by
5. Democratic Republic of the Congo biologists all over the world.
6. Ecuador The scientific name of mango is written
7. India as Mangifera indica. In this name Mangifera
8. Indonesia represents the genus while indica, is a
9. Madagascar particular species, or a specific epithet. Other
10. Malaysia universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
11. Mexico Biological names are generally in Latin and
12. Papua New Guinea written in italics. They are Latinised or
13. Peru derived from Latin irrespective of their origin.
14. Philippines The first word in a biological name represents
15. South Africa the genus while the second component
16. United States denotes the specific epithet.
Both the words in a biological name, when Taxonomic Categories
handwritten, are separately underlined, or
printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
Classification is not a single step process but
The first word denoting the genus starts with involves hierarchy of steps in which each step
a capital letter while the specific epithet starts represents a
with a small letter. it can be illustrated with rank or
the example of Mangifera indica. category. Page
Name of the author appears after the specific Since the |
epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name category is a
and is written in an abbreviated form, part of overall 116
e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that taxonomic
this species was first described by Linnaeus.
arrangement,
Since it is nearly impossible to study all the it is called the
living organisms, it is necessary to devise
taxonomic
some means to make this possible. This category and
process is classification.
all categories
Classification is the process by which together
anything is grouped into convenient categories constitute the
based on some easily observable characters.
taxonomic
The scientific term for these categories is taxa.
hierarchy.
Here you must recognise that taxa can
indicate categories at very different levels.
Species
‘Plants’ - also form a taxa. ‘Wheat’ is also a
taxa. Similarly, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’, ‘dogs’
are all taxa - but you know that a dog is a Taxonomic
mammal and mammals are animals. studies
Therefore, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’ and ‘dogs’ consider a
represent taxa at different levels. group of
Hence, based on characteristics, all living individual
organisms can be classified into different taxa. organisms
This process of classification is taxonomy.
External and internal structure, along with
the structure of cell, process and ecological
information of organisms are essential and
form the basis of modern taxonomic studies. with fundamental similarities as a species.
Hence, characterisation, identification, Let us consider Mangifera indica, Solanum
classification and nomenclature are the tuberosum (potato) and Panthera leo (lion). All
processes that are basic to taxonomy. the three names, indica, tuberosum and leo,
Human beings were, since long, not only represent the specific epithets, while the first
interested in knowing more about different words Mangifera, Solanum and Panthera are
kinds of organisms and their diversities, but genera and represents another higher level of
also the relationships among them. This taxon or category.
branch of study was referred to Each genus may have one or more than one
as systematics. specific epithets representing different
The word systematics is derived from the Latin organisms, but having morphological
word ‘systema’ which means systematic similarities. For example, Panthera has
arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus another specific epithet called tigris (Panthera
used Systema Naturae as the title of his tigris) and Solanum includes species like
publication. nigrum and melongena.
The scope of systematics was later enlarged to Human beings belong to the species sapiens
include identification, nomenclature and which is grouped in the genus Homo. The
classification. scientific name thus, for human being, is
Systematics takes into account evolutionary written as Homo sapiens.
relationships between organisms.
Genus
Genus comprises a group of related species Kingdom Animalia in the classification system
which has more characters in common in of animals.
comparison to species of other genera. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is
We can say that genera are aggregates of distinct, and comprises all plants from various
closely related species. For example, potato divisions. Henceforth, we will refer to these
and brinjal are two different species but both two groups as animal and plant kingdoms.
belong to the genus Solanum. Page
Lion (Panthera leo), leopard ( pardus) and tiger Taxonomical Aids
(P. tigris) with several common features, are |
all species of the genus Panthera. This genus Herbarium 117
differs from another genus Felis which
includes cats. Herbarium is a store house of collected
plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
Family preserved on sheets. Further, these sheets are
arranged according to a universally accepted
The next category, Family, has a group of system of classification.
related genera with still less number of The herbarium sheets also carry a label
similarities as compared to genus and species. providing information about date and place of
Families are characterised on the basis of both collection, English, local and botanical names,
vegetative and reproductive features of plant family, collector’s name, etc.
species. Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems
Among animals for example, genus Panthera, in taxonomical studies.
comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along
with genus, Felis (cats) in the family Botanical Gardens
Similarly, if you observe the features of a cat
and a dog, you will find some similarities and These specialized gardens have collections
some differences as well. They are separated of living plants for reference.
into two different families - Felidae and The famous botanical gardens are at Kew
Canidae, respectively. (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
(India) and at National Botanical Research
Order Institute, Lucknow (India).
This category includes related orders. These are the places where wild animals are
kept in protected environments under human
Phylum care and which enable us to learn about their
food habits and behavior.
Classes comprising animals like fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds along with Key
mammals constitute the next higher category
called Phylum. Key is used for identification of plants and
animals based on the similarities and
Kingdom dissimilarities.
The keys are based on the contrasting
All animals belonging to various phyla are characters generally in a pair called couplet.
assigned to the highest category called
Flora, manuals, monographs and catalogues understand, but, a large number of organisms
are some other means of recording did not fall into either category. Hence the two
descriptions. kingdom classification used for a long time
was found inadequate.
Biological Classification Biologists, such as Ernst Haeckel (1894),
Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese
(1977) have tried to classify all living Page
In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of
organisms into broad categories, called
classification |
kingdoms.
with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was
The classification Whittaker proposed has five 118
developed.
kingdoms and is widely used:
This system did not distinguish between
the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular
and multicellular 1. Monera,
organisms and photosynthetic (green 2. Protista,
algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) 3. Fungi,
Classification of organisms into plants and 4. Plantae and
animals was easily done and was easy to 5. Animalia
The main criteria for classification used by showed a characteristic difference in their
him include cell structure, thallus walls composition - the fungi had chitin in
organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction their walls while the green plants had
etc. a cellulosic cell wall.
It brought together the prokaryotic When such characteristics were considered,
bacteria and the blue green algae with other the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom -
groups which were eukaryotic. Kingdom Fungi.
It also grouped together the unicellular All prokaryotic organisms were grouped
organisms and the multicellular ones. together under Kingdom Monera and
The classification did not differentiate between the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were
the heterotrophic group - fungi, and the placed in Kingdom Protista.
autotrophic green plants, though they also
Kingdom Protista has brought together 5. Family,
Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in 6. Genus,
Algae within Plants and both having cell walls) 7. Species.
with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were
earlier placed in the animal kingdom which Biological Classification – Kingdom Monera,
lack cell wall). Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom
Plantae, Kingdom Animalia, Viruses, Viroids Page
At present the biological classification and Lichens.
includes: |
Biological Classification of Plants and
Animals 119
1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi Biological classification of plants and animals
4. Kingdom Plantae was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis of
5. Kingdom Animalia simple morphological characters.
6. Viruses, Viroids and Lichens Linnaeus later classified all living organisms
into two kingdoms - Plantae and Animalia.
Further classification is done by naming the Whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom
sub-groups at various levels as given in the classification - Monera, Protista, Fungi,
following scheme: KPC OF GS Plantae and Animalia.
The main criteria of the five kingdom
1. Kingdom, classification were cell structure, body
2. Phylum (For Animals) / Division (For organisation, mode of nutrition and
Plants), reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships
3. Class, [evolutionary development and diversification
4. Order, of a species].
This group includes all Some well-known
bacteria include blue-green
algae or cyanobacteria [have cell walls],
and mycoplasma [doesn’t possess a Cell
Wall].
They are the most abundant micro-organisms
and live in extreme habitats. Page
Some of them have cell walls [bacteria] while
some do not [mycoplasma]. |
The mode of nutrition of organisms in this 120
group can be either by synthesizing their own
food (autotrophic) or getting it from the
environment (heterotrophic). Many of them
live in or on other organisms as parasites.
Bacteria are grouped under four categories
At present, the biological classification based on their shape
includes:
1. the spherical Coccus
1. Kingdom Monera 2. the rod-shaped Bacillus
2. Kingdom Protista 3. the comma-shaped Vibrium
3. Kingdom Fungi 4. the spiral Spirillum
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
6. Viruses, Viroids and Lichens
Mycoplasma 121
The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-
green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to
green plants and are photosynthetic The Mycoplasma are organisms that
autotrophs. completely lack a cell wall.
The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial, They are the smallest living cells known and
filamentous, freshwater/marine or can survive without oxygen.
terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals
surrounded by gelatinous sheath. and plants.
They often form blooms [algal blooms] in
polluted water bodies. Kingdom Protista
Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric
nitrogen in specialized cells
All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under
called heterocysts,
Protista [Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic
e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Cells].
Boundaries of this kingdom are not well
Chemosynthetic bacteria defined. This kingdom forms a link with the
others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise In this group we include Chrysophytes,
various inorganic substances such as nitrates, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds
nitrites and ammonia and use the released and Protozoans. Examples are
energy for their ATP production. unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.
They play a great role in recycling Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron heterotrophic.
and sulphur. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
Some have flagella or cilia that helps in
Heterotrophic bacteria movement.
Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by
Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant a process involving cell fusion and zygote
in nature. The majority are formation.
important decomposers.
Many of them have a significant impact on Chrysophytes
human affairs. They are helpful in
making curd from milk, production of This group includes diatoms and golden
antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, algae (desmids).
etc {Microbes In Human Welfare | Useful Most of them
Microbes}. are photosynthetic. Diatoms are the chief
Some are pathogens causing damage to ‘producers’ in the oceans.
human beings, crops, farm animals and pets. They are found in fresh water as well as in
Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are marine environments. They are microscopic
well known diseases caused by different and float passively in water currents
bacteria {Diseases Caused by (plankton).
Microorganisms, Diseases | Acute, Chronic, In diatoms the cell walls form two thin
Communicable Diseases}. overlapping shells. The walls are embedded
with silica and thus the walls are
indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores
large amount of cell wall deposits in their possess true walls. They are extremely
habitat; this accumulation over billions of resistant and survive for many years, even
years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. under adverse conditions. The spores are
Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, dispersed by air currents.
filtration of oils and syrups.
Protozoans Page
Dinoflagellates
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All protozoans are heterotrophs and live
These organisms are as predators or parasites. They are believed 122
mostly marine and photosynthetic. to be primitive relatives of animals. There
They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red are four major groups of protozoans.
depending on the main pigments present in
their cells. Amoeboid protozoans
The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the
outer surface. These organisms live in fresh water, sea water
Most of them have two flagella; one lies or moist soil.
longitudinally and the other transversely in a They move and capture their prey by putting
furrow between the wall plates. out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba.
Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Marine forms have silica shells on their
Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication surface. Some of them such
that they make the sea appear red (red as Entamoeba are parasites.
tides).
Toxins released by such large numbers may Flagellated protozoans
even kill other marine animals such as fishes.
The members of this group are either free-
Euglenoids
living or parasitic. They have flagella.
The parasitic forms cause diseases such
Majority of them are fresh water as sleeping sickness.
organisms found in stagnant water. Example: Trypanosoma.
Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich
layer called pellicle which makes their body Ciliated protozoans
flexible.
They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
These are aquatic, actively moving organisms
Though they are photosynthetic in the
because of the presence of thousands of cilia.
presence of sunlight, when deprived of
They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the
sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by
outside of the cell surface. The coordinated
predating on other smaller organisms.
movement of rows of cilia causes the water
Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are
laden with food to be steered into the gullet.
identical to those present in higher plants.
Example: Paramoecium.
Example: Euglena.
Sporozoans
Slime Moulds
This includes diverse organisms that have an
Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
The body moves along decaying twigs and The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial
leaves engulfing organic material. parasite) which causes malaria, a disease
Under suitable conditions, they form an which has a staggering effect on human
aggregation called plasmodium which may population {Diseases Caused by
grow and spread over several feet. Microorganisms}.
During unfavorable conditions, the
plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting
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123
Viroids
The Leaf
Plantae
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with cell [Thallus == a plant body not differentiated
walls mainly made of cellulose {Plant Cell vs. into stem, leaves, and roots and without a
Animal Cell}. vascular system, typical of algae, fungi,
They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for lichens, and some liverworts].
photosynthesis. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous They occur in a variety of other habitats:
plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them
fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants also occur in association with fungi
and Cuscuta is a parasite. (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, The form and size of algae is highly variable.
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and The size ranges from the microscopic
angiosperms. unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas, to
Fungi, and members of colonial forms like Volvox and to the
the Monera and Protista having cell filamentous forms
like Ulothrix and Spirogyra. A few of the Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall
marine forms such as kelps, form massive made of an inner layer of cellulose and an
plant bodies. outer layer of pectose.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by
and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction fragmentation or by formation of different
is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops types of spores.
into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated Page
Asexual reproduction is by the production of zoospores produced in zoosporangia.
different types of spores, the most common The sexual reproduction shows considerable |
being the zoospores [capable of swimming by variation in the type and formation of sex cells 131
means of a flagellum]. They are flagellated and it may be isogamous, anisogamous or
(motile) and on germination gives rise to new oogamous.
plants. Some commonly found green algae
Sexual reproduction takes place through are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix,
fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be Spirogyra and Chara.
flagellated and similar in size (as in
Chlamydomonas) or non-flagellated (non- Phaeophyceae – Brown Algae
motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra).
Such reproduction is called isogamous
The members of phaeophyceae or brown
[Fusion of two gametes similar in size].
algae are found primarily in marine habitats.
Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in
They show great variation in size and form.
some species of Chlamydomonas is termed
They range from simple branched, filamentous
as anisogamous.
forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched
Fusion between one large, non-motile (static)
forms as represented by kelps, which may
female gamete and a smaller, motile male
reach a height of 100 metres.
gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox,
They possess chlorophyll a, c,
Fucus. [Compare this with human sperm and
carotenoids and xanthophylls. They vary in
ovum]
colour from olive green to various shades of
brown depending upon the amount of
the xanthophyll pigment,
fucoxanthin present in them.
The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall
usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous
coating of algin. The protoplast contains, in
addition to plastids, a centrally located
vacuole and nucleus.
Vegetative reproduction takes place by
fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is
by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped
Chlorophyceae – Green Algae
and have two unequal laterally attached
flagella.
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly Sexual reproduction maybe isogamous,
called green algae. anisogamous or oogamous.
The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or Union of gametes may take place in water or
filamentous. within the oogonium (oogamous species).
They are usually grass green due to the The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and
dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b. bear two laterally attached flagella.
The pigments are localised in definite The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota,
chloroplasts. Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus.
Most of the members have one or more storage
bodies called pyrenoids located in the Rhodophyceae – Red Algae
chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein
besides starch. Some algae may store food in
the form of oil droplets.
The members of rhodophyceae are commonly fixation on earth is carried out by algae
called red algae because of the predominance through photosynthesis.
of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their Being photosynthetic they increase the level of
body. dissolved oxygen in their immediate
Majority of the red algae are marine with environment.
greater concentrations found in the warmer They are of paramount importance as primary
areas. producers of energy-rich compounds which Page
They occur in both well-lighted regions close form the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic
to the surface of water and also at great animals. |
depths in oceans where relatively little light Many species of Porphyra, 132
penetrates. Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70
The red thalli of most of the red algae are species of marine algae used as food.
multicellular. Some of them have complex Certain marine brown and red algae produce
body organisation. large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding
The food is stored as floridean starch which is substances), e.g., algin (brown
very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in algae) and carrageen (red algae) which are
structure. used commercially.
The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively Agar, one of the commercial products
by fragmentation. obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are
They reproduce asexually by non-motile used to grow microbes and in preparations
spores and sexually by non-motile gametes. of ice-creams and jellies.
Sexual reproduction is oogamous. Chlorella a unicellular alga, rich
The common members are: Polysiphonia, in proteins is used as food supplement even
Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium. by space travellers.
The algae are divided into three main
Uses of algae classes: Chlorophyceae,
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways.
At least a half of the total carbon dioxide
Permanent Tissue
Simple Permanent
Tissue
Parenchyma
Nutrition in Plants
Chlorophyll Pigments
Budding
Pollination Page
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147
2. Occurs in bisexual plants having anther 2. Occurs in bisexual flowers having anther and
and stigma maturing at same time. stigma maturing at different times.
3. It takes place in plants like wheat, peas 3. It takes place in plants like lady- finger, tomato,
etc. brinjal etc.
Fertilization The cell which results after fusion of the
gametes is called a zygote. The process of
fusion of male and female gametes (to form a
zygote) is called fertilization. The zygote a) Only one parent plant is involved. a) Both
develops into an embryo. b) Occurs in unisexual plants. b) Occur
c) Occurs in lower plants. c) Occur
Fruits and seed formation d) Reproductive organs are not present. d) Fully
e) In most of the methods the original e) Origi
After fertilization, the ovary grows into a parent disappears. reproduct
fruit and other parts of the flower fall off. The f) Process like gamete formation or f) Page
Fertil
fruit is the ripened ovary. fertilization is not seen.
|
The seeds develop from the ovules. The seed g) Characteristics of only one parent is g) Chara
contains an embryo enclosed in a protective inherited. 148
seed coat. Some fruits are fleshy and juicy h) No need of seeds. h) Seeds
such as mango, apple and orange. Some fruits Classification of Animal Kingdom - Porifera,
are hard like almonds and walnuts. Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Chordata.]
Seed dispersal
Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification
Some seeds are dispersed by animals,
especially spiny seeds with hooks which get Classification of Animal Kingdom is based on
attached to the bodies of animals and are various fundamental features like -
carried to distant places. Examples are
Xanthium and Urena. 1. Levels of Organisation,
Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits 2. Symmetry,
burst with sudden jerks. The seeds are 3. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation,
scattered far from the parent plant. This 4. Coelom development,
happens in the case of Castor and Balsam. 5. Segmentation of the body and
6. Presense or absence of Notochord.
Asexual reproduction vs Sexual
reproduction The broad classification of Animalia based on
common fundamental features:
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Levels of Organization
Though all members of Animalia are right halves in only one plane,
multicellular, all of them do not exhibit the exhibit bilateral symmetry.
same pattern of organisation of cells.
For example, in sponges, the cells are
arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e., they
exhibit cellular level of organisation. Some
division of labour (activities) occur among the Page
cells.
In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is |
more complex. Here the cells performing the 149
same function are arranged into tissues,
hence is called tissue level of organisation.
A still higher level of organisation, i.e., organ
level [organ level of organisation] is exhibited
by members of Platyhelminthes and other
higher phyla where tissues are grouped
together to form organs, each specialised for a
particular function.
In animals like Annelids, Arthropods,
Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates, organs
have associated to form functional systems,
each system concerned with a specific
physiological function. This pattern is
called organ system level of organisation.
Organ systems in different groups of animals
exhibit various patterns of complexities.
For example, the digestive system
in Platyhelminthes (incomplete digestive
system) has only a single opening to the
outside of the body that serves as both mouth
and anus, and is hence called incomplete.
A complete digestive system has two
openings, mouth and anus.
Similarly, the circulatory system may be of
two types: open type in which the blood is
pumped out of the heart and the cells and
tissues are directly bathed in it and closed
type in which the blood is circulated through
a series of vessels of varying diameters
(arteries, veins and capillaries).
Symmetry
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150
1. Phylum - Porifera
2. Phylum - Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
3. Phylum - Ctenophora
4. Phylum - Platyhelminthes
5. Phylum - Aschelminthes (Nemotoda) Annelida
6. Phylum - Arthropoda
7. Phylum - Mollusca
8. Phylum - Echinodermata Figure: Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon (b)
9. Phylum - Hemichordata Euspongia (c) Spongilla
10. Phylum - Chordata
Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh
Phylum - Porifera water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath sponge).
Phylum -
Platyhelminthes
Platyhelminthes are
more complexly
designed than the
earlier groups.
They are bilaterally
symmetrical.
They are triploblastic.
Phylum – Aschelminthes (Nemotoda)
This allows outside and
inside body linings as
well as some organs to
Body in aschelminthes (Nemotoda) They are coelomate [true body cavity]. This
is cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical] rather allows true organs to be packaged in the body
than flattened. structure.
They exhibit organ-system level of body They are bilateral
organization [there are tissues, but no real symmetric and triploblastic.
organs]. They possess longitudinal and circular
They are triploblastic. A sort of body cavity or muscles which help in locomotion. Page
a pseudocoelom, is present. Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral
They are freeliving, aquatic, terrestrial or appendages, parapodia, which help in |
parasitic in plants and animals. swimming. 153
These are very familiar as parasitic A closed circulatory system is present.
worms causing diseases, such as the worms Nephridia (sing. nephridium) help in
causing elephantiasis (filarial worms) or the osmoregulation and excretion.
worms in the intestines (roundworm or Neural system consists of paired ganglia (sing.
pinworms). ganglion) connected by lateral nerves to a
The body is circular in cross-section, hence, double ventral nerve cord.
the name roundworms. Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious [Sexes
Alimentary canal is complete. are separate],
An excretory tube removes body wastes from but earthworms and leeches are monoecious
the body cavity through the excretory pore. [having both the male and female reproductive
Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and organs in the same individual].
females are distinct. Reproduction is sexual.
Often females are longer than males.
Fertilisation is internal and development may
be direct (the young ones resemble the adult)
or indirect.
Phylum - Annelida
Phylum - Arthropoda
Annelida are aquatic [marine and fresh water]
or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes Insects, arachnids and crustaceans are
parasitic. members of the largest category of creatures
Their body surface is distinctly marked out on the planet: arthropods.
into segments or metameres [metamerically Arthropods have hard, external shells called
segmented] and, hence, the phylum name “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies and jointed
Annelida (Latin, annulus: little ring). legs.
They exhibit organ-system level of body Some familiar examples are prawns,
organization. butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions
and crabs and some
They exhibit organ-system level of Crustaceans make up a large group of
organisation. arthropods that includes animals such as
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, crabs, lobsters, crayfish and shrimp. They
segmented and coelomate The coelomic breathe with gills and have two pairs of
cavity is blood-filled. antennae.
The body of arthropods is covered
by chitinous The body consists of head, Insects Page
thorax and abdomen.
There is an open circulatory system, and so |
In general, insects have three-part bodies, six
the blood does not flow in well defined blood jointed legs, compound eyes and two 154
vessels. antennae.
Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book Bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies,
lungs or tracheal system. grasshoppers, ants, butterflies and moths,
Sensory organs like antennae, eyes and dragonflies and damselflies are common
(compound and simple), statocysts or balance types of insects.
organs are present.
Excretion takes place through malpighian
Phylum - Mollusca
tubules.
They are mostly dioecious.
Fertilisation is usually internal. Mollusca are the second largest animal
They are mostly oviparous. phylum. They are terrestrial or aquatic.
Development may be direct or indirect. They exhibit organ-system level of
organization.
They are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic, coelomate animals. There is
little segmentation.
They have an open circulatory system
and kidney-like organs for excretion. The
anterior head region has sensory tentacles.
The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ
for feeding, called radula.
They are usually dioecious and oviparous with
indirect development.
Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is
unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular
foot and visceral hump. A soft and spongy
layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral
hump.
Examples are octopus, snails and mussels.
Arachnids
Crustaceans
Phylum - Echinodermata cucumber, Brittle star.
1. have a notochord
2. have a dorsal nerve cord
3. are triploblastic
4. have paired gill pouches
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156
Page
Division In Vertebrata
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Basic Concepts 158
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give birth to young ones while some animals lay eggs which later
develop into young ones.
The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals.
Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
In some animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults. Recall the life cycle of the
silkworm (egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult) (egg → tadpole (larva) → adult). The
transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.
They maintain a constant internal body Their body temperature changes according to
temperature irrespective of external the external environment. [If a cold blooded
environment. [Can regulate their body animal is taken to the equator its body
temperature by generating their own heat when temperature increases and if taken to the poles
they are in a cooler environment, and by its body temperature decreases]
cooling themselves when they are in a hotter
environment]
To stay cool, warm-blooded animals usually Cold-blooded animals often like to bask in the
sweat. Animals like elephants use their ears to sun to warm up and increase their metabolism.
cool their body [large, thin ears which loose Some cold-blooded animals, such as bees or
heat quickly]. dragonflies, shiver to stay warm when in a cold
Some warm-blooded animals, especially birds, environment.
migrate from colder to warmer regions in the
winter.
Mammals have hair, fur and birds have
feathers to help keep them warm.
Warm-blooded animals can also shiver to
generate more heat when they get too cold.
Constant body temperature provide a nice Constantly changing body temperatures make Page
warm environment for viruses, bacteria and life more difficult for the parasites.
|
parasites to live in.
159
Hibernation
Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in few endotherms [warm blooded
animals – bear, rodents] and ectotherms [many reptiles like snakes, turtles and amphibians like
frogs]. Snakes, lizards, toads, frogs, salamanders and most turtles will mostly hibernate during
harsh winters.
Hibernating animals usually retreat to a den, a burrow, or a hollow log for protection and shelter.
During "true hibernation," the animal's body temperature drops, and its rate of breathing slows
down. These hibernating animals are very difficult to awaken.
Some warm-blooded animals such as bears, rodents etc. hibernate during extreme weather seasons
and unfavorable conditions.
During hibernation these animals live off of stored body fat and can drop their body temperatures
significantly.
Most animals will eat large amounts of food before hibernating.
Class - Cyclostomata
(Cnidaria) present.
Ctenophora Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Comb plates for
locomotion.
Platyhelm- Organ Bilateral Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Flat body, suckers.
&
inthes Organ -
system
Aschelmin- Organ - Bilateral Pseudo- Absent Complete Absent Absent Often wormshaped,
system coelomate elongated.
thes
Annelida Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Absent Body segmentation like
system rings.
Arthropoda Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present Exoskeleton of cuticle,
system jointed appendages.
Mollusca Organ - Bilateral Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present External skeleton of
system shell usually present.
Echino- Organ- Radial Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present Water vascular system,
radial symmetry.
dermata system
Hemi- Organ- Bilateral Coelomate Absent Complete Present Present Worm-like with
system proboscis, collar and
chordata trunk.
Chordata Organ- Bilateral Coelomate Present Complete Present Present Notochord, dorsal
system hollow nerve cord, gill
slits with limbs or fins.
Sexual Reproduction - Human Reproductive sperms come in contact with an egg, one of
System, Male and Female Reproductive System, the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such Page
Gametogenesis, Menstrual Cycle, Fertilization. fusion of the egg and the sperm is |
called fertilization.
Reproduction In Animals 163
Internal and External Fertilization
There are two modes by which animals
reproduce. These are:
During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm
and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This
1. Sexual reproduction, and
results in the formation of a fertilized egg or
2. Asexual reproduction.
zygote.
Fertilization which takes place inside the
There are many organisms which do not female body is called internal fertilization.
reproduce (mules, sterile worker bees, infertile Internal fertilization occurs in many animals
human couples, etc.). including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
During spring or rainy season, frogs and toads
Sexual Reproduction move to ponds and slow flowing streams.
When the male and female come together in
The reproductive parts in animals water, the female lays hundreds of eggs.
produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
It is the zygote which develops into a new shell and it is comparatively very delicate. A
individual. This type of reproduction layer of jelly holds the eggs together and
beginning from the fusion of male and female provides protection to the eggs.
gametes is called sexual reproduction. As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms
The male reproductive organs include a pair over them. Each sperm swims randomly in
of testes (singular, testis), two sperm water with the help of its long tail. The sperms
ducts and a penis. The testes produce the come in contact with the eggs. This results in
male gametes called sperms. fertilization.
The female reproductive organs are a pair of This type of fertilization in which the fusion of
ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and a male and a female gamete takes place
the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes outside the body of the female is
called ova (eggs). called external fertilization. It is very
common in aquatic animals such as fish,
starfish, etc.
Asexual Reproduction
What would be the number of chromosome in The hymen is often torn during the
the spermatids? 23 chromosomes. first coitus (intercourse). However, it can also
be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of
Thelabia minora are paired folds of tissue a vaginal tampon, active participation in some
under the labia majora. The opening of the sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
vagina is often covered partially by a In some women the hymen persists even after
membrane called hymen. coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of
The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure hymen is not a reliable indicator of
which lies at the upper junction of the two virginity or sexual experience.
labia minora above the urethral opening. A functional mammary gland is characteristic
of all female mammals. The mammary glands
are paired structures (breasts) that hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
contain glandular tissue and variable amount hormone (FSH).
of fat. LH acts at the Leydig cells and
The glandular tissue of each breast is divided stimulates synthesis and secretion of
into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the
of cells called alveoli. The cells of process of spermatogenesis.
alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates Page
cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open secretion of some factors which help in the
into mammary tubules. process of spermiogenesis. |
The tubules of each lobe join to form a Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of 167
mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join a head, neck, a middle piece and a tail. A
to form a wider mammary ampulla which is plasma membrane envelops the whole body of
connected to lactiferous duct through which sperm.
milk is sucked out. The sperm head contains an elongated haploid
nucleus, the anterior portion of which is
Gametogenesis covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome. The
acrosome is filled with enzymes that help
fertilization of the ovum.
The primary sex organs – the testis in the
The middle piece possesses
males and the ovaries in the
numerous mitochondria, which produce
females produce gametes,
energy for the movement of tail that facilitate
i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
sperm motility essential for fertilization.
process called gametogenesis.
The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300
In testis, the immature male germ cells
million sperms during a coitus of which, for
(spermatogonia) produce sperms by
normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms
spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.
must have normal shape and size and at least
The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium)
40 per cent of them must show vigorous
present on the inside wall of seminiferous
motility.
tubules multiply by mitotic division and
Sperms released from the seminiferous
increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium
tubules, are transported by the accessory
is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes.
ducts.
Some of the spermatogonia called primary
Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens,
spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
seminal vesicle and prostate are essential
A primary spermatocyte completes the first
for maturation and motility of sperms.
meiotic division (reduction division) leading to
The seminal plasma along with the sperms
formation of two equal, haploid cells called
constitute the semen. The functions of male
secondary spermatocytes, which have only 23
sex accessory ducts and glands are
chromosomes each.
maintained by the testicular hormones
The secondary spermatocytes undergo
(androgens).
the second meiotic division to produce four
The process of formation of a mature female
equal, haploid spermatids.
gamete is called oogenesis which is markedly
different from spermatogenesis.
The spermatids are transformed into Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic
spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called development stage when a couple of million
spermiogenesis. After spermiogenesis, sperm gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed
heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells, within each fetal ovary; no more oogonia are
and are finally released from the seminiferous formed and added after birth.
tubules by the process called spermiation. These cells start division and enter into
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of puberty prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
due to significant increase in the secretion temporarily arrested at that stage,
of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). called primary oocytes.
This, if you recall, is a hypothalamic Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by
hormone. a layer of granulosa cells and is called
The increased levels of GnRH then acts at the primary follicle.
the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates
secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising
A large number of these follicles degenerate menstruation till the next one is called
during the phase from birth to puberty. the menstrual cycle.
Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000
primary follicles are left in each ovary. One ovum is released (ovulation) during
The primary follicles get surrounded by more the middle of each menstrual cycle. The cycle
layers of granulosa cells and a new theca and starts with the menstrual phase, when
are called secondary follicles. The secondary menstrual flow occurs and it lasts for 3-5 Page
follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle days.
which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity The menstrual flow results due to breakdown |
called antrum. of endometrial lining of the uterus and its 168
At this stage the primary oocyte within blood vessels which forms liquid that comes
the tertiary follicle grows in size and out through vagina. Menstruation only occurs
completes its first meiotic division. It is an if the released ovum is not fertilized.
unequal division resulting in the formation of Lack of menstruation may be indicative of
a large haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny pregnancy. However, it may also be caused
first polar body. due to some other underlying causes like
The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the stress, poor health etc.
nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte. The menstrual phase is followed by the
The tertiary follicle further changes into the follicular phase. During this phase, the
mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a
secondary oocyte forms a new membrane fully mature Graafian follicle and
called zona pellucida surrounding it. simultaneously the endometrium of uterus
The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release regenerates through proliferation.
the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary These changes in the ovary and the uterus are
by the process called ovulation. induced by changes in the levels of pituitary
and ovarian hormones.
Menstrual Cycle The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH)
increases gradually during the follicular
The reproductive cycle in the female primates phase, and stimulates follicular development
(e.g. monkeys, apes and human beings) is as well as secretion of estrogens by the
called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation growing follicles.
begins at puberty and is called menarche. Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the
middle of cycle (about 14 th day). Rapid
secretion of LH leading to its maximum level
during the mid-cycle called LH surge
induces rupture of Graafian follicle and
thereby the release of ovum (ovulation).
The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed
by the luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian follicle
transform as the corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes large amounts
of progesterone which is essential for
maintenance of the endometrium. Such an
endometrium is necessary for implantation
of the fertilised ovum and other events of
pregnancy.
During pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation. In the absence of fertilisation,
the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes
disintegration of the endometrium leading to
In human females, menstruation is repeated menstruation, marking a new cycle.
at an average interval of about 28/29 days,
and the cycle of events starting from one
In human beings, menstrual cycles ceases fertilisation takes place.
around 50 years of age; that is termed Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and
as menopause. sperms are transported simultaneously to
Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal the ampullary region. This is the reason why
reproductive phase and extends between not all copulations lead to fertilisation and
menarche and menopause. pregnancy.
Page
Fertilisation And Implantation The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum
is called fertilisation. During fertilisation, a |
During copulation (coitus) semen is released sperm comes in contact with the zona 169
by the penis into the vagina (insemination). pellucida layer of the ovum and induces
The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through changes in the membrane that block the entry
the cervix, enter into the uterus and finally of additional sperms. Thus, it ensures
reach the ampullary region of the fallopian that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum.
tube. The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm
The ovum released by the ovary is also enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum through
transported to the ampullary region where the zona pellucida and the plasma.
Ovum surrounded by few sperm blastomeres After attachment, the uterine cells divide
is called a morula. The morula continues to rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result,
divide and transforms into blastocyst as it the blastocyst becomes embedded in the
moves further into the uterus. endometrium of the uterus. This is
The blastomeres in the blastocyst are called implantation and it leads to
arranged into an outer layer pregnancy.
called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell In Vitro Fertilization
mass. The trophoblast layer then gets
attached to the endometrium and the inner
Have you heard of test tube babies? In some
cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
women oviducts are blocked. These women
are unable to bear babies because sperms Immediately after implantation, the inner cell
cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In such mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
cases, doctors collect freshly released egg and layer calledectoderm and an inner layer called
sperms and keep them together for a few endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between
hours for IVF or In Vitro the ectoderm and the endoderm
Fertilization (fertilization outside the [triploblastic]. These three layers give rise to
body). all tissues (organs) in adults. Page
In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is It needs to be mentioned here that the inner
allowed to develop for about a week and then cell mass contains certain cells called stem |
it is placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete cells which have the potency to give rise to all 170
development takes place in the uterus and the the tissues and organs.
baby is born like any other baby. The human pregnancy lasts 9 months. In
Babies born through this technique are called human beings, after one month of pregnancy,
test-tube babies. This term is actually the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign of
misleading because babies cannot grow in test growing foetus may be noticed by listening to
tubes. the heart sound carefully through the
stethoscope.
Pregnancy And Embryonic Development By the end of the second month of pregnancy,
the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the
end of 12 weeks (first trimester), most of the
After implantation, finger-like projections
major organ systems are formed, for example,
appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi
the limbs and external genital organs are well
which are surrounded by the uterine tissue
developed.
and maternal blood.
The first movements of the foetus and
The chorionic villi and uterine
appearance of hair on the head are usually
tissue become interdigitated with each other
observed during the fifth month. By the end of
and jointly form a structural and functional
about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the
unit between developing embryo (foetus) and
body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids
maternal body called placenta.
separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the
The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen
end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is
and nutrients to the embryo and also removal
fully developed and is ready for delivery.
of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste
materials produced by the embryo.
The placenta is connected to the embryo
through an umbilical cord which helps in the
transport of substances to and from the
embryo.
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and
produces several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
progestogens, etc.
In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone
called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary. Let
us remember that hCG, hPL and relaxin
are produced in women only during
pregnancy.
In addition, during pregnancy the levels of
other hormones like estrogens, progestogens,
cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are
increased several folds in the maternal blood.
Increased production of these hormones is
essential for supporting the fetal growth,
metabolic changes in the mother and Parturition And Lactation
maintenance of pregnancy.
The average duration of human pregnancy is cells provide nutrition to the dividing germ
about 9 months which is called the gestation cells.
period. Vigorous contraction of the uterus at The Leydig cells outside the seminiferous
the end of pregnancy causes tubules, synthesise and secrete testicular
expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process hormones called androgens.
of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is The male external genitalia is called penis.
called parturition. The female reproductive system consists of a Page
Parturition is induced by a complex pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, a
neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for vagina, external genitalia, and a pair of |
parturition originate from the fully developed mammary glands. 171
foetus and the placenta which induce mild The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum)
uterine contractions called foetal ejection and some steroid hormones (ovarian
reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from hormones).
the maternal pituitary. Ovarian follicles in different stages of
Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and development are embedded in the stroma.
causes stronger uterine contractions, which in The oviducts, uterus and vagina are female
turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin. accessory ducts.
The stimulatory reflex between the uterine The uterus has three layers namely
contraction and oxytocin secretion continues perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.
resulting in stronger and stronger The female external genitalia includes mons
contractions. This leads to expulsion of the pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and
baby out of the uterus through the birth canal clitoris.
– parturition. The mammary glands are one of the female
Soon after the infant is delivered, the placenta secondary sexual characteristics.
is also expelled out of the uterus. The Spermatogenesis results in the formation of
mammary glands of the female undergo sperms that are transported by the male sex
differentiation during pregnancy and starts accessory ducts.
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy A normal human sperm is composed of a
by the process called lactation. This helps the head, neck, a middle piece and tail.
mother in feeding the newborn. The process of formation of mature female
The milk produced during the initial few days gametes is called oogenesis.
of lactation is called colostrum which The reproductive cycle of female primates is
contains several antibodies absolutely called menstrual cycle.
essential to develop resistance for the new- Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining
born babies. sexual maturation (puberty).
Breast-feeding during the initial period of During ovulation only one ovum is released
infant growth is recommended by doctors for per menstrual cycle.
bringing up a healthy baby. The cyclical changes in the ovary and the
uterus during menstrual cycle are induced by
Summary changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian
hormones.
After coitus, sperms are transported to the
Humans are sexually reproducing and
junction of the isthmus and ampulla, where
viviparous.
the sperm fertilizes the ovum leading to
The male reproductive system is composed of
formation of a diploid zygote.
a pair of testes, the male sex accessory ducts
The presence of X or Y chromosome in the
and the accessory glands and external
sperm determines the sex of the embryo.
genitalia.
Each testis has about 250 compartments
The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic
called testicular lobules, and each lobule
contains one to three highly division to form a blastocyst, which is
coiled seminiferous tubules. implanted in the uterus resulting in
Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by pregnancy.
spermatogonia and Sertoli cells. After nine months of pregnancy, the fully
The spermatogonia undergo meiotic divisions developed foetus is ready for delivery.
leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli
plasmid or viral vectors to isolate and ferry
the foreign DNA into host organisms,
expression of the foreign gene, purification of
the gene product, i.e., the functional protein
and finally making a suitable formulation for
marketing. Large scale production involves
use of bioreactors. Page
|
Genetic Engineering
172
Genetic engineering involves the techniques to
alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA
and RNA) and thus change the phenotype of
the host organism.
Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic
information, while sexual reproduction
permits variation.
Traditional hybridisation procedures used in
plant and animal breeding, very often lead to
The process of childbirth is called parturition
inclusion and multiplication of undesirable
which is induced by a complex
genes along with the desired genes.
neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol,
The techniques of genetic engineering which
estrogens and oxytocin.
include creation of recombinant DNA, use
Mammary glands differentiate during
of gene cloning and gene transfer, overcome
pregnancy and secrete milk after child-birth.
this limitation and allows us to isolate and
The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother
introduce only one or a set of desirable genes
(lactation) during the initial few months of
without introducing undesirable genes into
growth.
the target organism.
There are three basic steps in genetically
Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering, Cloning,
Recombinant DNA, Cloning Vectors, Competent modifying an organism —
Host, Biotechnology And Its Applications in
Medicine & Agriculture. 1. identification of DNA with desirable genes;
2. introduction of the identified DNA into the
Biotechnology host;
3. maintenance of introduced DNA in the host
Biotechnology deals with techniques of using and transfer of the DNA to its progeny.
live organisms or enzymes from organisms to
produce products and processes useful to Cloning
humans.
Making curd, bread or wine, which are all DNA which is somehow transferred into an
microbe-mediated processes, could also be alien organism would not be able to multiply
thought as a form of biotechnology. itself in the progeny cells of the organism.
However, it is used in a restricted sense today, But, when it gets integrated into the genome
to refer to such of those processes which of the recipient, it may multiply and be
use genetically modified organisms to inherited along with the host DNA. This is
achieve the same on a larger scale. because the alien piece of DNA has become
Modern biotechnology using genetically part of a chromosome, which has the ability to
modified organisms was made possible only replicate.
when man learnt to alter the chemistry of DNA In a chromosome there is a specific DNA
and construct recombinant DNA. This key sequence called the origin of replication,
process is called recombinant DNA which is responsible for initiating replication.
technology or genetic engineering. Therefore, for the multiplication of any alien
This process involves the use of restriction piece of DNA in an organism it needs to be a
endonucleases, DNA ligase, appropriate
part of a chromosome(s) which has a specific Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of
sequence known as ‘origin of replication’. enzymes called nucleases. These are of two
Thus, an alien DNA is linked with the origin of kinds; exonucleases and endonucleases.
replication, so that, this alien piece of DNA Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the
can replicate and multiply itself in the host ends of the DNA whereas, endonucleases
organism. This can also be called as cloning make cuts at specific positions within the
or making multiple identical copies of any DNA. Page
template DNA. The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the
plasmid DNA. These plasmid DNA act as |
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached 173
to it.
You probably know that mosquito acts as an
Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA
insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite
molecules formed by laboratory methods of
Into human body.
genetic recombination (such as molecular
In the same way, a plasmid can be used as
cloning) to bring together genetic material
vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA into the
from multiple sources, creating sequences
host organism.
that would not otherwise be found in the
The linking of antibiotic resistance gene with
genome.
the plasmid vector became possible with the
Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA
enzyme DNA ligase, which acts on cut DNA
molecules from all organisms share
molecules and joins their ends. This makes a
the same chemical structure. They differ only
new combination of circular autonomously
in the nucleotide sequence within that
replicating DNA created in vitro and is known
identical overall structure.
as recombinant DNA.
In most cases, organisms containing
When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia
recombinant DNA have apparently normal
coli, a bacterium closely related to Salmonella,
phenotypes. That is, their appearance,
it could replicate using the new host’s DNA
behavior and metabolism are usually
polymerase enzyme and make multiple copies.
unchanged.
The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic
resistance gene in E. coli was
called cloning of antibiotic
resistance gene in E. coli.
Applications of Recombinant
DNA Technology
Summary