Chapter 2

Finite Element Method

2.1 Introduction

Finite elements made their earliest appearance in 1941 [1]. Hrennikoff [2] and later
McHenry introduced the concept of replacing a continuum by a lattice like assembly
of bars, in analogy with a structure o f steel structure. In consequence, although the
method is generally applicable to the solution of any differential equation in a contin­
uum, the terminology of the science of finite elements is laced with the terminology of
the structural analysis.

Formal presentation o f finite elements is made, however only 15 years later in 1956,
when they were introduced by Turner et al. [3]. In this form, a variable inside an el­
ement is expressed in terms of interpolated nodal variables. These idea was picked up
by Zienkiewicz and Cheung [4] for their work in stress analysis. Subsequently, the finite
element method was championed by Zienkiwicz, who, it may be said, was the one person
who advocated the method and at the same time brought it to come to the attention of
the scientific community at large, to the extent that the 1970s witnessed an explosion in
the scientific literature dealing with the subject. Just as Zienkiewicz popularized finite
elements in civil engineering, it was Silvester who together with his colleagues, developed

20
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 21

the method to new heights in electrical engineering and brought it to the notice of the
electrical engineering community. He and his co-workers widely applied the method to
wave guides [5]. Further, they introduced high-order polynomial triangular elements,
the idea of ballooning for open boundary problems [6].

The finite element method in its presently accepted form can be credited to R.L.
Courant [7]. He showed in his published version of his 1942 address to the American
society, that variational method o f Lord Rayleigh could be put to wider use in potential
use. Using piecewise-linear approximate on a set of triangles which he called ’’ elements” ,
he dashed o f a few two dimensional examples. This marks the birth of finite element
method.

After remaining dormant for a half generation, Courant’s approach amplified by the

mathematical ideas o f Synge [8] , next appeared in the work o f Duffin [9].

After a decade later, finite element 'activity began with the paper presented by P.
Silvester [10], on finite element formulation of the classical hollow waveguide problem
at the 1968 URSI symposium followed by publication in Alta Frequenza. Another pa­
per independently published by P. L. Arlett at the same time addressing wave-guides
and cavities, however was based on an incorrect formulation o f the electromagnetic field
problem [11].

There followed a rapid succession of papers on magneto-statics dielectric loaded wave

guides [12], and other well-known boundary value problems of electro-magnetics. The
method was quickly applied to integral operators as well, both in micro-wave devices
[13] and wire antenna problems [14].

The main difficulty with the classically trained engineers was that the approach to
finite elements throughout the early period was variational and that was relatively hard
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 22

to follow. They had little knowledge of the variational method.

All this however could not prevent the finite element quickly spreading in the 1980s
and assuming a dominant role in several technical areas.

Looking at the INSPEC bibliographic data base over the 1968-1983 period, till 1968,
finite element papers with electrical engineering content amounted to a small handful.
By 1993 the total had reached 6000, with some 600 articles being added each year.

The first book in the area which has passed into the third edition [14] is authored
by P. Silvester and R.L. Ferrari. The second one is written by J. Jin [16] which is par­
ticularly welcome because it stresses high frequency applications. There are quite a few
general texts on computational electro-magnetics and several include a chapter or two
on the finite element method, these present the method mainly in the context of static
or quasi-static potential fields [17, 18, 1, 19]. The monograph literature o f finite ele­
ment mathematics, on the other hand, is now extensive. Unfortunately, it often employs
mathematical techniques and notations and much o f it is away from applications. One
highly readable book available now, is by J.T. Oden and J.N Reddy [20]. A well written
basic theory is available in the book by G.Strang and G.J.Fix [21].

The creation of finite element methods for wave problems, like most other problems,
involves at least two distinct areas o f research. One concerns finite element technology
proper: families of suitable approximating functions, modelling of regions by aggregate
of finite elements, and exploitation of any peculiar properties the matrices may pos­
sess, The other research area lies in electro-magnetics : finding variationally stationary
quantities that describes fields choosing how the fields are to be described (field vectors
vs potentials), determining what the natural boundary conditions are, and eliminating
superfluous variables.
CHAPTER 2, FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 23

2.1.1 Mesh Generation

Several requirements are to be satisfied ideally for a finite element to be useful. It

should be mathematically sound satisfying all continuity and boundary conditions im­
plied by the appropriate functional. It should be convergent, meaning that subdivision
of a region into smaller and smaller finite elements should provide increasingly accurate
results. It should be computationally tractable, particularly with respect to allowing
automatic mesh generation. These are not easy requirements to meet simultaneously,
but there are several families o f finite elements that do so well enough.

The subject o f automatic mesh generation is an important part o f finite element

software technology, for the industrial success of any such method, will depend heavily
on it’s ease of use and on its reliability in applications. The review paper by Ho-Le
[22] and the book by George [23] deal well with this rather specialized area of the finite
element art, whose mathematical basis lies in computational geometry. Success in soft­
ware construction also depends on the right choice of methods for solving simultaneous
algebraic equation.

Tetrahedral and hexahedral elements are used as for three dimensional field problem.
Edge-based triangular elements are almost equally useful, but many two-dimensional
problems permit alternative reformulations that manage to avoid solenoidal fields. Tan­
ner and Peterson [24] gave a description of triangular elements which resembles Barton
and Cendes [25] work but differs in notation. For triangular elements a major step
ahead came with the work of Cendes [26]. He showed in considerable algebraic detail,
how higher order approximating function with tangential component continuity can be
constructed. This theory is capable o f extension to tetrahedral elements, and a high
order tetrahedral element was described by Lee et al. [27].

The finite element method has now been developed into a very sophisticated form
with fast, powerful, and easy to use general purpose software for the solution of field
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 24

problems. Indeed, expert computer aided design (C A D ) systems are now being con­
structed to all but eliminate the user in interactive computer aided design (Hoole 1984;
Lowther, Saldhana, and Choy 1985). The principle advantages o f the method are easy
formulation with a simple data structure for complex geometry, the ability to increase
accuracy in regions o f special interest using the fine meshes or high order approxima­
tions, a sparse, symmetric and positive definite matrix for solution and inherent natural
boundary conditions.

2.1.2 F E M in Sensor Analysis

The versatility o f PEM leads to. its application in various field o f engineering. It
has been observed that FEM is used in sensor analysis. Some of the important literal-
tures related to application of FEM to sensor analysis are presented below:

D.C. Van Duyn [28] used finite element method for modelling o f devices and materials
in which thermal, thermoelectric and electric effects are important. A basic model was
constructed consisting of coupled sets of elliptical partial differential equation describing
relations between the intensive and extensive thermal and electric-static variables. Im­
plementation is done by finite element method which accurately resolve the interaction
terms between the electrical and thermal domains.

H. L. Offereins, H. Sandmaier et al. [29] developed a stress free assembly technique

for a silicon based piezoresistive pressure sensor that was mechanically decoupled from
the housing. The chip is mounted via an intermediate with bellow structures to the
housing. Various forms and arrangements o f bellow structures and their influence on
the mechanical decoupling o f the chip were observed. FEM simulation is done to com­
pare the advantages and disadvantages of the individual structures and set-ups.

J. Shajii, K. Y. Ng, M.A.Schmidt [30] worked on a microfabrieated floating element

shear stress sensor using wafer bonding technology. The sensor had been designed for
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 25

high shear stresses (l-100kpa) and high pressure environments (up to 6600 psi) and
utilizes piezoresistive transduction scheme. Analytical and FEM modelling, had been
performed to predict the sensor response. The magnetic field computations use the fi­
nite element method which is particularly well suited to this problem involving complex
air gap configurations and the need for the calculation of local flux densities and flux
linkages.

B. E. Artz , L, W . Cathey [31] applied the FEM for determining structural displace­
ments resulting from electrostatic forces. A method has been developed to solve the
problem of structural displacements due to forces from electrostatic attraction occurring
on structures used as diaphragms, beams etc, where the charge carrying surfaces can be
approximated as nearly parallel.

S. H. Khan, F. Abdullah [32] explored the CAD of a complex multi-electrode arrange­

ment for flow imaging by FEM. They determined the sensor performance parameters as
functions of its various geometric parameters. The performance parameters include the
standing and normalized capacitances, ratio of the maximum to minimum capacitance

of the sensor and spatial sensitivity distributions. The response o f the sensor to various
flow regime was analyzed to optimize its performance for image construction.

A technique for mechanical measurements using optical scattering from a micropipette

was developed by Wei-Chih Wang, Afromowitz et al. [33]. Deflection measurement and
analysis on the pipette sample system was done using the finite element model. Also
the equivalent damping co-efficient and resonant frequency of the pipette fluid system
and its numerical solution derived from the finite element model.

Xu Qi-Hua, Lee Mei-Yun ct al. [34] calculated the coil impedance o f an eddy current
sensor from the vector potential computed by applying finite element method.
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 26

The clastic cover which is used to protect the tactile sensor greatly decreases the
spatial resolution of the sensor. M. Shimajo [3-5] studied the low pass spatial filtering
characteristic of the cover and calculated the filter gain of spatial frequency for various
kinds of elastic cover materials using the FEM.

A. Yarai, Y. Yokoyama et al. [3G] worked out a high speed tomographic imag­
ing measurement, for photo-pyroelectric thermal-wave equipment involving the use of
arrayed multi-probes. Here they optimized the distance between adjacent probes by
analyzing the mutual electric field interference by FEM.

Charlton S.et al. [37] used the finite element method to provide a more accurate and
realistic alternative to construct, and solve model of a t actile sensor. These are generally
modelled using linear elasticity and even under strong assumptions arc very difficult to
solve.

Tiie literature survey reveals that there is hardly any literature on FEM application
in the field of fringe field capacitive sensor analysis.

2 . 2 T h e B a s i c C o n c e p t o f F E M

The basic idea of FEM is to divide the solution region into a number of small
interconnected sub-regions, called elements. The shape and size of elements are arbitrary,
so as to fit different shape of boundary. The density of the elements may easily be
adjusted according to the problem. The behavior of the unknown function within the
element is approximated by an interpolation function. Bv using weighted residuals
approach or the variational principal the partial differential equation is reduced to a
sparse, banded, symmetric and positive definite matrix equation. The values of the
unknown function are represented by all of the nodal values of the elements which are
solved from the matrix equation. The remarkable advantage of FEM is the flexibility of
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 27

the method. It is particularly well suited to problems with complicated geometries and
complicated distribution of media. This method can be used for time dependent, linear
or nonlinear and two dimensional or three dimensional problems.

2.2.1 Determination of Functional

The FEM is a numerical technique combined with the variational method. W ith
the variational method instead o f solving directly the governing equation, corresponding
functional is minimized. For example suppose the equation ax + b = 0 is to be solved.
Instead o f solving it directly we can minimize the function f(x ) = ax2/ 2 + bx + c

In physical terms, the state for which the energy functional is minimum, corresponds
to an equilibrium state of any physical system possessing potential energy. Functional is
determined either by mathematical manipulation or by energy principle. The functional
corresponding to Laplace’s equation is the potential energy of the system, which can
also be derived mathematically.

2.2.2 Determination of Functional by Mathematical Manipu­

lation

late boundary value problem of Laplace’s equation subject to different boundary

conditions is expressed by:

m = o (2.1)
where, <p represents the field variables and L is the operator V 2.

<p\n = U0 boundary condition o f the first kind

d(p/dn\r2 = 0 boundary condition o f the second kind

(2 .2 )
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 28

The first kind refers to Dirichlet and the second kind refers to Neumann condition.
Again, we have

V.(txu) = Vu.-u + uV.v (2.3)

where u = d<f> and v = V $. u and d<f> are scalar quantities and v and V<f> are vector
quantities.

For Laplace’s equation,

d<i>L{<j>) = d<t>V2<P
= d^V.V<£ (2.4)

From equations (2.3) & (2.4) we have,

S7.{d<t>V<f>) = d<f>(V.Vcf>) + V(d<l>).V<t> (2.5)

d<pL(<f>) = V .( S W ) - V fV (# ) (2.6)

Now equation 2.2 is written as

[ £ [ V .( a W ) - V ^ .V ( 3 i( f fi = 0 (2.7)
Jci

Applying Green’s theorem to transform the first term into a surface integral we have,

J^SJ.AdXl = j^A.dm (2.8)

e\d<t>V(p}.dsn — [ eVtf>.V{d<p)dn = 0 (2.9)

Ja J(l

The first term of equation (2.9) is equal to zero, because the net charge enclosed by
the close surface is zero. So we are left with the second term. Hence,
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 29

jf e[V0.V(30)]dn = 0 ( 2 . 10)

[ e ld (V 4 > .V < f> )< m = 0 (2. 11)

J fi 6

\d [ e ( V f V $ d f2 = 0 ( 2 . 12 )
Z J Cl

Therefore, expression for functional is given as;

F(<j>) = i [ e(V<f>.V<f>)<m (2.13)

£» JCl

or

(2.14)

This is the equivalent functional o f Laplace’s equation subject to Diriehlet boundary

condition. Here the order o f the derivative of the function is reduced by one.

2.2.3 Weighted Residuals Approach

The method of weighted residual [14, 38] are in use long before the advent of high
speed digital computers to find out simple functions which are approximate solutions to

the differential equations of physics and engineering. The weighted residuals procedure
commences with the setting up o f plausible but otherwise arbitrary trial functions in the
problem variables, leaving one or more parameters in the specification undetermined.
However the undetermined parameters are now chosen such that the trial function be­
comes a best fit to the exact solution through direct reference to the system partial dif­
ferential equations and boundary constraints. This approach has great difference with
that of indirect route of the variational method. When the weighted residual method is
applied as a finite element procedure the process consist o f essentially of treating cases
where the number o f undetermined parameters may be very large and where the trial
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 30

function is made up o f patchwork of different functions spanning sub regions o f the prob­
lem space. Applied systematically to finite element problems, this method provides a
powerful alternative to the variational method which are the basis of the finite element
procedures. The weighted residual procedure is particularly useful in cases where the
partial differential equations and boundary constraints for a problem are well defined
but a corresponding stationary functional is not obvious.

Let us consider the boundary value problem

L<p = / , in the domain E (2.15)

subject to boundary conditions <p~ g(s) on some part Ci o f the boundary, and

d<f)/dn + <j(s}<p = h(s) (2.16)

on the remainder C-x.

An approximate solution <f>will not, in general satisfy the first equation exactly, and
associated with such an approximate solution is the residual defined by

r{4>) = I 4 ~ f (217)

If the exact solution is <f>o then r(4>0) = 0

A set o f basis functions tpi is chosen and an approximation o f the following form is
made.

n
<Pn = (2.18)
»=1
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 31

In the weighted residual method the unknown parameters, C%are chosen to mini­
mize the residual r($ )in some sense. Different methods of minimizing the residual yield
different approximate solution. In the collocation method the trial function is chosen
to satisfy the boundary conditions. The parameters C'< are then found by forcing <f)n to
satisfy the differential equation at a given set of n points, that is at these points the
residual vanishes.

2.3 F E M as a Solution Technique

Numerical methods like FEM are methods for solving problems on a computer
which now plays important role in engineering work. Computers have changed, almost
revolutionized numerical methods - the field as a whole as well as many individual meth­
ods - and that development is continuing. Irrespective of the method applied, following
steps build the numerical solution.

1. The first step expresses the unknown function u(v)contained in the operator
equation by the summation o f a set o f linear independent functions with undetermined
parameters of a complete set of sequence.

u(v) = Y,G*Pi
1=1

where C%are undetermined parameters and m are the terms o f the basis functions.
This equation is known as the trial function or approximate solution. If N goes to in­
finity, the approximate solution will tend towards the real solution.

2. The second step is to cast the continuous solution domain into a discrete form. The
resulting set of discretized sub-domains consists o f a finite number of elements nodes.
In this fashion the unknown function with infinite degrees of freedom is replaced by an
approximate function with finite degrees of freedom.
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 32

3. The third step is to choose a principle of error minimum in order to determine

the unknown parameters contained in the trial function.

2.3.1 General Procedures of F E M

The method contains the following steps:

1. Discretize the solution domain into sub-regions by elements within the problem
region, select an approximate function in terms of the unknown function included in the
partial differential equation. If the element is a triangle, then the unknown function u
within an element is approximated, the nodal values tq fUjjUm and the shape functions
N%, i.e.,

Ue = J 2 NkUk (2.19)
k
(k = ij,m ), where i, j, m are vertices o f the triangle.

2. Derive the element matrix equation using the principle o f weighted residual or the
variational principle. For a triangular element where charge density is zero the element
matrix equation is presented as

ku kij kik ti,

kji fcjj kjk (2.20)

kkr kk] kkk _ V*m

3. Assemble the element matrix equation at every node of the domain to form a
system matrix equation
CHAPTER 2, FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 33

KU = B (2.21)

where u is a column matrix with order N (N is the total number of nodes) contain­
ing all the nodal values of the domain. The global matrix k is a sparse, symmetric, and
positive definite matrix with order N xN . It is also called an assembled matrix, system
matrix or stiffness matrix. The term stiffness comes from mechanics. The column matrix
B includes the source term included in the Poisson’s equation and the known boundary
conditions.

4. Equation ( 2.21) is solved to obtain the discretized function values on every node.

5. Additional computation if desired is made. For example, in potential field prob­

lems, the field strength, forces, parameters (resistances, capacitances, inductances) are
normally of interest.

2.4 Three Dimensional Problems

Some real-time situation have a symmetry which allows a description to be made

in terms of two independent space coordinates. However, many practical arrangements
have no such symmetry and require specification by three independent coordin ate with
a full three dimensional treatment. The method of analysis o f three dimensioned problem
involves discreation o f space in to three dimensional, finite elements, defined by vortex
nodes. Values of the parameters at the nodal points are assumed to be sufficient to
represent the solution of the problem. It may be accepted that achieving a specified
accuracy by a given method is dependent upon the linear spacing between the nodes.
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 34

2.4.1 Solution by Using Tetrahedral Finite Element M ethod

To discretize the domain into sub-region (finite element) is the first step in FEM.
This is done to replace the solution domain with infinite degrees o f freedom by a system
having a finite number of degrees o f freedom. The shapes, sizes, and configurations of
the elements may be of very different types.

The second step is to chose a trial function to approximate the behavior of the un­
known function within the element. Usually the polynomial is adoptable, because it is
easy to differentiate and integrate and it can approximate any function if the polyno­
mial contains enough terms. The detailed description of finite element method using
tetrahedral scalar element is presented in this chapter [14]. W ithin a typical tetrahedral
scalar element, it will be assumed that the potential is adequately approximated by the
expression

U = a! + b'x + c'y + d'z (2.22)

Where, a', b', d and d! are the co-efficients may be found from four independent

simultaneous equations which are obtained by requiring the potential to assume vortex
value Ut, Ui, U3, and f/4, at the four vertices. It is assumed that the potential varies
linearly depending on the co-ordinate x, y, z and the field strength is uniform in a small
element. It should be noted, however that the potential along any triangle edge shown
in figure 2.2 is the linear interpolate between its three vertex values, so that if two trian­
gular surfaces of two tetrahedral elements share the same vertices, the potential will be
continuous across the inter-element boundary. There are no gaps in the surface U (x,y,z)
which approximates the true solution over the x-y-z plane. The approximate solution is
piecewise planar, but continuous everywhere.

Substituting the three vertices potential and locations into equation (2.22) in turn
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 35

Figure 2.1: Typical tetrahedral finite element in x-y-z plane

we obtained
Ui ' 1 *1 ZiJ/l ' a' ‘
Uz 1 X2 V2 Z2 V
(2.23)
Uz 1 Z3 V3 Z3 d
Ui 1 Z i y4 Zi d'

Let P be a point within the tetrahedral having coordinates (x, y, z). Suppose the
volumes of the four smaller tetrahedral, each given by three of the original four vertices
(xi,VuZi), i = 1, 2, 3, 4, and P, are Di, £>2, A n and A 4. Then the homogeneous co­
ordinates of P are defined by ( (j, C2, (3, C4 ) where, with D being the total volume of
the tetrahedron, t

Dt
Ci - (2.24)
D
Ca = D%
~D
(2.25)
Dz
C3 = (2.26)
D
Di
C4 = (2.27)
D
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 36

T h e fo u r co -o rd in a te s a re n o t lin e a rly in d e p e n d en t b u t s a tis fy

(2.28)
%=1

I t is n o te d t h a t

1 Xi V\ z\
1 V2 Z2
£1 = 1 (2.29)
3! 1 X3 V3 z3
1 Xi Vi Zi

1 X V z

1 V2 z%
1
i
Di = 1 X3 V3 Z3 (2.30)
3!
1 Xi Vi Zi

"1 Xi Vi Zi

1 1 X y z
D%= 0! (2.31)
ol 1 X3 2/3 *3

1 Xi 2/4 Zi

’ 1 Xi Vi Zi
1 1 X2 V2 Z%
—
uD 3q — (2.32)
3! 1 X y z

1 Xi Vi Zi

’ 1 Xi 2/1 Zl

1 1 2/2 Z2
Di = (2.33)
3! 1 2/3 Z3
1 X y z
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 37

Hence, it is seen that the relationship

a[ + b'iX p d iy + d[z
Ci (2.34)
31D
Thus, the co-ordinate system ( Ci> Cas C3 > C4 ) is defined explicitly in terms of the
tetrahedron vertex in Cartesian co-ordinates.

Using the properties of interpolation functions it is found that an approximation of

degree no,

U = Uv ki ctijki (Ci) C2, (3, C4) (2.35)

can be made for a potential function U with in a tetrahedron. Here, i, j, k and 1 are
positive integers or zero whose sum is no and U(ijkl) represents the as yet undetermined
set of values of the function U at N — *TI0+^ ^ —32 regularly spaced interpolation
points within or on the faces of the tetrahedron. As such, using equation (2.14) the
functional for the potential function U can be expressed as:

(2.36)

with U constrained to conform to the Dirichlet boundary conditions but otherwise

free to vary, is stationary about the true solution

(2.37)

N
u = £ Umam (2.38)

Then,
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 38

(VCO = £ UmV a m (2.39)

m =l

and

F(U) = E E UmUn I' (VcO(Van)dn (2.40)

(2.41)

Where,

= e I^VamjiVa^dQ

=£I(SQ
m dx dx
0an ^ 9a,m*9an
dy dy
00m0an\
dz dz
(2.42)

The integration o f the equation (2.42) are to be taken over the tetrahedron of volume
0 with respect to the three dimensional spatial co-ordinate, say Cartesian S( x, y, z), so
that dll = dxdydz.

The formal procedure o f transforming to an integral in the homogeneous coordinate

space of (i, <2 , and C4 = 1 — Ci — C2 — Cs > requires dxdydz to be replaced by

^(Ci> C2, Cs)

dCi^dCs/ (2.43)
d(x, y,*)
Where

Hi h1 9£i
dx &v dz
d(Cl>C2;C3) Hi (2.44)
d (x ,y ,z ) » dx
Ht Hi Hi
dx Oy dx
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 39

is the Jacobian determinant for the coordinate transformation equation (2.34). The
choice of (4 as the homogeneous variable to be eliminated using equation (2.28) is entirely
arbitrary. Any other o f the set Ci»Ca»Ca> C4 could have been selected. It may be shown
that the magnitude of the Jacobian is 1/(3!D ) so that dll — dxdydz must be replaced
by 3!D d^d^d^ in order to perform the volume integral of equation (2.42) with respect

to the homogeneous coordinates £1 , £21 £3 , an<^ £4 = 1 — £1 — £2 — £3 - Thus with the

aid of equation (2.34) and the chain rule of the differentiation equation (2.42) may be
rewritten as

4 4 , d o tfn
E E ^ / d£id£2d£3 (2.45)

where

({£6) + dxd} + d(d')

K, _ _ (2.46)

It is understood that wherever £4 appears explicitly in the polynomial expression of

equation (2.45) it is represented by £4 = 1 - £1 — £2 — £3 .
A notation

s/doij1 dOn
)d£id£ 2d£3 (2.47)
~dQ){~dQ dCj

can be express in three dimensions. It is also found that equation (2.45) can be
written as;

(2-48)
i=l fl

where Q'^n purely numeric array which may be calculated once and for all for any
order no of the polynomial interpolation approximation, whilst the array of K v contains
CHAPTER 2, FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 40

all the specific information associated with the geometric shape, size and position of
the tetrahedron. The summation of equation (2.48) involves just six index pairs (i , j),
i -f- j , corresponding to the six tetrahedron edges, the term Ki} being absent. Equation
(2.48) may be verified by first observing that the linear interdependence o f the four
homogeneous coordinates, J2C% — 1 requires that the coefficient d and d! in equation
(2.34) and in equation (2.47) each should sum to zero

E ^ = E 4 = X>( = 0 (2.49)
i=l i=l i=l

Thus it is clear that the diagonal elements of the array K {j,i — j, need not be
specified independently but may be calculated from the off-diagonal terms Kt},i j,
and that

K n = - ( K n + K 13 + K u )K 22 = - {K21 + K 23 + K-*) (2.50)

and so forth. Further observing that the array is symmetric, K tj = Kj%equation

(2.45) may be written out in full, the diagonal terms K y being replaced by equation
(2.50) and lower triangle terms such as K 2i being substituted by K i2. It is then evident
by arranging the grouping of terms, that the upper triangle, off-diagonal summation of
equation (2.48) amounts to exactly the same as equation (2.45) so write out.

2.4.2 M atrix Equation for a Rectangular Prism Constituted

by Five Tetrahedrons

In order to obtain the matrix relation the prism is considered to be made up from
five connected first order tetrahedra as shown in the figure - 2.2. Inspection o f the
figure reveals that the prism has been dissected such that four of the five tetrahedra are
congruent in that any one o f them could, with a translation and rotation, be made to fit
over any of the others, vertex - for - vertex. A nodal numbering scheme consistent with
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 41

this congruity has been adopted for elements 1-4 as shown in figure - 2.2(b) - figure -
2.2(e), which are each seen to have volume ( abc)/6, where a, b, and c are the dimensions
of the tetrahidra along x, y, and z direction respectively. The fifth element, interior to
the prism apart from each edges, is different from the rest and has the volume (a6c)/3.
A connection matrix C is defined by

UT = CUP (2.51)

Where Up is the vector of twenty U values for the five this connected tetrahedral
elements and Up the vector corresponding to the eight comer nodes o f the prism.

Ui 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ■

u2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
U3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Ui 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
U5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
UB 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
U7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 r Ui i
Us 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 u2
ua 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 u3
Uio 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Ui
(2.52)
Uu 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u ,5
Uu 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 uB
Ui3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Uu 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
u 15 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Uis 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Uir 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Uu 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Ur 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
. u 20 T 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

The determination o f Stiffens M atrix(Sp) for the prism at first the element 1 shown
in figure - 2.2(b) is redrawn in fig - 2.3 with a Cartesian axes superimposed. Clearly,
homogeneous coordinates here are expressed by:
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 42

5 8

Figure 2.2: (a) Complete prism, volume abc, (b-e) elements 1 2, 3, and 4 are shown
respectively, they are congruent and each has volume (abc)/6. (f) Element -5, it has
volume (abc)/3. The numbering (a) referes to the connected set o f tetrahedra, whereas
that in (b-f) follows the unconnected element scheme
CHAPTER 2, FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 43

(a.0,0)

Figure 2.3: Element 1 with superimposed Cartesian axis

Cl = * , C2 = | , C3 = * , a = (2.53)
a b c a b c

In general is represented by equation (2.34), where, D is the element volume, here

a b c / 6, it follows that

K - = be, 4 — 0, 4 = o (2.54)

4 = 0, <^2 = ChQy 4 = 0 (2.55)

4 == 0, 4 = o, 4 = ab (2.56)

4 = —be, 4 == -a c, d'A — -ab (2.57)

From equation (2.46), substituting in the element volume appropriate here,

b% + dtd3+ <4
(2.58)

so that
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 44

—be —ac —ab

Ku — K 24 = KS4 = (2.59)
~6a’ I f ’ 6c

Kn = = (2.60)

It is seen that

-1 1 0 0
1 -1 0 0
(2.61)
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

However, in the simple case that Q%3 is described by saying that Q\{ = Q^} — -1
and Qy = — 1, with all other terms zero. Thus the S-matrix for element 1 is, from
equation (2 .48)

Si e[Ku Qu + K 2AQ2i + K34Q34]

-1 0 0 1 '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
be 0 0 0 0 ac 0 -1 0 1 ab 0 0 0 0
— e—
66a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6c 0 0 -1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1 0 0 1 -1
i
0 0 1
-7?
0 X 0 1
abc ¥ ~¥ (2.62)
e~6~ 0 0 1 1
¥ ~¥
_ JL. i
a2 ~¥ ~¥ (£ + P + ? ) .

Equation (2.62) is written for conciseness

CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 45

X 0 0 - X
die 0 Y 0 -Y
e~zr (2.63)
6 0 0 -z
-X -Y -z A

Where X = ~x, Y = Z = 4? and A = (X + Y + Z). The S-matrices S2 , S3 and

Si for elements 2-4 are identical.

Let us now consider the element 5, as shown in the Fig.2.4 with Cartesian axes
superimposed. In this case Equations (2.27), (2.29) and (2.30) give the homogeneous
coordinate (1 as

1 X V z
1 1 0 b 0 (06c)
Cl + (2.64)
6 1 0 0 c 3

1 a b c

Similarly
, X
(1 -j— -
a
V
b > (2.65)

c* - a - f + f - 5 / 2 ( 2.66)

Cz - (1 - ^ | +£)/2 (2.67)

<4 = (-1 + a + I0 + -c / 2
- ( 2 .68 )

Application o f equations (2.34) and (2.46), remembering that the element volume—abc/3
and using notation of equation (2.64), gives
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 46

Figure 2.4: 'Element 5 with superimposed Cartesian axis

Kl2 = f ( ^ + Z)
K 13 = f ( ^ + Y)

ft 14 “
rs abc f — A i y *\

(2.69)
K^^f(=f+X)

K u = <f{=f + Z)

Using equation (2.48) and noting that Q'3 is always a simple permutation of the
matrix (2.61) for Q12, it is readily found that for the element 5

A2 =S + Z ^s + y =T + X
+ Z i r =r + * =f + Y
Se (2.70)
+ Y 2 +-r X —2 +z
+ X =i + Y ^ + z -A
2
Thus the disconnected form of the Stiffness matrix for the five tetrahedron are written
down as
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 47

-Si
S2
ST = S3 (2.71)

S4
S3

Where Si, S2 , S3 , S4 and S3 are 4x4 matrices defined by equation (2.64) and equation
(2.70). The connected matrix for the prism Sp = CFSpC, may now be written down,
observing that C remains as defined by equation (2.52). The result is found to be

3A
- X 7 A -Y - 2 0 X -A
2 Z 2 1 2
-X A -Y 0 0 -2 0 0
2 -1 -Y 3A
-X 0 X -A -2 Y -A
2 1 2

Y 0 —X A 0 0 0 -2
(2.72)
-2 0 0 0 A -X 0 -Y
Y-A -2 0 -X 3A
-Y Z-A
X-i 2

0 0 -2 0 0 —Y A -X
y A 7 A 3A
X-$ 0 1 2 -2 1

** 2 -X 2

Having obtained the Sp matrix for the basic ’brick’ of side a, b, c it is now possible
to build up three-dimensional shapes from the bricks, using further simple connecting
operations. Thus three-dim ensional problems involving the single variable inhomoge­
neous Helmholtz equation may be solved by matrix techniques.

The energy associated with a single prism may now be determined using the well-
known principle of minimum potential energy which is described by the following equa­
tion.
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 48

W(p) = i J (V u fd s (2.73)

the region o f integration being the prism element itself. The potential gradient within
the element may be found from equation (2.39) as,

8
W ^ ^ C /.V a i (2.74)
i=l

so that the prism element energy becomes

i 8 8
f Voi.Vajds.U j (2.75)

In terms o f the Stiffness matrix of the prism equation (2.75) can represented as:

W p = ^UlSrUp (2.76)

2.4.3 Prism Assembly

To demonstrate the assembling of tetrahedrons for a target problem region, let us

consider that the assemblage consists of two tetrahedrons represented by the nodes 1-
2-3-4-5-6-7-S and 9-10-11-12-13-14-15-16 as disconnected tetrahedral elements as shown
in figure - 2.5(a). Figure - 2.5(b) represents the connected assemblage of the two tetra­
hedral. Since eight potential values are associated with each prism all possible states of
the pair of prism elements are represented by a column vector containing all eight vertex
potential.

U#. = [th U2 U3 Ui lh U6 U7 U8 U9 Uw Un U12 U13 Uu Uu Uw }

CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 49

Figure 2.5; (a) Adjacent tetrahedral elements considered to be electrically disjoint (b)
adjacent tetrahedral elements with potential required to be continuous and nodes renum­
bered accordingly

Subscript “dis” denotes that disjoint element are being considered. The total energy
of the pair of elements is then

W = (2.77)

where

S<« 0
(2.78)
0 S<a>

Where, 0 is ’’ Zero” matrix of size 8x8 and matrices and are as follows:
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 50

Sn Sw S l3 S14 £ l5 £ l6 £ l7 S \s

S21 £22 S23 S24 £25 £26 £27 £28

S31 £32 £33 £34 £36 £36 £37 £38

£41 S a2 £43 £44 £46 £46 £47 £48

S (D) =
(2.79)
Sn s52 £53 £54 £56 £56 £57 £58

Sn Sf>2 £63 £64 £66 £66 £67 £88

£71 S l2 £73 £74 £75 £78 £77 £78

_ S 81 Sg2 £83 Sg 4 £85 £ s 6 S 87 £g8

£99 £910 S o il Sgw £913 £914 £915 £916

S im S lo w S lO ll S W12 £ l0 1 3 £ l0 1 4 £lO X 5 £ l0 1 6

£119 Sum S ii n S i m £ lll3 £ i 114 £ i X15 £ lll6

S im £1210 Sl2U S 1212 £ l2 1 3 £ l2 1 4 £ l2 1 E £ l2 1 6

S<a> (2.80)
S im S1310 S1311 £1312 £ l3 1 3 £ l 3 14 £ l3 X 5 £ l3 1 0

Sm S 1410 Sm i Sun £ l4 1 3 £ l4 X 4 £ l4 1 5 £ l4 1 0

S im £ l6 1 0 Sun Swn £ l6 1 3 £ l5 1 4 S l5 1 5 £ l5 1 6

S im Sww S io n £16x2 £ l6 1 3 £ l6 1 4 £ l6 1 5 £ l 6 10

Potential values are physically required to be continuous across inter-element bound­

aries. In the connected assemblage, four potential values are associated with each
tetrahidral (i.e., nodes 2 -& 9, nodes 3 & 12, nodes 6 & 13, and nodes 7 & 16). If
the potential of the vertices which are connected are forced to be equal exactly (2 &
9, 3 & 12, 6 & 13 and 7 & 16), continuity requirement o f potentials is satisfied. The
equality constraint at vertices may be expressed in matrix form, as a rectangular matrix
C relating potentials o f disjoint elements to the potentials o f the conjoint (subscript
“con” ) set o f elements (also termed as connected system).

U*. = CU,« * (2.81)

CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 51

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 00 00
■ Pi ■ l '

0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P-2 t)

0 0 0 0 lh
0 00 00 00 0
Pi
0 0 0
00 00 0
Pa / (>2
Ijfy 0 00 0 0 0 Pi
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1

u6 0 0 0 0 Pi
0 00 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Ur,
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Pi
0 0 0 0 Ik
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ps
P» 0 1 0 0 Pi
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (k
00 0 0 0 00 0
Pm (} 1

Pn 0 1 0 0 (/»
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
f 12 f'm
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
Pa Pn
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 P 12
000
” l4 con
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0
&15
^16 di.s
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Now the energy for the connected problem

w = ~1,P L s u con (2.83)

2' r o n ‘

S = CTSdisC (2-8-1)

In fact, C’ is a sparse matrix and as such computation of C l Sd-,sC’ would be time

consuming for a situation when the number of element,s is large. Therefore, summa­
tion technique is adopted by using connectivity reference among the elements under
consideration.

2 .4 .4 Solution o f th e C on n ected P ro b le m

Till now the energy of a continuous approximate potential distribution was formu­
lated as a quadratic form with the column vector of node potentials. Minimizing the
stored energy in the connected finite element model approximate solution of Laplace’s
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 52

equation is obtained. Since the energy approximation is quadratic in the nodal poten­
tials, it must have a unique minimum with respect to each component of the potential
vector U.

wr° ( 2 -8 5 )

is set, where index ’k’ represents the entries in the connected potential vector or is equiv­
alent to node numbers in the connected model.

Differentiation in the above equation with respect to each and every 'k' corresponds
to an unconstrained minimization, with the potential allowed to vary at every node.
The unconstrained minimization, however, does not correspond to the boundary value
problem as originally stated. Indeed, the unconstrained minimum energy is trivially
zero, with exactly zero potential everywhere. In the boundary value problem to be
solved certain boundary segments have specified potential value. Therefore, a certain
subset of the potentials contained in vector U must assume exactly the prescribed values.
The equation (2.85) may thus be represented with the matrices in partitioned form.
--------- 1
i
CO

8W Sff
£

[vj uf]1J 0 (2 .86)

_____ t

dUk . S pf 5 p p.

Where ’/ ’ and ’p ’ are used to refer to nodes with free and prescribed potentials
respectively. Since the prescribed potentials can not vary, differentiation with respect
to them is not possible. Differentiating with respect to the free potentials only, the
rectangular matrix equation results as follows:

Uf
[S f f Sfp ] = 0 (2.87)
up
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 53

SffU/ + S fpUp = 0 (2 . 8 8 )

T h i s is a l i n e a r m a t r i x e q u a t i o n w h ic h is e a s i l y s o l v e d b y c o m p u t e r . T h e a p p r o x i m a t e

s o lu t io n as c a lc u la t e d ta k e s t h e fo r m o f a set o f n o d a l p o t e n t i a l v a lu e s . H o w e v e r , th e

FEM g i v e s a s o l u t i o n , w h ic h is u n i q u e ly a n d p r e c is e ly d e f i n e d e v e r y w h e r e b e s id e s at t h e

v e r tic e s . T h e s e t o f n o d a l p o t e n t i a l v a lu e s is m e r e l y a c o m p a c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r t h e

p i e c e - w i s e p l a n a r s o l u t i o n s u r f a c e w h ic h y i e l d s m i n im u m e n e r g y .

T h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s a r e d o n e a s d e s c r ib e d in t h e s e c t io n F E M u s in g f ir s t o r d e r t r i a n ­

g u la r e le m e n ts .

1. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f e a c h e le m e n t .

2. A s s e m b ly o f e le m e n ts b y m a t r ix t r a n s fo r m a t io n s a n d im p o s it io n o f b o u n d a r y c o n ­

d itio n s .

3. S o l u t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s a l g e b r a i c e q u a t io n s .

2 .4 .5 P ost P rocessing

S o l u t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s e q u a t i o n s g i v e t h e v a l u e o f p o t e n t i a l at a ll

n od es o f th e m esh .

F o l l o w i n g a r e t h e s t e p s d o n e in p o s t p r o c e s s in g .

1. C a l c u l a t i o n o f e l e c t r i c fie ld i n t e n s i t y (F r and Ev) at: e a c h n o d a l p o i n t .

2. D e t e r m in a t io n o f c a p a c ita n c e .

2 .4 .6 D eterm in atio n o f E lectric Field Intensity

T h e e l e c t r i c fi e l d i n t e n s i t i e s a l o n g x , y a n d z d i r e c t i o n s a t a n o d e a r e d e t e r m i n e d u s in g

t h e n o d a l v o l t a g e s a t t h e n o d e s a n d I h e d is t a n c e o f s e p a r a t io n o f t h e n o d e s a l o n g t h e ir
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 54

respective directions. To determine electric field intensity at the nodes, at first electric
field intensities at the center o f two adjacent nodes are determined as follows:

V(x,y,z) - V(x + A x , y tz}

E(x 4- Ax/2, y, z)x (2.89)
Ax
V(x,y,z) - ( x,y + A y , z )
E(x, y + Ay/2, z)y (2.90)
Ay
y ( x , y , z ) - V ( x , y , z + Az)
E(x,y,z + Az/2)x (2.91)
Az
The electric field intensities at a node is determined by using the contributions made
by the electric field intensities around the nodes given by the equations (2.89), (2.90)
and (2.91) . The procedure adopted for the purpose is as follows:

1 N
E(x,y,z)x = — J 2 E (x + Ax/2,y,z)Xt (2.92)

1 "
E{x,V,z)v = - ^ Y l E { x , y + Ay/2,z) V i (2.93)

1 N
E{x,y,z)z J2 E{x, y,z + Az/2)^ (2.94)
N 1=1

E( x,y,z )| = J E(x,y,z)l + E{x,y,z)2

y + E(x,y,z) (2.95)

Where N represents the total number o f contributions of the electric field intensities
around the node.

2.5 Determination of Capacitance

Determination o f capacitance o f the sensor under consideration is carried out in the
post processing by applying a direct method. The exact voltage distribution is obtained
by solving the linear matrix equation as described previously. To determine the value
of capacitance accurately based on the nodal values of voltages we equate the stored
energy in the capacitor to the energy value represented by finite element matrices [39].
C H A P T E R 2 . F I N I T E E L E M E N T M E T H O D 5 5

T h i s m e t h o d i s s i m p l e r a n d a c c u r a t e c o m p a r e d t o t h e m e t h o d w h e r e f i e l d i n t e n s i t y i s

d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e n o d a l v o l t a g e s b y a p p l y i n g d i v e r g e n c e t h e o r e m , f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s

a r e t o b e d o n e t o o b t a i n t h e c a p a c i t a n c e v a l u e .

T h e s t o r e d e n e r g y i n a c a p a c i t o r i s g i v e n a s :

W \cu =
jU
2 ( 2 .9 6 )

N o w f r o m e q u a t i o n s ( 2 .8 3 ) a n d ( 2 . 9 6 ) w e h a v e

\ C U 2 = \ l ^ m S U e o n ( 2 .9 7 )

T h e r e f o r e ,

tjT qjj
C = W U c o n ( 2 . 9 8 )

2 . 5 . 1 F E M A p p l i e d t o S a m p l e E l e c t r o - S t a t i c F i e l d P r o b l e m s

T o e x a m i n e t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f F E M w i t h 3 - D p r i s m e l e m e n t f o r e l e c t r o - s t a t i c

f i e l d a n a l y s i s a p a r a l l e l p l a t e a n d a c o - a x i a l c y l i n d r i c a l c a p a c i t o r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e

f i g u r e - 2 .6 s h o w s t h e e l e m e n t g e n e r a t i o n s c h e m e f o r t h e p a r a l l e l p l a t e c a p a c i t o r c o n f i g ­

u r a t i o n . T h e v a l u e o f c a p a c i t a n c e f o r t h e p a r a l l e l p l a t e c a p a c i t o r f o u n d t o b e s a m e a s

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e

C = ( 2 ,9 9 )

f o r a n y n u m b e r o f t e t r a h e d r a l e l e m e n t s , w h i c h i s s h o w n i n T a b l e - 2 .1 . T h i s i s d u e

t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n , a s s e m b l y o f t e t r a h e d r a l e l e m e n t s f i l l t h e v o l u m e o f

t h e p a r a l l e l p l a t e c a p a c i t o r w i t h o u t a n y v o i d .
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 56

Figure 2.6: Mess generation for the parallel plate capacitor configuration with prism
element "for finite element analysis

Section along Section along Number of Capacitance Capacitance

X- axis Y- axis elements using FEM in pF in pF (theoretical)
4 4 32 77.437 77.437
6 4 48 77.437
8 4 64 77.437
10 4 80 77.437
12 4 96 77.437
15 4 120 77.437

Table 2.1: Capacitance value for the sample parallel plate capacitor without considering
fringe field effect for different number of elements
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 57

Taking advantage o f the geometrical symmetry of a co-axial cylindrical capacitor only

| portion o f the capacitor is considered for FEM analysis. Thus, total capacitance o f the
co-axial cylindrical capacitor will be four time o f the capacitance value determined for
the portion considered for FEM analysis. The figure- 2.7 shows the element generation
scheme for the co-axial cylindrical capacitor configuration.

Figure 2.7: Mess generation for co-axial cylindrical capacitor configuration with prism
element for finite element analysis

Table 2.2 shows the capacitance values for the cylindrical capacitor for different
number of elements in the assembly. The capacitance value based on FEM approaches
the theoretical value

2irea
C = ( 2. 100)
l°9%
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 58

as the number o f elements in the assembly is increased. It is because o f the fact that
the assembly of tetrahedral elements fill the volume of the cylindrical capacitor having
more void with less number tetrahedral elements and as the number o f tetrahedral ele­
ments increases the void reduces.

Section along Section along Number of Capacitance Capacitance

circumference radius elements using FEM in pF in pF(theoretical)

4 4 32 0.2629 0.2492

6 4 48 0.2551
8 4 64 0.2525
10 4 80 0.2513
12 4 96 0.2507
15 4 120 0.2501

Table 2.2: Capacitance value for the sample co-axial cylinder for different number of
elements

2.6 Conclusions

The examples considered to investigate the applicability of finite element method

in the analysis o f electric field shows that computation o f capacitance value o f any elec­
trode configuration is possible using equation (2.98). This utilizes the finite element
matrix ( Scon the Stiffness matrix ), which is generated during the finite element analy­
sis process, i.e., additional computation is not required. But, accuracy o f finite element
method depends upon the filling o f the problem volume by the prism elements. It is
evident from the Table -2.2 that capacitance value for a co-axial cylindrical capacitor
determined by FEM approaches the theoretical value as the total number of prism ele­
ments is increased. For a parallel plate capacitor, accuracy can be obtained with small
CHAPTER 2. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 59

number of elements. This is due to the fact that for a rectangular configuration the
filling of the problem volume is effectively and easily done with the prism element. The
proposed sensor is a fringe field capacitor. Therefore, it is required to utilize 3-D finite
method for the determination electric field that exists around the the sensor.
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