A

Project Report

at

CELL PHONE DETECTOR

Submitted by:

Name / (Roll no.)

Aadil Amaan (0905330001)

Mahesh Kumar Sahu (0905330040)
Pranay Ranjan Maurya (0905330056)
Puneet Kumar Gupta (0905330060)

AZAD INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

LUCKNOW
(Affiliated to Gautam Buddha Technical University, Lucknow)

Department of Electronics Engineering

Session (2012-2013)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our sincerest appreciation must be extended by our faculties. We also want to thank
faculties of the College. They have been very kind and helpful to us. We want to thank all
teaching and non‐teaching staff to support us. Especially we are thankful to Mr. S. K. Mishra
(HOD) for providing this golden opportunity to work on this project, inspiration during the
course of this project and to complete the project within stipulated time duration and four
walls of College Lab. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our Guide Ms. Sonal
Mam for their help during the course of the project right from selection of the project, their
constant encouragement, expert academic and practical guidance.

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 ABSTRACT

This handy, pocket-size mobile transmission detector or sniffer can sense the presence
of an activated mobile cell phone from a distance of one and-a-half meters. So it can be used
to prevent use of mobile phones in examination halls, confidential rooms, etc. It is also useful
for detecting the use of mobile phone for Spying and unauthorized video transmission. The
circuit can detect the incoming and outgoing calls, SMS and video transmission even if the
mobile phone is kept in the silent mode. The moment the Bug detects RF transmission signal
from an activated mobile phone, it starts sounding a beep alarm and the LED blinks. The
alarm continues until the signal transmission ceases. Assemble the circuit on a general
purpose PCB as compact as possible and enclose in a small box like junk mobile case. As
mentioned earlier, capacitor C3 should have a lead length of 18 mm with lead spacing of 8
mm. Carefully solder the capacitor in standing position with equal spacing of the leads. The
response can be optimized by trimming the lead length of C3 for the desired frequency. You
may use a short telescopic type antenna.
Use the miniature 12V battery of a remote control and a small buzzer to make the
gadget pocket-size. The unit will give the warning indication if someone uses Mobile phone
within a radius of 1.5 meters.

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 CONTENTS PAGE NO.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction (5)

1.2 Cellular Phone Technology (7)
1.2.1 Cellular Phone Features (7)
1.2.2 Cellular Phone Communication Standards (8)
1.3 Overview of Cell Phone Detector (9)
1.3.1 Mobile Bug (11)
1.4 Circuit Diagram (12)
1.5 Description of Circuit Diagram (13)

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction (14)
2.2 Block Diagram (18)
2.3 Block Diagram Explanation (18)
2.3.1 Transmission Lines (19)
2.4 PCB Layout (20)
2.5 PCB Fabrication (20)
2.5.1 The Printed Circuit Board (21)
2.5.2 Copper-clad Laminates (21)
2.5.3 Board Cleaning Before Pattern Transfer (22)
2.5.4 Screen Printing (22)
2.5.5 Etching (22)
2.5.6 Chemistry (22)
2.5.7 Drilling (23)
2.5.8 Component Mounting (24)
2.5.9 Soldering (24)
2.5.10 Soldering Steps (25)

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 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Introduction (26)
3.2 List of Components (30)
3.3 Components Description (31)
3.3.1 Resistor (31)
3.3.2 Capacitor (34)
3.3.3 Transistor (38)
3.3.4 LED (45)
3.3.5 Piezo Buzzer (57)
3.4 Pin Diagram of ICs (62)
3.4.1 IC CA3130 (62)
3.4.2 IC NE555 (63)
3.5 Working, Applications, and Features of IC CA3130 (63)
3.6 Working, Applications, and Features of IC NE555 (66)

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Introduction (71)
4.2 Circuit Testing on Breadboard (72)
4.3 Working of Cell Phone Detector (73)
4.3.1 Purpose of the circuit (73)
4.3.2 Concept (73)
4.3.3 How the circuit works? (73)
4.3.4 Uses of the capacitor (74)
4.3.5 How the capacitor senses the RF? (74)

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Introduction (75)
5.2 Applications (76)
5.3 Advantages (77)
5.3 Limitations (78)
5.4 Future Scope (78)
5.5 References (79)

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter we will discuss the overview of Cell Phone Detector and see its demo
circuits. We will also discuss about circuit diagram and description of the circuit diagram. But
before we discuss the above we have to know about the previous detection techniques which
has been introduced already in the market.

The first signal detection technique, an existing design utilizing discrete component is
difficult to implement. They are very affordable to construct, but require precision tuning.
This design is analyzed and found to be inaccurate.

The second signal detection technique, a design using a down converter, voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO), and a bandpass filter was investigated for cellular phone
detection. The performance of this technique through hardware and computer modeling is
discussed and the results are presented. The new system is accurate and a practical solution
for detecting cellular phone in a secure facility.

A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone, and a hand phone) is a
device that can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link while moving around a
wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile
phone operator, allowing access to the public telephone network. By contrast, a cordless
telephone is used only within the short range of a single, private base station.

In addition to telephone, modern mobile phones also support a wide variety of

other services such as text messaging, MMS, email, Internet access, short-range wireless
communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, gaming and photography.
Mobile phones that offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to
as smart phones.

A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas
called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base

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station. In a cellular network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring
cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each cell.

When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area.
This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to
communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the
network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than
one cell during transmission.

In a cellular radio system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into
regular shaped cells, which can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other regular shapes,
although hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned multiple
frequencies (f1 – f6) which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of frequencies
can be reused in other cells, provided that the same frequencies are not reused in adjacent
neighboring cells as that would cause co-channel interference.

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency. This
means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between cells
which reuse the same frequency.

In the simple case of the taxi company, each radio had a manually operated channel
selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As the drivers moved around, they would
change from channel to channel. The drivers knew which frequency covered approximately
what area. When they did not receive a signal from the transmitter, they would try other
channels until they found one that worked. The taxi drivers would only speak one at a time,
when invited by the base station operator (this is, in a sense, time division multiple
access (TDMA).

Practically every cellular system has some kind of broadcast mechanism. This can be
used directly for distributing information to multiple mobiles, commonly, for example
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in mobile telephony systems, the most important use of broadcast information is to set up
channels for one to one communication between the mobile transceiver and the base station.
This is called paging. The three different paging procedures generally adopted are sequential,
parallel and selective paging.

The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, but
normally we know a limited number of cells where the phone is located (this group of cells is
called a Location Area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data packet session
is involved; in LTE, cells are grouped into Tracking Areas). Paging takes place by sending the
broadcast message to all of those cells. Paging messages can be used for information transfer.
This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems for sending SMS messages, and in
the UMTS system where it allows for low downlink latency in packet-based connections.

In a cellular system, as the distributed mobile transceivers move from cell to cell
during an ongoing continuous communication, switching from one cell frequency to a
different cell frequency is done electronically without interruption and without a base station
operator or manual switching. This is called the handover or handoff. Typically, a new
channel is automatically selected for the mobile unit on the new base station which will serve
it. The mobile unit then automatically switches from the current channel to the new channel
and communication continues.

1.2 CELLULAR PHONE TECHNOLOGY:

Cellular Phone Technology is rapidly changing. Features like Bluetooth, USB, high
resolution cameras, microphones, Internet, 802.11 wireless, and memory cards added every
year.
Also, the communication technology a cellular phone uses such as CDMA, GSM, 3G and 4G
are rapidly changing.

1.2.1 CELLULAR PHONE FEATURES:

Bluetooth is a secure wireless protocol that operates at 2.4GHz. The protocol uses a
master slave structure and is very similar to having a wireless USB port on your cellular
phone. Device like a printer, keyboard, mouse, audio device, and storage device can be
connected wirelessly. This feature is only use for hands-free devices but can also be used for
file transfer of picture, music, and other data.
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 Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a way for cellular phone to connect to a computer for
data transfer. This feature is very similar to Bluetooth for cellular phone with the exception of
using a cable. On today’s cellular phones this feature is mainly used for charging the battery
or programming by the manufacturer. It can also be used to transfer picture, music, and other
data.

Cameras on cellular phones are a very popular feature that was added in the last 10
years. In recent years, high resolution cameras have become a standard feature. Most cellular
phones will come with at least a 2 mega pixel camera and the more expensive phones can be
as much as 8 mega pixels.

Microphones have been featured on cellular phone since they first came out. In the
last 10 years the microphones have become dual purpose; now there are programs on the
phone that record voice to file such a simple voice recorder or as part of a video.

Some cellular phones come with 802.11 wireless built in and allows the phone to
connect to any nearby wireless network. This provides an alternate connection method to the
Internet and saves money if you are on a limited data plan. Also, connecting with 802.11 is
most likely going to provide better throughput than using the cellular phone network.

All these features make cellular phone today very versatile. They can connect with
almost any storage medium or computer. In the years to come, cellular phones will continue
to gain more and more features.

1.2.2 CELLULAR PHONE COMMUNICATION STANDARDS:

Currently the three main technologies used by cellular phone providers are 2G, 3G,
and 4G. Each generation of technology uses a different transmission protocol. The
transmission protocols dictate how a cellular phone communicates with the tower. Some
examples are: frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access
(TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM), CDMA2000, wide-band code division multiple access (WCDMA), and time division
synchronous code division multiple access (TD-SCDMA). All of these protocols typically

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 operates in the 824-894 MHz band in the United States. Some protocols such as GSM
(depending on the provider) will use the 1800-2000 MHz band.

1.3 OVERVIEW OF CELL PHONE DETECTOR:

Demo Circuit:

R1 1M

IC 3130
C1 0.22

LED
R2 100K

R3 1M

C2 47 UF

IC1 is designed as a differential amplifier Non inverting

input is connected to the potential divider R1, R2. Capacitor C2
keeps the non inverting input signal stable for easy swing to +
or – R3 is the feedback resistor

Figure: 1.1

IC1 functions as a current to voltage converter, since it converts the tiny current
released by the 0.22 capacitor as output voltage.

At power on output go high and LED lights for a short period. This is because + input
gets more voltage than the – input. After a few seconds, output goes low because the output
current passes to the – input through R2. Meanwhile, capacitor C1 also charges. So that both
the inputs gets almost equal voltage and the output remains low. 0.22 capacitor (no other
capacitor can be substituted) remains fully charged in the standby state.
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 When the high frequency radiation from the mobile phone is sensed by the circuit,
0.22 cap discharges its stored current to the + input of IC1 and its output goes high
momentarily. (in the standby state, output of the differential amplifier is low since both inputs
get equal voltage of 0.5 volts or more). Any increase in voltage at + input will change the
output state to high.

The circuit can detect both the incoming and outgoing calls, SMS and video
transmission even if the mobile phone is kept in the silent mode. The moment the bug detects
RF transmission signal from an activated mobile phone, it starts sounding a beep alarm and
the LED blinks. The alarm continues until the signal transmission ceases. An ordinary RF
detector using tuned LC circuits is not suitable for detecting signals in the GHz frequency
band used in mobile phones. The transmission frequency of mobile phones ranges from 0.9 to
3 GHz with a wavelength of 3.3 to 10 cm. So a circuit detecting gigahertz signals required for
a mobile bug.

Here the circuit uses a 0.22μF disk capacitor (C3) to capture the RF signals from the
mobile phone. The lead length of the capacitor is fixed as 18 mm with a spacing of 8 mm
between the leads to get the desired frequency. The disk capacitor along with the leads acts as
a small gigahertz loop antenna to collect the RF signals from the mobile phone.

Op-amp IC CA3130 (IC1) is used in the circuit as a current-to-voltage converter with

capacitor C3 connected between its inverting and non-inverting inputs. It is a CMOS version
using gate-protected p-channel MOSFET transistors in the input to provide very high input
impedance, very low input current and very high speed of performance. The output CMOS
transistor is capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10 mV of either supply voltage
terminal.

Capacitor C3 in conjunction with the lead inductance acts as a transmission line that
intercepts the signals from the mobile phone. This capacitor creates a field, stores energy and
transfers the stored energy in the form of minute current to the inputs of IC1.This will upset
the balanced input of IC1 and convert the current into the corresponding output voltage.

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 Capacitor C4 along with high-value resistor R1 keeps the non-inverting input stable
for easy swing of the output to high state. Resistor R2 provides the discharge path for
capacitor C4.Feedback resistor R3 makes the inverting input high when the output becomes
high. Capacitor C5 (47pF) is connected across ‘strobe’ (pin 8) and ‘null’ inputs (pin 1) of IC1
for phase compensation and gain control to optimise the frequency response.

When the mobile phone signal is detected by C3, the output of IC1 becomes high and
low alternately according to the frequency of the signal as indicated by LED1. This triggers
mono stable timer IC2 through capacitor C7. Capacitor C6 maintains the base bias of
transistor T1 for fast switching action. The low-value timing components R6 and C9 produce
very short time delay to avoid audio nuisance.

Assemble the circuit on PCB and enclose in a small box like junk mobile case. As mentioned
earlier, capacitor C3 should have a lead length of 18 mm with lead spacing of 8 mm.
Carefully solder the capacitor in standing position with equal spacing of the leads. The
response can be optimised by trimming the lead length of C3 for the desired frequency. You
may use a short telescopic type antenna.

1.3.1 Mobile Bug:

Normally IC1 is off. So IC2 will be also off. When the power is switched on, as
stated above, IC1 will give a high output and T1 conducts to trigger LED and Buzzer .This
can be a good indication for the working of the circuit.

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1.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Figure 1.2: Circuit Diagram of Cell Phone Detector

1.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION:

An ordinary RF detector using tuned LC circuits is not suitable for detecting signals in
the GHz frequency band used in mobile phones. The transmission frequency of mobile

13
phones ranges from 0.9 to 3 GHz with a wavelength of 3.3 to 10 cm. So a circuit detecting
gigahertz signals is required for a cell phone detector. Here the circuit uses a 0.22pF disk
capacitor (C3) to capture the RF signals from the mobile phone. The lead length of the
capacitor is fixed as 18 mm with a spacing of 8 mm between the leads to get the desired
frequency. The disk capacitor along with the leads acts as a small gigahertz loop antenna to
collect the RF signals from the mobile phone.

Op-amp IC CA3130 (IC1) is used in the circuit as a current-to-voltage converter with

capacitor C3 connected between its inverting and non-inverting inputs. It is a CMOS version
using gate-protected p-channel MOSFET transistors in the input to provide very high input
impedance, very low input current and very high speed of performance. The output CMOS
transistor is capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10 mV of either supply voltage
terminal.

Capacitor C3 in conjunction with the lead inductance acts as a transmission line that
intercepts the signals from the mobile phone. This capacitor creates a field, stores energy and
transfers the stored energy in the form of minute current to the inputs of IC1. This will upset
the balanced input of IC1 and convert the current into the corresponding output voltage.

Capacitor C4 along with high-value resistor R1 keeps the non-inverting input stable
for easy swing of the output to high state. Resistor R2 provides the discharge path for
capacitor C4. Feedback resistor R3 makes the inverting input high when the output becomes
high. Capacitor C5 (47pF) is connected across ‘strobe’ (pin 0 and ‘null’ inputs (pin 1) of IC1
for phase compensation and gain control to optimise the frequency response.

When the mobile phone signal is detected by C3, the output of IC1 becomes high and
low alternately according to the frequency of the signal as indicated by LED1. This triggers
monostable timer IC2 through capacitor C7. Capacitor C6 maintains the base bias of
transistor T1 for fast switching action. The low-value timing components R6 and C9 produce
very short time delay to avoid audio nuisance.
CHAPTER TWO

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

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 In this chapter we will discuss about the block diagram of the cell phone detector and
also the description of it, PCB layout and PCB fabrication also included in this chapter to
explain the description of cell detector thoroughly in a suitable manner. But before this we
have to see the main aspects about this which performs an important role.

Using a down converter, voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), and a bandpass filter in
the second technique explored for cellular phone detection. Two signals inputted in the down
converter. The first signal is from the antenna and is between 829-835 MHz depending on the
cellular phone (832 MHz for this experiment). The signal is from the VCO, which is tuned to
800 MHz band. The down converter multiplies the two signals together producing the sum
and the difference. This is then filtered by a bandpass filter with the passband lower and
upper edges respectively at 28 MHz and 36 MHz band. Filtering eliminates the sum of the
signals and any environmental noise. Now all the remains is the difference, a 29-35 MHz
signal that indicates an active cellular phone is in the area. This can easily be converted using
analog to digital converters and output to an alarm or a computer. Let us see the PCB layout
introduction it will help us in this chapter.

Schematic driven layout is the concept in IC Layout or PCB layout where the EDA
software links the schematic and layout databases. It was one of the first big steps forward in
layout software from the days when editing tools were simply handling drawn polygons.
Schematic driven layout allows for several features that make the layout designer's job easier
and faster. One of the most important is that changes to the circuit schematic are easily
translated to the layout. Another is that the connections between components in the schematic
are graphically displayed in the layout ensuring work is correct by construction.

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically

connect electronic components using components pathways. When the board has only copper
tracks and features, and no circuit elements such as capacitors, resistors or active devices
have been manufactured into the actual substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to
as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Use of the term PWB or printed
wiring board although more accurate and distinct from what would be known as a
true printed circuit board, has generally fallen by the wayside for many people as the
distinction between circuit and wiring has become blurred. Today printed wiring (circuit)
boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices,
15
and allow fully automated assembly processes that were not possible or practical in earlier era
tag type circuit assembly processes.

A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit

assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use
the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the
meaning.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must
initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more
reliable for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be
automated. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control
needs are set by standards published by the IPC organization.

Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes, all printed circuit
boards manufactured today can be built using the following four items which are usually
purchased from manufacturers:
(i) Laminates
(ii) Copper-clad Laminates
(iii) Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (pre-preg)
(iv) Copper foil

Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth
or paper with thermo set resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size
can be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per
inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to achieve the desired final
thickness and dielectric characteristics.

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching.
The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for
the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than
signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as
a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can

16
be laid out in the form of strip lines and micro strips with carefully controlled dimensions to
assure a consistent impedance.

In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the
printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but
they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional
discrete components.

"Multi layer" printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. One way to
make a 4-layer PCB is to use a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both
sides, then laminate to the top and bottom pre-preg and copper foil. Lamination is done by
placing the stack of materials in a press and applying pressure and heat for a period of time.
This results in an inseparable one piece product. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to
get traces on top and bottom layers.

Finally the PCB is covered with solder mask, marking legend, and a surface finish
may be applied. Multi-layer PCB's allows for much higher component density.

Block Diagam:

17
 Above diagram shows how a cellular phone detector works by using Down Converter,
Bandpass Filter, and Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). Now we will see how our cell
phone detector works without using above devices.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CELL PHONE DETECTOR:

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2.3 DESCRIPTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM:

There are five major blocks in the case of cell phone detector. They are

(i) Antenna
(ii) LC tuner circuit

(iii) Current to voltage converter

(iv) 555 monoshot circuit

(v) Output stage

The first stage is the Antenna stage. The transmission frequency of mobile phone ranges
from 0.9 to 3 GHz with a wavelength of 3.3 to 10 cm. These frequencies send by an active
mobile phone need to be received. This function is carried out by the receiving antenna. An
ordinary RF detector using tuned circuit is not suitable for detecting signals in the GHz
frequency band used in mobile phones. So a circuit detecting GHz signal is required for a
mobile detector.

Here the circuit uses 0.22µF disk capacitor to capture RF signals from the mobile
phones. The lead length of the capacitor is fixed as 18mm with a spacing of 08mm between

19
the leads to get the desired frequency. The disk capacitor along with the leads acts as a small
gigahertz loop antenna to collect the RF signals from the mobile phones. This capacitor along
with the lead inductance act as a transmission lines to intercept the signals from the mobile.
The capacitor creates a field, stores energy and transfers the stored energy in the form of
minute current to the input of a current to voltage converter circuit. This forms the second
stage which is LC Tuner stage.

The current coming to the input of the converter IC, upset its balanced input and then
convert the current into corresponding output voltage. When the mobile phone signals are
detected by the input capacitor, the output of the converter IC, becomes high and low as
indicated by the LED. This triggers the monostable circuit also. The low value timing
components R and C produce very short time delay to avoid audio nuisance. A buzzer is
triggered by using the output of the monoshot timer. The buzzer along with the LEDF forms
the output stage that provide us the indication as sound and light respectively.

2.3.1 TRANSMISSION LINE:

A transmission line conveys electromagnetic waves. A pair of parallel wires and
coaxial cables is the commonly employed transmission lines. It is used to connect transmitter
and antenna, receiver and antenna etc. At low frequency the energy loss in the connecting
wires is negligible. But for higher frequency the loss can be reduced by using two parallel
wires, one for forward connection and the other for return current. A transmission line is
characterized by its lumped parameter as described below.

Series Resistance:
Due to finite conductivity of the conductors, there is a uniform distributed resistance.
There is also power loss due to radiation from the lines. Thus the finite conductivity and
radiation loss can be modeled as a series resistance per loop of length.

Series Inductance:
A current carrying conductor has an associated magnetic field. Both, the grow and
decay of the current is opposed, and hence it possesses inductance. This inductance is
distributed throughout the line. It acts in series.

Series Capacitance:
20
 The two conducting wires is separated by a distance, situated in a dielectric medium
gives rise to a capacitance that acts parallel with the wires.

Shunt Leakage Conductance:

Since the wires are separated by a dielectric medium that cannot be perfect in its
insulation, current leaks through it when the lines carry a current. This leakage of current
through the dielectric between the wires is represented by a shunt conductance per unit
length.

2.4 PCB Layout of the Cell Phone Detector Circuit:

Figure: 2.3 PCB Layout

2.5 PCB Fabrication:

2.5.1 The Printed Circuit Board:

Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are certainly the most important element in the
fabrication of electronic equipment. It is the design of properly laid-out PCBs that determine

21
many of the limiting properties with respect to noise immunity, as well as to fast-pulse, high
frequency and low level characteristics of equipments. High power PCBs in their turn
requires a special design strategy. The first step in the production of the printed circuit board
is to obtain the layout of the PCB from the circuit diagram. For obtaining the layout
computer-aided design techniques are used. In this technique the diagrams are drawn directly
on a graphics work station. The software then checks for any design and layout rules error.
After correction of errors, if any, the layout is obtained based on this layout the printed circuit
boards are fabricated from copper-clad laminates.

2.5.2 Copper-Clad Laminates:

A laminate can be simply described as the product obtained by pressing layers of a
filler material impregnated with resin under heat and pressure. The commonly used fillers are
a variety of papers, or glass in various forms such as cloths and continuous filament mat. The
resigns could be phenolic, epoxy, polyester, PTFE (Polytetrafluroethylene), etc. Each of this
fillers and resins contributes intrinsically to the characteristic properties of the finished
copper-clad laminates. It is further possible to manipulate the properties of copper clad
laminates by fine variations in the manufacturing process. The large range of possible copper
clad laminates has been standardized in the national and international specifications. Thus,
there are exactly laid down specification for each copper-clad laminate grade, being defined
by the resin/filler system and the minimum/maximum limits of the properties. A copper-clad
laminate must have a good copper-to-base laminate bond strength. The appearance of copper
side must be smooth and uniform. All these properties must be retained during the production
of PCB and also under its working conditions. All electrical and mechanical properties of the
laminates are affected by the environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature
corrosive atmosphere etc. Similarly most of the electrical properties vary with changing in
frequency. Thus while choosing the copper-clad laminates the various environmental
conditions likely to be encountered are to be considered.

2.5.3 Board Cleaning Before Pattern Transfer:

After choosing the copper-clad laminate it should be cleaned. The cleaning of the
copper-clad prior to resist application is an essential step for any PCB process using etch or
plating resist. Insufficient cleaning is one of the reasons most often encountered for
difficulties in PCB fabrication although it might not always be immediately recognized as
this. But it is quite often the reason for poor resist-adhesion, uneven photo resist-film,
22
pinholes, poor plating-adhesion, etc. The first step in cleaning process is scrubbing with a
pumice/salt solution. This removes inorganic matters like particulates and oxide and also
performs degreasing up to a certain extent. The pumice used is of a very fine grade to
minimize deep scratches. After scrubbing with the abrasive, a water rinse is done to remove
slurry. This is followed by a strong acid dip in hydrochloric acid (10 vol %) which will
residual alkali and metallic oxides and prepare the surface for maximum resist adhesion. A
final rinse using de-ionized gives guarantees that no fresh contamination is brought on to the
surface. The time span until the next processing step which is screen-printing is made as short
as possible to minimize the formation of fresh oxides.

2.5.4 Screen Printing:

Screen-printing is the process by which the conductor pattern which is on the film
master is transferred on to the copper-clad laminates. With the screen-printing process one
can produce PCBs with a conductor width as low as 2.5mm and registration error of just
0.1mm on an industrial scale with a high reliability.

In its basis form the screen-printing process is very simple. A screen fabric with
uniform meshes and openings is stretched and fixed on a solid frame of a metal or wood. The
circuit pattern is photographically transferred on to the screen, leaving the meshes in pattern
area open, while meshes in the rest of area are closed. In the actual printing step, ink is forced
by the moving squeegee through the open meshes on to the surface of material to be printed.
The ink deposition in a magnified cross-section shows the shape of trapezoid. The ideal
screen printing ink should have many features which cannot be combined. It should dry
rapidly on the PCB but dry slowly on the screen. It should be highly resistant against all the
chemicals but easy to be stripped.

2.5.5 Etching:
After drying of the resist of the copper-clad laminate the next process is etching. The
final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all unwanted copper, which is not
protected by etch resist. For small scale PCB production ferric chloride is used as enchant
because it is very simple to use.

2.5.6 Chemistry:
Free acid attack the copper is formed by the hydrolysis reaction
23
 FeCl3 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl ………….eq(2.1)

The copper is oxidized by ferric ions, forming cuprous chloride (CuCl) and ferrous chloride
(FeCl2)

FeCl3 + Cu FeCl2 + CuCl …………eq(2.2)

Cuprous chloride (CuCl) oxidizes further in the etching solution to cupric chloride (CuCl2)

FeCl3 + CuCl FeCl2 + CuCl2 …………..eq (2.3)

The built up cupric chloride (CuCl2) itself reacts also with copper and forms cuprous chloride
(CuCl)

CuCl2 + Cl 2CuCl …………….eq(2.4)

After etching is over the ferric chloride, contaminated surface should be cleaned.
After a simple spray water rinse, a dip in a 5% (volume) oxalic acid solution is done to
remove the copper and iron salt. A vigorous final water rinse has to flow.

2.5.7 Drilling:
After the etching operation the next step is drilling of component mounting holes in
the PCBs. Holes are made by drilling whenever a superior holes finish or plated-through
holes process is required and where the tool costs for a punching tool cannot be justified.
Therefore drilling is applied by all the professional grade PCB manufacturer and generally
and in all the smaller PCB production plan and in laboratories. The importance of holes
drilling into PCBs has further gone up with electronic component miniaturization and is need
for smaller diameters (diameter less than half the board thickness) and higher package density
where hole punching is practically ruled out. This is done using drilling machines with
suitable size drill bits. To compensate for laminate resilience the drill bit diameter is chosen
0.05mm bigger than the holes diameter expected. The usual size of hole is 0.8 mm and for
bigger components like preset and power devices the size is 1.2 mm. The production of holes
with diameter and tolerances as specified above should not need any special attention: a
24
suitable drilling machine with a correctly sharpened drill bit will provide these results. After
drilling the required number of holes of specified dimensions the next step is mounting the
components on the PCB.

2.5.8 Component Mounting:

Component mounting on the PCB in such a way to minimize the cracking of solder
joints due to mechanical stress on the joint. This can be ensured by bending of the axial
component lead in a manner to guarantee and optimum retention of the component on the
PCB while a minimum stress is introduced on the solder joint. Bending is done with care
taken not to damage the component or its leads. The lead bending radius is chosen to be
approximately two times the lead diameter. The bent leads should fit into the holes
perpendicular to the board so that any stress on the component lead junction is minimized.
The component lead bending is done using a bending tool for easy but perfect component
preparation.

2.5.9 Soldering:
Soldering is the process of joining metals by using lower melting point metal or alloy
with joining surface.

Solder:
Soldering is the process of joining materials. Soldered joints in electronics switches
will establish strong electrical connection between components leads. The popularly used
solders are alloys of tin and lead melt below the melting point of the tin.

Flux:
In order to make the surface accept to make the solder readily, the component
terminals should be free from oxide and other obstructing films. The leads should be cleaned
chemically or by abrasion using blades or knives.

A small amount of lead coating can be done on cleaned portion of the lead using
soldered iron. This process is called thinning. Zink Chloride or Ammonium Chloride
separately or in combination is mostly used as fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly
as paste flux. The residue which remains after soldering may be washed out with more water
accompanied by brushing.
25
Soldering Iron:
It is tool used to melt solder and apply at the joint in the circuit. It operates at 230v
supply. The iron bit at the tip of it gets heated within few minutes. 50W or 25W soldering
irons are commonly used for soldering purpose.

2.5.10 Soldering Steps:

For proper soldering on PCBs the soldering steps are:
(i) Make the layout of component in the circuit. Plug in the cord of the soldering iron into the
mains to get heated.

(ii) Straighten and remove the coating of components leads using a blade or knife. Apply a
little flux on the leads. Take a little solder on soldering iron and apply the molten solder on
the leads. Care must be taken to avoid the components to getting heated up.

(iii) Mount the components on PCB by bending the leads of components using noise pliers.

(iv) Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Soldering must be done in minimum to
avoid the dry soldering and heating up of components.

(v) Wash the residue using water and brush.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Introduction:
In this chapter we will see the components used in the cell phone detector and also
discuss about the main aspects of their working and features. But before the discussing of
above let us see about some quality of the semiconductor devices.

Semiconductor devices are electronic components that exploit

the electronic properties of semiconductor materials, principally silicon, germanium,
and gallium arsenide, as well as organic semiconductors. Semiconductor devices have
replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes) in most applications. They
use electronic conduction in the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or thermionic
emission in a high vacuum.

Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single discrete devices and

as integrated circuits(ICs), which consist of a number—from a few (as low as two) to billions
—of devices manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor substrate, or wafer.
Semiconductor materials are so useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by
the addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled
by introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by mechanical
deformation of a doped mono crystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent
sensors.

Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs via mobile or

"free" electrons and holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor
such as silicon with a small amount of impurity atoms, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly
increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped
semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains excess free
electrons it is known as “n-type”, where p (positive for holes) or n (negative for electrons) is
the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge carriers. The semiconductor material
used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions in a fabrication facility.

27
 By far, silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its
combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful temperature
range make it currently the best compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon
used in semiconductor device manufacturing is currently fabricated into bowls that are large
enough in diameter to allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.) wafers.

Germanium (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal
sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with silicon
for use in very-high-speed Si Ge devices.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has
been difficult to form large-diameter bowls of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to
sizes significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices
significantly more expensive than silicon. Other less common materials are also in use or
under investigation.

Silicon carbide (SiC) has found some application as the raw material for blue light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could
withstand very high operating temperatures and environments with the presence of significant
levels of ionizing radiation.

Various indium compounds (indium arsenide, indium antimonde, and

indium phosphide) are also being used in LEDs and solid state laser
diodes. Selenium sulfide is being studied in the manufacture of photovoltaic solar cells. The
most common use for organic semiconductors is Organic light-emitting diodes.

Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers,

and telephones. Semiconductor-based electronic components include transistors, solar cells,
many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode (LED), the silicon controlled
rectifier, photo-diodes, and digital and analog integrated circuits. Increasing understanding of
semiconductor materials and fabrication processes has made possible continuing increases in
the complexity and speed of semiconductor devices, an effect known as Moore's law.

28
 Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior. Metals are
good conductors because at their Fermi level, there is a large density of energetically
available states that each electron can occupy. Electrons can move quite freely between
energy levels without a high energy cost. Metal conductivity decreases with temperature
increase because thermal vibrations of crystal lattice disrupt the free motion of
electrons. Insulators, by contrast, are very poor conductors of electricity because there is a
large difference in energies (called a band gap) between electron-occupied energy levels and
empty energy levels that allow for electron motion.

In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within
certain bands (ranges). The range of energy runs from the ground state, in which electrons are
tightly bound to the atom, up to a level where the electron can escape entirely from the
material. Each energy band corresponds to a large number of discrete quantum states of the
electrons. Most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to
the valence band.

Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals by the population of

electrons in each band. The valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons
under usual conditions, and metals have many free electrons with energies in the conduction
band. In semiconductors, only a few electrons exist in the conduction band just above the
valence band, and an insulator has almost no free electrons.

The ease with which electrons in the semiconductor can be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band depends on the band gap. The size of this energy gap (band gap)
determines whether a material is semiconductor or an insulator (nominally this dividing line
is roughly 4 eV).

In a crystal, many atoms are adjacent and many energy levels are possible for
electrons. Since there are so many (on the order of 10 22) atoms in a macroscopic crystal, the
resulting energy states available for electrons are very closely spaced. Since the Heisenberg
principle limits the precision of any measurement of the combination of an electron's
momentum (related to energy) and its position, in a crystal effectively the available energy
levels form a continuous band of allowed energy levels.

29
 The concept of holes can also be applied to metals, where the Fermi
level lies within the conduction band. With most metals the Hall effect indicates electrons are
the charge carriers. However, some metals have a mostly filled conduction band. In these, the
Hall effect reveals positive charge carriers, which are not the ion-cores, but holes. In the case
of a metal, only a small amount of energy is needed for the electrons to find other unoccupied
states to move into, and hence for current to flow. Sometimes even in this case it may be said
that a hole was left behind, to explain why the electron does not fall back to lower energies: It
cannot find a hole. In the end in both materials electron-phonon scattering and defects are the
dominant causes for resistance.

The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities

into their crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is
known as doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to
as extrinsic. By adding impurity to pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be
varied by factors of thousands or millions.

A 1 cm3 specimen of a metal or semiconductor has of the order of 10 22 atoms. In a

metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm3 of metal
contains on the order of 1022 free electrons. Whereas a 1 cm3 of sample pure germanium at
20 °C, contains about 4.2×1022 atoms but only 2.5×1013 free electrons and 2.5×1013 holes. The
addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an impurity) donates an extra 10 17 free electrons in the same
volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000.

ICs were made possible by experimental discoveries showing that semiconductor

devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology
advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of
tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of
circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuits, mass
production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the
rapid adoption of standardized Integrated Circuits in place of designs using discrete
transistors.

30
 There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance.
Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit
by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much
less material is used to construct a packaged IC die than to construct a discrete circuit.
Performance is high because the components switch quickly and consume little power
(compared to their discrete counterparts) as a result of the small size and close proximity of
the components. As of 2012, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around
450 mm2, with up to 9 million transistors per mm2. The electrical resistance of an electrical
conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric current through that conductor; the
inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease at which an electric current passes.
Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction.
The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured
in siemens (S).

An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some
resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.

Objects such as wires that are designed to have low resistance so that they transfer
current with the least loss of electrical energy are called conductors. Objects that are designed
to have a specific resistance so that they can dissipate electrical energy or otherwise modify
how a circuit behaves are called resistors. Conductors are made of high-
conductivity materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminums. Resistors, on the
other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as the desired
resistance, amount of energy that it needs to dissipate, precision, and costs.

3.2 List of Components:

RESISTORS
1. R1 ________2.2M
2. R2 ________100K
3. R3 ________2.2M
4. R4 ________1K
5. R5________12K
6. R6________15K

CAPACITORS
31
7. C1 ________22P
8. C2 ________22P
9. C3 ________0.22 µF
10. C4 ________100 µF
11. C5_________47P
12. C6 _________0.1 µF
13. C7_________ 0.1 µF
14. C8_________ 0.01 µF
15. C9__________4.7 µF

16. IC CA3130

17. IC NE555

18. T1 BC548

19. LED

20. ANTENNA

21. PIEZO BUZZER

22. 5 INCH LONG ANTENNA

23. ON/OFF SWITCH

24. POWER SUPPLY

32
3.3 Components Description:

3.3.1 Resistors:

Figure 3.1: Resistors

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,
maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below
which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the
limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of
leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large
enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Significance:
Resistors are found in nearly every circuit because their ability to limit current allows
them to protect electronics from circuit overload or destruction. Diodes, for example, are
current sensitive and so are almost always coupled with a resistor when they are placed inside

33
of a circuit. Resistors are also combined with other electrical components to form important
fundamental circuits. They can be paired with capacitors to perform as filters or voltage
dividers. Another role is that of the formation of oscillatory AC circuits when they are
coupled with capacitors and inductors.

Construction:
Resistors are typically formed from carbon encased in lacquer but may be made from
conductors or semiconductors. Wire-wound ones are made from coils of metal wire and are
extremely accurate and heat resistant. Carbon film resistors are made from carbon on a
ceramic cylinder and photo resistors, also called photocells, are made from materials such as
cadmium-sulfide.

Function:
Because resistors convert electrical energy into heat they form heating elements in
irons, toasters, heaters, electric stoves, hair dryers and similar devices. Their resistive
properties cause them to generate light and are used to create filaments in light bulbs.

As voltage dividers, resistors are placed in series with each other. Their function is to
produce a particular voltage from an input that is fixed or variable. The output voltage is
proportional to that of the input and is usually smaller. Voltage dividers are useful for
components that need to operate at a lesser voltage than that supplied by the input.

Resistors also help filter signals and are used in oscillatory circuits in televisions and
radios.

Resistors are used with transducers to make sensor subsystems. Transducers are
electronic components which convert energy from one form into another, where one of the
forms of energy is electrical. A light dependent resistor, or LDR, is an example of an input
transducer. Changes in the brightness of the light shining onto the surface of the LDR result
in changes in its resistance. As will be explained later, an input transducer is most often
connected along with a resistor to make a circuit called a potential divider. In this case, the
output of the potential divider will be a voltage signal which reflects changes in illumination.

34
 Microphones and switches are input transducers. Output transducers include
loudspeakers, filament lamps and LEDs. Can you think of other examples of transducers of
each type?

In other circuits, resistors are used to direct current flow to particular parts of the
circuit, or may be used to determine the voltage gain of an amplifier. Resistors are used with
capacitors to introduce time delays.

Most electronic circuits require resistors to make them work properly and it is
obviously important to find out something about the different types of resistor available, and
to be able to choose the correct resistor value, in , , or M , for a particular application.

3.3.2 Capacitors:

Figure 3.2: Capacitors

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces
35
a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel,
narrowly separated conductors.

Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large

capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol
F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the smaller values:

µ (micro) means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

n (nano) means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

p (pico) means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Uses of Capacitors:

Capacitors are used for several purposes:

Timing - For example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging.

Smoothing - For example in a power supply.

Coupling - For example between stages of an audio system and to connect

a loudspeaker.

Filtering - For example in the tone control of an audio system.

Tuning - For example in a radio system.

Storing energy - For example in a camera flash circuit.

Energy storage:
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it
can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to
maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information
in volatile memory.)

36
 Conventional electrostatic capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of
energy density, while capacitors using developing technology can provide more than
2.52 kilojoules per kilogram. In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for
the amplifier to use on demand.

Power conditioning:
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full
or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage
element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.

Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices
and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the
primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio
equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum
before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power
source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications,
when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to
the lead-acid car battery.

Power factor correction:

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such
capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values
of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes
reactive (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric
motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual
motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of
capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within
a building or in a large utility substation.

Noise filters and snubbers:

When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses
quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the
inductance is large enough, the energy will generate an electric spark, causing the contact
points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch.
37
A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass
the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact
breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not
be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency
interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed
with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-
capacitor combinations are available in a single package.
Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit
breaker in order to equally distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are
called grading capacitors.

In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often

drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The
straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of
power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio
frequency equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

(1) Ceramic capacitor:

In electronics ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of

metal and ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. The temperature
coefficient depends on whether the dielectric is Class 1 or Class 2. A ceramic capacitor
(especially the class 2) often has high dissipation factor, high frequency coefficient of
dissipation.

38
Figure 3.3: ceramic capacitors

A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical ceramic

capacitor is the "disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was used extensively
in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through the 1950s, and in
discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc
capacitors are in widespread use in electronic equipment, providing high capacity & small
size at low price compared to other low value capacitor types.

Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles, including:

(i) disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads

(ii) multi-layer rectangular block, surface mount

(iii) bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is soldered in place, used for UHF
applications

(iv) tube shape, not popular now

(2) Electrolytic capacitor:

Figure 3.4: electrolytic capacitor

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an ionic conducting liquid as

one of its plates with a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are valuable
in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits. This is especially the case in
power-supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current
fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits
where AC should be conducted but DC should not.

Electrolytic capacitors can have a very high capacitance, allowing filters made with
them to have very low corner frequencies.

39
3.3.3 Transistor:

Figure 3.5: Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic

signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the
transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but
most are found in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and its
presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently
predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ
the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor
alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is
described as elemental.
Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are
given in the table to the right; these parameters will vary with increase in temperature,
electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other factors.

The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a
BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases
exponentially, as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are

40
typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the
junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the
transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in
temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C. In some circuits special
compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the

electric field forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level
in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a
MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior.

The electron mobility and whole mobility columns show the average speed that
electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt
per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster
the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this
respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:
Its maximum temperature is limited; it has relatively high leakage current; it cannot withstand
high voltages; it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.

Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor
materials, a given bipolar NPN transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent PNP
transistor type. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for
this reason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET
development, the high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), has a hetero structure (junction
between different semiconductor materials) of aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium
arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction.
Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at
frequencies around 12 GHz.
Maximum junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various
manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be
damaged.

Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor

barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because
41
some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the
source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but
sometimes it is used in the circuit.

Transistor works in such a manner that a current is applied at one end consisting of
one pair of terminals; it brings changes in the current flowing through another pair of
terminals at other end. Since, the controlled power can be much more than the controlling
power, there takes place the amplification of a signal. Info to know about transistor is that
there are some transistors which are packaged individually however; normally the transistors
are embedded in integrated circuits.

One gets an idea about the importance of transistor from the fact that nowadays, the
use of transistor is almost there in every electronic device. It won’t be inappropriate to say
about transistor that it has become the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and its presence is everywhere in modern electronic systems.

The transistor considered as the main component in almost all walks of modern
electronics, and is termed as one of the greatest inventions of modern times.

The importance of transistor in today's life resides on its capability to be mass

produced using a highly automated process which is possible due to semiconductor device
fabrication. It has resulted in making lower cost transistors. Moreover it can perform multiple
functions as transistor can act as an amplifier by controlling its output in proportion to the
input signal. Or, it can also be used as a switch in high power applications as well as low
power application like logic gates.

Usage:
The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor in the
1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the
transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their
greater linearity and ease of manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their
utility in low-power devices, usually in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture
nearly all market share for digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have captured most

42
analog and power applications as well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage
regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, motor drivers, etc.

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power

applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such
as logic gates.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the

base voltage rises, the emitter and collector current rises exponentially. The collector voltage
drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference
between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be
limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is
called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated
the switch is said to be on.

Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar
transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large
current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The
ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular
type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the
resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.

In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that the output
is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of
operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin)

changes the small current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current
amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings
in Vin produce large changes in Vout.

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing
current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.

43
 From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers
for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor
audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity
gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively
inexpensive.

Advantages:
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are:

(i) Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic
devices.

(ii) Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.

(iii) Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered
applications.

(iv) No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.

(v) Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.

(vi) Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.

(vii) Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 30
years.

(viii) Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-symmetry

circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.

(ix) Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of
microphonics in audio applications.

Limitations:

(i) Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts (SiC devices
can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have been developed that
can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.

44
(ii) High power, high frequency operation, such as used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in a
vacuum.

(iii) On average, a higher degree of amplification linearity can be achieved in electron tubes
as compared to equivalent solid state devices, a characteristic that may be important in high
fidelity audio reproduction.

(iv) Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an electromagnetic
pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear explosion.

Bipolar junction transistor:

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-
produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and
minority carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base, and collector. The
BJT consists of two p-n junctions: the base–emitter junction and the base–collector junction,
separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes
wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a
transistor). "The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector
are controllable by the relatively small base current.

In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is

forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into
the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the
reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base-
collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will
recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current.

By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of
electrons entering the collector can be controlled. [14] Collector current is approximately β
(common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for
small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

45
3.3.4 LED:

A light-emitting diode
(LED) is an electronic
light source. LEDs are
used as indicator lamps in
many kinds of electronics
increasingly for lighting.
LEDs work by the effect
of electroluminescence,
discovered by accident in
1907.TheLEDwas
introduced as a practical
electronic component in
1962. All early devices
emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern LEDs
are available across the
visible, ultraviolet and
infra red wavelengths,
with very high
brightness.

LEDs are based on the

semiconductor diode.
Electronic symbol When the diode is
forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to
recombine with holes and
Figure 3.6: LED
energy is released in the
form of light.

This effect is called

electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical
components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat
management than traditional light sources.

Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for
replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting, automotive lighting and traffic
signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.

46
Figure 3.7: Various types LEDs

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as
practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in
area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation

lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have
allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in
the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players
and other domestic appliances. LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

47
 The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to
create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the
n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers electrons and holes flow
into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it
falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band
gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the
electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical
emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have
a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet
light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths,
emitting light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type
layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This
means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface
interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to
much research and development.

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 30–
60 milliwatts (mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power
LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor
die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto
metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die. LED power densities up to
300W/cm2 have been achieved.

48
 One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting sources is high luminous efficiency.
White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting
systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–
22 lumens per watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional incandescent light bulb of 60–
100 watts emits around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W. A
recurring problem is that efficacy falls sharply with rising current. This effect is known
as droop and effectively limits the light output of a given LED, raising heating more than
light output for higher current.

As of 2012, the Lumiled catalog gives the following as the best efficacy for each
color:

This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN)
with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are
called phosphor-based white LEDs. A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes
shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the
original LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers of
distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively raising the color
rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED.

Phosphor-based LED efficiency losses are due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift
and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. Their efficiencies compared to normal
LEDs depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original
wavelength of the LED itself. For example, the efficiency of a typical YAG yellow phosphor
based white LED ranges from 3 to 5 times the efficiency of the original blue LED because of
the greater luminous efficacy of yellow compared to blue light. Due to the simplicity of
manufacturing the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high-
intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a
monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a
complex RGB system, and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market
are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.

Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light
sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. Today the most efficient yellow
49
phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stoke shift loss. Losses attributable to
internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself
account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of
phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher
light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by
adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal
coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness.

White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a
mixture of high-efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and
aluminum-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS: Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to
the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG: Ce
phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light
with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative
output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable
brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause
harm to human eyes or skin.

LEDs are used increasingly in aquarium lights. In particular for reef aquariums, LED
lights provide an efficient light source with less heat output to help maintain optimal
aquarium temperatures. LED-based aquarium fixtures also have the advantage of being
manually adjustable to emit a specific color-spectrum for ideal coloration of corals, fish, and
invertebrates while optimizing photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), which raises
growth and sustainability of photosynthetic life such as corals, anemones, clams, and
macroalgae. These fixtures can be electronically programmed to simulate various lighting
conditions throughout the day, reflecting phases of the sun and moon for a dynamic reef
experience. LED fixtures typically cost up to five times as much as similarly rated fluorescent
or high-intensity discharge lighting designed for reef aquariums and are not as high output to
date.

The lack of IR or heat radiation makes LEDs ideal for stage lights using banks of
RGB LEDs that can easily change color and decrease heating from traditional stage lighting,
as well as medical lighting where IR-radiation can be harmful. In energy conservation, the

50
lower heat output of LEDs also means air conditioning (cooling) systems have less heat to
dispose of, reducing carbon dioxide emissions.

LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in hand held devices
such as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead
of the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially
useful in cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising
circuitry is undesirable.

LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security
cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retro
reflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions.
LEDs are now used commonly in all market areas from commercial to home use: standard
lighting, AV, stage, theatrical, architectural, and public installations, and wherever artificial
light is used.

LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for
example as mood enhancement, and new technologies such as AmBX, exploiting LED
versatility. NASA has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for
astronauts.

Applications:

(i) Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one
second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit
light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even
fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

(ii) Bi-color LEDs are two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these.
One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads anti parallel to each other.

51
Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the
other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another
lead for common anode or cathode, so that they can be controlled independently.

(iii) Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to
a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical
with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.

(iv) RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a
four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either
common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only two leads (positive
and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

(v) Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-
segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can
display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and
1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater
display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

Other applications:
The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively
in optical fiber and free space optics communications. This includes remote controls, such as
for TVs, VCRs, and LED Computers, where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use
an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with
electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where
the signals from a low-voltage sensor circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a
living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a
recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An opto isolator
also allows information to be transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground
potential.

Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light
source due to the requirements of the sensors. LEDs are used as movement sensors, for
example in optical computer mice. The Nintendo Wii’s sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. Pulse

52
oxi-meters use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of
RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having
independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more
accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be
monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of
light.

(i) Touch sensing:

Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo
emission and detection. This could be used, for example, in a touch-sensing screen that
registers reflected light from a finger orstylus.

Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to or dependent on light. Grow
lights use LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants and bacteria and viruses can be removed
from water and other substances using UV LEDs for sterilization. Other uses are as UV
curing devices for some ink and coating methods, and in LED printers.

Plant growers are interested in LEDs because they are more energy-efficient, emit less
heat (can damage plants close to hot lamps), and can provide the optimum light frequency for
plant growth and bloom periods compared to currently used grow lights: HPS (high-pressure
sodium), metal-halide (MH) or CFL/low-energy. However, LEDs have not replaced these
grow lights due to higher price. As mass production and LED kits develop, the LED products
will become cheaper.

LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic

circuits. The forward voltage drop (e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used
instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve
above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this
purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a good Zener,
Zener diodes are not widely available below voltages of about 3 V.

(ii) Light sources for machine vision systems:

Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so
features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used for this purpose, and this is

53
likely to remain one of their major uses until price drops low enough to make signaling and
illumination uses more widespread. Barcode scanners are the most common example of
machine vision, and many low cost ones use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer
mice are also another example of LEDs in machine vision, as it is used to provide an even
light source on the surface for the miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs constitute a
nearly ideal light source for machine vision systems for several reasons:

The size of the illuminated field is usually comparatively small and machine vision
systems are often quite expensive, so the cost of the light source is usually a minor concern.
However, it might not be easy to replace a broken light source placed within complex
machinery, and here the long service life of LEDs is a benefit.

LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or even-
shaped substrates (PCBs etc.) so that bright and homogeneous sources that direct light from
tightly controlled directions on inspected parts can be designed. This can often be obtained
with small, low-cost lenses and diffusers, helping to achieve high light densities with control
over lighting levels and homogeneity. LED sources can be shaped in several configurations
(spot lights for reflective illumination; ring lights for coaxial illumination; back lights for
contour illumination; linear assemblies; flat, large format panels; dome sources for diffused,
omni directional illumination).

LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and synchronized
with imaging. High-power LEDs are available allowing well-lit images even with very short
light pulses. This is often used to obtain crisp and sharp “still” images of quickly moving
parts.

LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, allowing easy use of the best
color for each need, where different color may provide better visibility of features of interest.
Having a precisely known spectrum allows tightly matched filters to be used to separate
informative bandwidth or to reduce disturbing effects of ambient light. LEDs usually operate
at comparatively low working temperatures, simplifying heat management and dissipation.
This allows using plastic lenses, filters, and diffusers. Waterproof units can also easily be
designed, allowing use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil industries).

54
Advantages:

(i) Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency
of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or
tubes.

(ii) Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

(iii) Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm) and are easily attached to printed
circuit boards.

(iv) On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even
faster response times.

(v) Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent
lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before
restarting.

(vi) Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or
lowering the forward current.

(vii) Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form
of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat
through the base of the LED.

(viii) Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
incandescent bulbs.

(ix) Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes
typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use,
55
and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have
shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy
savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.

(x) Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with
external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

(xi) Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the
same effect. However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are usually
deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.

Disadvantages:
(i) High initial price:
LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis,
than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2010, the cost per thousand lumens (kilo
lumen) was about $18. The price is expected to reach $2/kilo lumen by 2015. The additional
expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and
power supplies needed.

(ii) Temperature dependence:

LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment – or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in
automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, which require low failure rates.

(iii) Voltage sensitivity:

LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the
rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.

56
(iv) Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm
can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination
than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered
particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering
properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-
of-art white LEDs.

(v) Area light source:

Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light
distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses
needing a spherical light field, however different fields of light can be manipulated by the
application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few
degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.

(vi) Electrical polarity:

Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity,
LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match source polarity
to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.

(vii) Blue hazard:

There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding
safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as
ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photo biological Safety for Lamp and
Lamp Systems.

(viii) Blue pollution:

Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperature emit proportionally more blue
light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the
strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause
more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky Association
discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.

(ix) Droop:
57
 The efficiency of conventional InGaN based LEDs decreases as one
increases current above a given level.

3.3.5 Piezo Buzzer:

Figure 3.8: Piezo Buzzer

Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and certain ceramics,
including bone) to generate an electric field or electric potential[1] in response to applied
mechanical stress. The effect is closely related to a change of polarization density within the
material's volume. If the material is not short-circuited, the applied stress induces a voltage
across the material. The word is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to
squeeze or press.

A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in

automobiles, household appliances such as microwave ovens, or game shows.
It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that
determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually
illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the
form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound.

Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to
an electric bell without the metal gong (which makes the ringing noise). Often these units
were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another
implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC
current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to an 8-ohm
speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder which

58
makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied
the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.

In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system" because when one person
signals ("buzzes in"), all others are locked out from signaling. Several game shows have large
buzzer buttons which are identified as "plungers". The buzzer is also used to signal wrong
answers and when time expires on many game shows, such as Wheel of Fortune, Family
Feud and The Price is Right.

The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they were
electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles.
Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep.

Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric

bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own
actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or
ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
electromechanical buzzers made.

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or

other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used
to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

(i) What is piezoelectric effect?

Every day use of this phenomenon is used in load cells. Load cells are used on large
weigh scales for trucks and large bin scales where materials need to be weighed. The signals
from the cells are calibrated to compensate for the weight of the scale so that the scale can be
zeroed out. The cell signal, because it is very small, is sent to an amplifier head where is can
be read by the operator in units of weight. The head unit can be set to read in metric or
imperial weights.

(ii) Advantages:

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 As explained in your above question on weigh scales the load cells do away with all
the mechanical linkages that the old systems had to use. These linkages were always prone to
mechanical damage where as the load cells are self contained sealed units. There are four
units per scale, one under each corner.

A Piezo buzzer is made from two conductors that are separated by Piezo crystals.
When a voltage is applied to these crystals, they push on one conductor and pull on the other.
The result of this push and pull is a sound wave. These buzzers can be used for many things,
like signaling when a period of time is up or making a sound when a particular button has
been pushed. The process can also be reversed to use as a guitar pickup. When a sound wave
is passed, they create an electric signal that is passed on to an audio amplifier.

(iii) Uses:
(i) Annunciator panels
(ii) Electronic metronomes
(iii) Game shows
(iv) Microwave ovens and other household appliances
(v) Sporting events such as basketball games
(vi) Electrical alarms

(iv) Piezoelectric Sound Generators (Transducers and Buzzers):

The heart of all piezoelectric sound generators is a simple piezoceramic disc,
consisting of a metal plate, glued together with a ceramic layer. If the disc is driven by an
external oscillating circuit, the piezo sound generator is called piezoelectric transducer. If the
disc is driven by a built-in oscillating circuit it‘s called piezoelectric buzzer. The advantages
of these simple structured, acoustic components are their robustness and cost-efficient sound
solution. Piezo sound generators are the ideal choice for applications, which need a simple
sound signal within a small frequency range, e. g. warning and control sound signals of
kitchen devices, medical and health care products.

The dimension range of piezo sound generators starts from the miniaturized size of 11
mm × 9 mm × 1.7 mm up to ø 45 mm and covers sound pressures between low soft sound
and aggressive noisy sound. The design of almost all piezoelectric sound generators is

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adjusted to meet the most popular frequencies in the range between 2000 Hz and 5000 Hz.
Operation temperature range is available from -40°C to +120°C. Standard voltage range is
between 3 V and 12 V, in special cases higher, according to customer’s demand. Piezoelectric
sound generators are available with pins, wires or SMD pads.

(v) Applications of Piezoelectric Ceramics:

A piezoelectric system can be constructed for virtually any application for which any
other type of electromechanical transducer can be used. For any particular application,
however, limiting factors include the size, weight, and cost of the piezoelectric system. Piezo
ceramic devices fit into four general categories: piezo generators, sensors, piezo actuators,
and transducers.

(i) Piezoelectric Generators:

Piezoelectric ceramics can generate voltages sufficient to spark across an electrode
gap, and thus can be used as ignitors in fuel lighters, gas stoves, welding equipment, and
other such apparatus. Piezoelectric ignition systems are small and simple -- distinct
advantages relative to alternative systems that include permanent magnets or high voltage
transformers and capacitors.

Alternatively, the electrical energy generated by a piezoelectric element can be stored.

Techniques used to make multilayer capacitors have been used to construct multilayer
piezoelectric generators. Such piezo generators are excellent solid state batteries for
electronic circuits.

(ii) Piezoelectric Sensors:

A piezoelectric sensor converts a physical parameter, such as acceleration or pressure,
into an electrical signal. In some sensors the physical parameter acts directly on the
piezoelectric element; in other devices an acoustical signal establishes vibrations in the
element and the vibrations are, in turn, converted into an electrical signal. Often, the system
provides a visual, audible, or physical response to the input from the piezo sensor --
automobile seatbelts lock in response to a rapid deceleration, for example.

(iii) Piezo Actuators: Multilayer, Stack, Bending, Stripe:

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 A piezo actuator converts an electrical signal into a precisely controlled physical
displacement, to finely adjust precision machining tools, lenses, or mirrors. Piezoelectric
actuators also are used to control hydraulic valves, act as small-volume pumps or special-
purpose motors, and in other applications. Piezoelectric motors are unaffected by energy
efficiency losses that limit the miniaturization of electromagnetic motors, and have been
constructed to sizes of less than 1 cm3. A potentially important additional advantage to
piezoelectric motors is the absence of electromagnetic noise.

There are two different types of piezo actuators / piezo multi layers. The first is a
stack actuator. A stack actuator is constructed in one of two ways: discrete stacking or co-
firing depending on the user’s requirements.

The other type of piezo actuator is a stripe actuator or bending actuator, in which thin
layers of piezoelectric ceramics are bonded together; the thin layers allow the actuator to
bend with a greater deflection but a lower blocking force than a stack actuator. Alternatively,
if physical displacement is prevented, a piezo actuator will develop a usable force.

(iv) Piezoelectric Transducer:

Piezoelectric transducers convert electrical energy into vibrational mechanical energy,
often sound or ultra sound, that is used to perform a task.
Piezoelectric transducers that generate audible sounds afford significant advantages, relative
to alternative electromagnetic devices -- they are compact, simple, and highly reliable, and
minimal energy can produce a high level of sound. These characteristics are ideally matched
to the needs of battery-powered equipment.

Because the piezoelectric effect is reversible, a transducer can both generate an

ultrasound signal from electrical energy and convert incoming sound into an electrical signal.
Some devices designed for measuring distances, flow rates, or fluid levels incorporate a
single piezoelectric transducer in the signal sending and receiving roles, other designs
incorporate two transducers and separate these roles.

Piezoelectric transducers also are used to generate ultrasonic vibrations for cleaning,
atomizing liquids, drilling or milling ceramics or other difficult materials, welding plastics,
medical diagnostics, or for other purposes.

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3.4 Pin Configuration of ICs:

3.4.1 IC CA3130:

Figure 3.9: IC CA3130

3.4.2 IC NE555:

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Figure 3.10: IC NE555

3.5 Working, Applications, and Features of IC CA3130:

General Description:
CA3130 are op amps that combine the advantage of both CMOS and bipolar
transistors.
Gate-protected P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the input circuit to
provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current, and exceptional speed
performance. The use of PMOS transistors in the input stage results in common-mode input-

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voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important attribute in
single-supply applications.

A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10mV of

either supply-voltage terminal (at very high values of load impedance), is employed as the
output circuit.

CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the advantage of both CMOS and
bipolar transistors. Gate protected P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the
input circuit to provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current, and exceptional
speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in the input stage results in common-mode
input-voltage capability down to 0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important
attribute in single-supply applications.

A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10mV of

either supply-voltage terminal (at
very high values of load impedance), is employed as the output circuit. The CA3130 Series
circuits operate at supply voltages ranging from 5V to 16V, (}2.5V to }8V). They can be
phase compensated with a single external capacitor, and have terminals for adjustment of
offset voltage for applications requiring offset-null capability. Terminal provisions are also
made to permit striding of the output stage. The CA3130A offers superior input
characteristics over those of the CA3130.

The CA3130 op amp has the following pinouts:

1. Offset null
2. Inv. input
3. Non-inv. input
4. V- and case
5. Offset null
6. Output
7. V+
8. Strobe
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(i) Role of IC CA3130:
This IC is a 15 MHz BiMOS Operational amplifier with MOSFET inputs and Bipolar
output. The inputs contain MOSFET transistors to provide very high input impedance and
very low input current as low as 10pA. It has high speed of performance and suitable for low
input current applications.

CA3130A and CA3130 are op amps that combine the advantage of both CMOS and
bipolar transistors. Gate-protected P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS) transistors are used in the
input circuit to provide very-high-input impedance, very-low-input current, and exceptional
speed performance. The use of PMOS transistors in the input stage results in common-mode
input-voltage capability down to0.5V below the negative-supply terminal, an important
attribute in single-supply applications.

A CMOS transistor-pair, capable of swinging the output voltage to within 10mV of

either supply-voltage terminal (at very high values of load impedance), is employed as the
output circuit.

The CA3130 Series circuits operate at supply voltages ranging from 5V to 16V, (2.5V
to 8V). They can be phase compensated with a single external capacitor, and have terminals
for adjustment of offset voltage for applications requiring offset-null capability. Terminal
provisions are also made to permit striding of the output stage. The CA3130A offers
superior input characteristics over those of the CA3130.

(ii) Features:
(i) MOSFET Input Stage Provides:
Very High ZI = 1.5 T
Very Low current . . . . . . =5pA at 15V Operation
(ii) Ideal for Single-Supply Applications
(iii) Common-Mode Input-Voltage Range Includes Negative Supply Rail; Input Terminals
can be Swung 0.5VBelow Negative Supply Rail
(iv) CMOS Output Stage Permits Signal Swing to Either (or both) Supply Rails.

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(iii) Applications:
(i) Ground-Referenced Single Supply Amplifiers
(ii) Fast Sample-Hold Amplifiers
(iii) Long-Duration Timers/ Mono stables
(iv) High-Input-Impedance Comparators (Ideal Interface with Digital CMOS)
(v) High-Input-Impedance Wideband Amplifiers
(vi)Voltage Followers (e.g. Follower for Single-Supply D/A Converter )
(vii) Voltage Regulators (Permits Control of Output Voltage Down to 0V)
(viii) Peak Detectors
(ix) Single-Supply Full-Wave Precision Rectifiers
(x) Photo-Diode Sensor Amplifiers.

3.6 Working, Applications and Features of IC NE555:

The NE555 IC is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate timing

pulses. With a monostable operation, the time delay is controlled by one external resistor and
one capacitor. With an a stable operation, the frequency and duty cycle are accurately
controlled by two external resistors and one capacitor.

(i) Details of Pin:

Ground, is the input pin of the source of the negative DC voltage trigger, negative input
from the lower comparators (comparator B) that maintain oscillation capacitor voltage in the
lowest 1 / 3 Vcc and set RS flip-flop output, the output pin of the IC 555.

Reset, the pin that serves to reset the latch inside the IC to be influential to reset the IC
work. This pin is connected to a PNP-type transistor gate, so the transistor will be active if
given a logic low. Normally this pin is connected directly to Vcc to prevent reset control
voltage, this pin serves to regulate the stability of the reference voltage negative input
(comparator A). This pin can be left hanging, but to ensure the stability of the reference
comparator A, usually associated with a capacitor of about 10nF to berorde pin ground
threshold, this pin is connected to the positive input (comparator A) w hich will reset the RS

67
flip-flop when the voltage on the capacitor from exceeding 2 / 3 V discharge, this pin is
connected to an open collector transistor Q1 is connected to ground emitter. Switching
transistor serves to clamp the corresponding node to ground on the timing of certain vcc, pin
it to receive a DC voltage supply. Usually it will work optimally if given a 5-15V. the current
supply can be seen in the datasheet, which is about 10-15mA.

One of the most versatile linear ICs is the 555 timer which was first introduced in early
1970 by Signetic Corporation giving the name as SE/NE 555 timer. This IC is a monolithic
timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillation. Like
other commonly used op-amps, this IC is also very much reliable, easy to use and cheaper in
cost. It has a variety of applications including monostable and a stable multivibrators, dc-dc
converters, digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog frequency meters and
tachometers, temperature measurement and control devices, voltage regulators etc. The timer
basically operates in one of the two modes either as a monostable (one-shot) multivibrator or
as an a stable (free-running) multivibrator. The SE 555 is designed for the operating
temperature range from – 55°C to 125° while the NE 555 operates over a temperature range
of 0° to 70°C.

(ii) The important features of the 555 timer are :

(i) It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts
supply voltage.
(ii) Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
(iii) The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be
made into several minutes’ Proper selection of only a few external components allows timing
intervals of several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several hundred kilo hertz.
(iv) It has a high current output; the output can drive TTL.
(v) It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change in
temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/ °C.
(vi) The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable with the maximum power dissipation per
package is 600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible.

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Pin Configuration:
Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible
for transition of flip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude
of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin.

Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in
which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin
(pin 1) or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3 and
ground supply pin is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and
ground pin is called the normally off load.

Pin 4: Reset Terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin
due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset
purpose, it should be connected to + VCC to avoid any possibility of false triggering.

Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the threshold
and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines
the pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be
used to modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to
ground through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem.

Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which
compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 V CC. The
amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop.

Pin 7: Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and
mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge
terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When
the transistor is in cut-off region, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the external
resistor and capacitor.

Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with

respect to ground (pin 1).
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 Figure illustrate some basic ideas that will prove useful in coming blog posts of the
555 timer. Assuming output Q high, the transistor is saturated and the capacitor voltage is
clamped at ground i.e. the capacitor C is shorted and cannot charge.

The non-inverting input voltage of the comparator is referred to as the threshold

voltage while the inverting input voltage is referred to as the control voltage. With R-S flip
flop set, the saturated transistor holds the threshold voltage at zero. The control voltage,
however, is fixed at 2/3 VCC (i.e. at 10 V) because of the voltage divider.

Suppose that a high voltage is applied to the R input. This resets the flip-flop R-
Output Q goes low and the transistor is cut-off. Capacitor C is now free to charge. As this
capacitor C charges, the threshold voltage rises. Eventually, the threshold voltage becomes
slightly greater than (+ 10 V). The output of the comparator then goes high, forcing the R S
flip-flop to set. The high Q output saturates the transistor, and this quickly discharges the
capacitor. The two waveforms are depicted in figure. An exponential rise is across the
capacitor C, and a positive going pulse appears at the output Q. Thus capacitor voltage V C is
exponential while the output is rectangular.

(iii) Working Principle:

Comparator 1 has a threshold input (pin 6) and a control input (pin 5). In most
applications, the control input is not used, so that the control voltage equals +2/3 V CC. Output
of this comparator is applied to set (S) input of the flip-flop. Whenever the threshold voltage
exceeds the control voltage, comparator 1 will set the flip-flop and its output is high. A high
output from the flip-flop saturates the discharge transistor and discharge the capacitor
connected externally to pin 7. The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3, the
output. The output available at pin 3 is low. These conditions will prevail until comparator 2
triggers the flip-flop. Even if the voltage at the threshold input falls below 2/3 VCC, that is
comparator 1 cannot cause the flip-flop to change again. It means that the comparator 1 can
only force the flip-flop’s output high.

To change the output of flip-flop to low, the voltage at the trigger input must fall
below + 1/3 Vcc. When this occurs, comparator 2 triggers the flip-flop, forcing its output
low. The low output from the flip-flop turns the discharge transistor off and forces the power

70
amplifier to output a high. These conditions will continue independent of the voltage on the
trigger input. Comparator 2 can only cause the flip-flop to output low.

From the above discussion it is concluded that for the having low output from the
timer 555, the voltage on the threshold input must exceed the control voltage or + 2/3 VCC.
They also turn the discharge transistor on. To force the output from the timer high, the voltage
on the trigger input must drop below +1/3 VCC. This also turns the discharge transistor off.

A voltage may be applied to the control input to change the levels at which the
switching occurs. When not in use, a 0.01 nano Farad capacitor should be connected between
pin 5 and ground to prevent noise coupled onto this pin from causing false triggering.

Connecting the reset (pin 4) to a logic low will place a high on the output of flip-flop.
The discharge transistor will go on and the power amplifier will output a low. This condition
will continue until reset is taken high. This allows synchronization or resetting of the circuit’s
operation. When not in use, reset should be tied to +VCC.

(iv) Features:
(i) High Current Drive Capability (200mA)
(ii) Adjustable Duty Cycle
(iii) Temperature Stability of 0.005%C
(iv) Timing From Sec to Hours
(v) Turn off Time Less Than 2mSec

(v) Applications:
(i) Precision Timing
(ii) Pulse Generation
(iii) Time Delay Generation
(iv) Sequential Timing

CHAPTER FOUR

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4.1 Introduction:
In this chapter we will see mainly the circuit testing on bread-board and working of
cell phone detector in brief. The first test with this cellular phone detector was to just have an
active cellular phone in the room. So the cellular phone was turned on and a phone call was
placed with the detector nearby. Absolutely nothing came out of the connected headphones.
To troubleshoot this problem, the circuit was tested with a spectrum analyzer and signal
generator. The antenna was connected to the signal generator at 900 MHz with 10dB of
amplitude and the spectrum analyzer was connected to the headphone jack using the available
probes (only 500 MHz was available). Injecting the 900 MHz signal into the antennas
resulted in a lower amplitude signal on the output.

To test whether the circuit was resonating at 900MHz, a bandpass test was performed
by stepping the frequency at 100 MHz intervals from 600 MHz to 1.2GHz. The amplitude
changed at each interval, but was actually lower at 900 MHz than anywhere else and didn't
have a bandpass response. The wire wrapped connections may have changed the impedance
of the circuit.

While testing this cellular phone detector it was discovered that the spectrum analyzer
was able to detect the cellular phone only using a 500 MHz probe. When talking on the
cellular phone, the spectrum analyzer spiked at 832 MHz. This frequency range to design
around for this cellular phone and is in the range of a GSM phones.

4.2 Circuit Testing on Bread-Board:

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Figure 4.1: Circuit testing

Before the assembling of circuit on PCB we tested it on the bread-board using the
components, connecting wires, and a 9V battery.

4.3 Working of Cell Phone Detector:

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4.3.1 Purpose of the circuit:
This circuit is intended to detect unauthorized use of mobile phones in examination
halls, confidential rooms etc. It also helps to detect unauthorized video and audio recordings.
It detects the signal from mobile phones even if it is kept in the silent mode. It also detects
SMS.

4.3.2 Concept:
Mobile phone uses RF with a wavelength of 30cm at 872 to 2170 MHz. That is the
signal is high frequency with huge energy. When the mobile phone is active, it transmits the
signal in the form of sine wave which passes through the space. The encoded audio/video
signal contains electromagnetic radiation which is picked up by the receiver in the base
station. Mobile phone system is referred to as “Cellular Telephone system” because the
coverage area is divided into “cells” each of which has a base station. The transmitter power
of the modern 2G antenna in the base station is 20-100 watts.

When a GSM (Global System of Mobile communication) digital phone is

transmitting, the signal is time shared with 7 other users. That is at any one second, each of
the 8 users on the same frequency is allotted 1/8 of the time and the signal is reconstituted by
the receiver to form the speech. Peak power output of a mobile phone corresponds to 2 watts
with an average of 250 milli watts of continuous power. Each handset with in a ‘cell’ is
allotted a particular frequency for its use. The mobile phone transmits short signals at regular
intervals to register its availability to the nearest base station. The network data base stores
the information transmitted by the mobile phone. If the mobile phone moves from one cell to
another, it will keep the connection with the base station having strongest transmission.
Mobile phone always tries to make connection with the available base station. That is why,
the back light of the phone turns on intermittently while traveling. This will cause severe
battery drain. So in long journeys, battery will flat with in a few hours.

AM Radio uses frequencies between 180 kHz and 1.6 MHz. FM radio uses 88 to 180
MHz. TV uses 470 to 854 MHz. Waves at higher frequencies but within the RF region is
called Micro waves. Mobile phone uses high frequency RF wave in the micro wave region
carrying huge amount of electromagnetic energy. That is why burning sensation develops in
the ear if the mobile is used for a long period. Just like a micro wave oven, mobile phone is
‘cooking’ the tissues in the ear. RF radiation from the phone causes oscillation of polar
molecules like water in the tissues. This generates heat through friction just like the principle
of microwave oven. The strongest radiation from the mobile phone is about 2 watts which
can make connection with a base station located 2 to 3 km away.

4.3.3 How the circuit works?

Ordinary LC (Coil-Capacitor) circuits are used to detect low frequency radiation in
the AM and FM bands. The tuned tank circuit having a coil and a variable capacitor retrieve
the signal from the carrier wave. But such LC circuits cannot detect high frequency waves
near the microwave region. Hence in the circuit, a capacitor is used to detect RF from mobile
phone considering that, a capacitor can store energy even from an outside source and oscillate
like LC circuit.

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 R5 100R
BUZZER

R1 3.9 M IC1 LED

Red
CA 3130
7
3 R4 100 R
6 +
C
IC1
0.22 UF 2 9 V Battery
4
R2
C1
100K R3 1 M C2
100 0.1
UF
25V

Figure 4.2 Circuitry operation

4.3.4 Use of capacitor:

A capacitor has two electrodes separated by a ‘dielectric’ like paper, mica etc. The non
polarized disc capacitor is used to pass AC and not DC. Capacitor can store energy and pass
AC signals during discharge. 0.22pF capacitor is selected because it is a low value one and
has large surface area to accept energy from the mobile radiation. To detect the signal, the
sensor part should be like an aerial. So the capacitor is arranged as a mini loop aerial (similar
to the dipole antenna used in TV).In short with this arrangement, the capacitor works like an
air core coil with ability to oscillate and discharge current.

4.3.5 How the capacitor senses RF?

One lead of the capacitor gets DC from the positive rail and the other lead goes to the
negative input of IC1. So the capacitor gets energy for storage. This energy is applied to the
inputs of IC1 so that the inputs of IC are almost balanced with 1.4 volts. In this state output is
zero. But at any time IC can give a high output if a small current is induced to its inputs.
There a natural electromagnetic field around the capacitor caused by the 50Hz from electrical
wiring. When the mobile phone radiates high energy pulsations, capacitor oscillates and
release energy in the inputs of IC. This oscillation is indicated by the flashing of the LED and
beeping of Buzzer. In short, capacitor carries energy and is in an electromagnetic field. So a
slight change in field caused by the RF from phone will disturb the field and forces the
capacitor to release energy.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Introduction:

In this chapter we will see applications, advantages, limitation, future scope, and the
conclusions of cell phone detector. Basically this circuit can be used anywhere for detecting
the cell phones. Since today is the generation of advanced communication devices and cell
phone is the very first need of this. But somehow reasons there is a misuse of these devices.
So we have to stop this for our safety. And by using cell phone detectors we can do this very
simply. We can use cell phone detector even at our working place, confidential halls, prisons,
court room and at many other places where cell phone is not allowed.

But there is a limitation of this device that it can detect only in the range of 1.5-2
meters. So we have to place a number of detectors in a large room. But beyond of this we can
simply detect the cells in a range which can covered by the detector.

In future we will increase the range of the detector so that we can detect the cells over
a hundreds of meter. So this is the first step to avoid the unwanted activities using the cell
phones.

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5.1 Applications:

(i) Colleges and Universities:

During tests and exams the use of mobile phones is prohibited, for the students could
use it to send answers among each other.

By using a GSM-detector this kind of fraud is prohibited. The presence of a GSM-

detector can work in a preventing way, because when a GSM-detector is present, the use of
mobile phones does not stay unnoticed.

(ii) Cinemas:
In a cinema the use of a mobile phone is undesired. Being called by someone during a
movie is of course very bothering for other people.

With a GSM-detector the use of mobile phones is detected, so the visitor can be
informed that this is not allowed.

(iii) Theatres:
Just like with a cinema, in theatres the use of mobile phones is not allowed. The gsm-
detector can be used to prevent use.

(iv) Restaurants / Hotels:

In hotels and restaurants it is often undesired that a mobile phone is used at the table
or in other areas. A GSM-detector can be installed in these areas to notify guests.

(v) Petrol stations:

When tanking at a petrol station, the use of mobile phones is prohibited, because the
mobile signals can interfere with the tanking equipment and because a small spark within the
mobile phone could set fire to possible gasoline vapour. With the GSM-detector this
prohibition is pointed out to the tanking customer.

(vi) Airplanes:
In airplanes the use of mobile phones is prohibited, for it could interfere with the
equipment in the airplane. All the while phones are still used illegally, especially in
restrooms. By installing a GSM-detector there, this can be prevented.

(vii) Conference rooms:

It is often distracting to be called during a meeting. Also, confidential conversation
could be overheard by using cell phones, especially by those with a spy function (when
someone calls that phone it automatically is picked up without ringing, so that the person on
the other end of the line can hear conversations in the room where the spy phone is placed).
By using a GSM-detector you can be assured that this is not the case.

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(viii) Hospitals:
The signals emitted by mobile phones can interfere with some electronic equipment
inside the hospital. This could have fatal consequences.

The GSM-detector can be placed in any area where the use of mobile phones could
interfere with sensitive devices. The audio alarm will sound when a phone is used and this
way, the person should immediately switch off his/her phone

(ix) Prisons:
In prisons the use of mobile phones is not allowed. It could occur anyway. By using
the gsm-detector the staff can be notified when a mobile phone is used inside the facility.

(x) Power plants:

Power plants contain -just like hospitals- a lot of electronic devices that are sensitive
for interference by mobile phones. Therefore, it is prohibited to use mobile phones there. Use
a GSM-detector to inspect this.

5.2 Advantages:

Our mission is to be the leading provider of cellular phone detection capabilities to

both business and government institutions around the world. We are striving to bring a
national debate to the growing proliferation of cell phone use in our society today. Using our
state of the art products we are hoping to provide individuals and businesses the tools to
detect and prevent the use of cell phone in sensitive areas.

This product was created in reaction to the growing use of cell phones around the
world, and how that use was beginning to interfere with our daily lives. When businesses
tried to find solutions to problems involving cell phones, they found a huge shortcoming in
products and services.

Hence, our solution was created to supply this need. To date we have sold thousands
of products to a very wide audience of businesses and government institutions. Many of
these include prisons, casinos, embassies, classrooms and testing facilities, oil rigs,
conferences, golf clubhouses, computer-rooms, data centers, hospitals, and restaurants, to
name just a small few of the vast capabilities of our product.

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.
5.3 Limitation:

Range of the circuit:

The prototype version has only limited range of 2 meters. But if a preamplifier stage
using JFET or MOSFET transistor is used as an interface between the capacitor and IC, range
can be increased.

5.4 Future scope:

Trying to increase the detecting range of mobile bug to few more meters for observing wide
ranges of area. In the future time this detector will be improved in all ways.

In future we could be able to detect any range of frequency over a meter of range and
this will be very useful to detect the cell phones where the cell phones are prohibited.

5.5 Conclusion:
This pocket-size mobile transmission detector or sniffer can sense the presence of an
activated mobile cell phone from a distance of one and-a-half meters. So it can be used to
prevent use of mobile phones in examination halls, confidential rooms, etc. It is also useful
for detecting the use of mobile phone for spying and unauthorized video transmission.

In this project we made an attempt to design a mobile detector which can detect both
the incoming and outgoing calls as well as video transmission even if the mobile is kept at the
silent mode. Our circuit has detected the presence of an active mobile phone even at a
distance of about one and half a meter. It gave the indication of an active mobile phone by
glowing the LED, according to the receiving frequency and by buzzing the sound of the
buzzer. The alarm continues until the signal is ceases.

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5.6 References:
(i) www.google.com
(ii) www.wikipedia.org
(iii) www.pdfmachine.com
(iv) www.ecproject.com
(v) www.datasheets4u.com

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