Denim Book
From cotton to fashion
Take Denim to a new dimension: more colors, more performance, more sustainability.
Ask for Advanced Denim by Clariant.
Denim Book Index
Index
Introduction
Page 4 01 Spinning
Page 8 02 Technology
Page 20 03
Pretreatment
Page 30 04 Dyeing
Page 38 05 Advanced
Denim
Page 56 06
Sizing
Page 70 07 Weaving
Page 76 08 Finishing
Page 84 09
Denim Book Denim Book by Clariant: Introduction
Introduction
“Denim is close
to everybody,
everywhere,
anytime”
1.0 Introduction 5
01
“The Clariant’s Denim Book has been designed
and written by the Clariant’s Denim specialist
team in Barcelona.
It offers an overview of the many processes and products
currently involved in the manufacturing of jeans.
Denim is in constant evolution and new innovations
will surely influence the future of the industry.
That is why Clariant’s experts supports brands’ and
stylists’ creativity with state-of-the-art chemistry
for exciting colors and effects that bring together
technology and sustainability.
The Pad/Sizing-Ox process, introduced under
Clariant’s Advanced Denim concept, is an
awe-inspiring illustration of our commitment:
manufacturers can now dye denim whilst saving up
to 92% water, 30% energy and 87% cotton waste
compared to traditional dyeing process.
Read on; we hope that the Clariant’s Denim Book
will be an enjoyable source of information and
inspiration for your future denim projects.”
Denim Book Denim Book by Clariant: Introduction
Denim Book
by Clariant:
Introduction
The story of jeans begins in the mid- In these two cities the strong and
19th century simultaneously in two resistant fabric started being used for
European cities: the production of workwear, especially
for sailors and dockworkers.
Nîmes in France, where the fabric
itself was created, the so-called This blue fabric, which was going to
“Serge de Nîmes” which led to the replace the classical brown and beige
name “denim”. workwear, established itself many
kilometers away from Europe, in the
Genoa in Italy, where the color comes
United States of America.
from, called in French “Bleu de Gênes”
which led to the expression “blue jeans”. A young immigrant from Germany, called
Levi Strauss, started marketing the new
The fabric and color come together to
garment with riveted copper buttons
become the jeans, denim.
which considerably reinforced pockets.
Jeans became more and more
popular in the 1920s and 1930s and
1860 • Beginning of denim • Strong and
durable material for the workwear market consolidated their reputation as a
common work garment.
Little by little an industry was
established and it returned to Europe
in the form of some newly-founded
brands (such as Morris Cooper Overall,
later called Lee Cooper). Like in the
USA, the first European jeans were
intended for the labor market.
In the 1950s, jeans entered a new
phase in the USA as an article of
fashion. They gained ground due to
their appearance in Hollywood films
where popular actors and actresses
1.0 Introduction 7
Spinning
“The process of
making fibrous
material into
yarn or thread”
2.0 Introduction 9
02
Cotton and its intimate blends with Two types of spinning can be
other cellulose-base fibers is a distinguished:
material used for most denim-type • Continuous fiber threads, for example
fabrics. Such fabrics are used to artificial fiber thread such as PA or PES.
create comfortable, loose garments.
• Discontinuous or staple fiber
threads, as in the case of cotton,
a type of spinning which will be
discussed in depth.
Denim Book Spinning: Our Fiber Threads
our Fiber
Yarns
Spinning
2.1 Systems of Manufacturing Staple Fiber Rotor or Open-End (OE) System The manufacturing process includes
the following operations:
Currently, it is possible to obtain This type of spinning was historically
different types of thread in the the most frequently used for the Cleaning: a process during which
denim yarn market, according to the manufacturing of denim items. In the impurities and cotton seeds are
manufacturing system used: OE system differences in length of eliminated.
fibers when they are grouped together
• Rotor or Open-End (OE) System Mixing: cotton from different origins is
are accepted, thus making it possible mixed and finally emerges in the form
• Ring System to work with medium or low quality of fleece. This process is also called
• Compact System cotton. Furthermore, fibers in the final the opening of cotton, as it arrives in
yarn can be arranged irregularly. the form of bales. The machine used
for this initial operation is known as
the opener. With this operation it is
possible to achieve a high degree of
regularity in the final yarn.
Opener range
Inner workings
2.1 Systems of Manufacturing Staple Fiber 11
Detachment point
Yarn
Fiber
Chain locker
Rotor
Yarn Fiber
Cleaner
“Ring spun
through a continuous spinning
machine, the production of ring yarn
also includes the following steps:
Drawing frame step, during which a
yarn has
more intimate blend is produced from
cotton of different origins, the fibers
stay more parallel and the tuft is thinner.
Speed frames or drawing frames step,
greater length
during which the tuft is drawn apart. A
certain number of fibers are eliminated
in order to obtain the final desired
thickness. These fibers come out
and regularity
completely parallel to each other.
Spinning machine step, during which
the final yarn is not formed by passing
through a spinneret, but by passing
of fibers”
the tuft through a drawing and rotation
system by means of a ring, at very high
velocities. Then the yarn passes on to
spindles and finally to the bobbins.
Denim Book Spinning: Our Fiber Threads
Spinning
machine and
spindles with
ring yarn
2.1 Systems of Manufacturing Staple Fiber 15
Operating diagram of a ring spinning This way the ring system ensures that
Functional diagram cotton fiber length is more regular,
which implies better cotton quality and
therefore higher costs (Diagram 1),
Expanded view of
Yarn formation because of additional operations as
mentioned earlier.
Feeding of fiber
(tuft)
Tuft Yarn
Cotton yarn manufactured by ring system.
Macro view
Drawing system
Yarn guide
Spindle
Ring Cursor
Spindle pulley
Spindle
Production phases of the two most important types of thread Compact System
Diagram 1 Currently a new type of spinning system
is gaining importance. It is called the
Ring yarn Open-end yarn compact system and does not differ
much from the ring system as regards
the quality of the obtained thread.
Pressed cotton fibers Pressed cotton fibers In this case, a special system of fiber
called bales called bales orientation exists which gets the thread
at considerably higher velocities than
through the ring system, but with a
similar efficiency as that attained by
Cleaning and mixing Cleaning and mixing using the open-end system. Other
of cotton -opener- of cotton -opener- notable characteristics of compact
spinning are considerable less fluffiness
of threads manufactured by this system,
Carding Carding compared with those produced through
the ring or OE systems.
Thanks to this property, denim fabrics
produced through a manufacturing
Drawing frame
system using compact-type thread,
usually have a cleaner surface than
fabrics with ring threads.
Speed frame
Handle, volume, absorption capacity,
capillarity and softness are other
characteristics that differentiate one
Yarn on spindle type of spinning from the other.
Cotton yarn manufactured by ring system Cotton yarn manufactured by open-end system Cotton yarn manufactured by compact system.
Macro view
2.2 Characteristics of Different Types of Yarn 17
2.2 Characteristics of Different The type of fibers forming the thread (in Various inverse systems are known:
Types of Yarn respect of length, thickness and form) • Metric number: indicates the length
is determined by the origin of cotton
Yarn destined for warp dyeing should in meters of 1 gram of thread, indicating
(Table 1).
present certain physical properties also how many ends the thread has.
which make them suitable for their Thickness or diameter, called the Example: Nm16.79/1. It means that 1
application in the phases of preparation, count or number of the thread, gram of this thread is 16.79 meters
dyeing and subsequent operations. are the numbers which describe long and that in this case a single end
characteristics of a thread and are
Yarn is characterized according to the thread was used.
preceded by the system symbol
following criteria:
which was used to name them. In • English number: indicates the number
• Type of fibers general, two types of systems can be of hanks of 840 yards – equivalent
distinguished: of 768,08 meters – which weigh 1 lb
• Thickness or diameter
(451,59g). The way of expressing the
• Degree and direction of thread twist • Direct systems: they determine how value is the same as in the case of Nm.
much a certain length of thread weighs,
• Strength • Catalan number: similar to the English
for example the Tex system, which
• Elasticity refers to the weight in grams of 1000 number, indicates the number of hanks
meters of thread. of 777,5 m, which weigh 440 grams.
• Regularity
• Absorption capacity It is used mostly for continuous type
Conversions form
nylon filaments, PES or Rayon.
Table 2
• Inverse systems: the most common
Nm = Ne x 1.7
systems for cotton warp yarn destined
for denim fabrics. They are based on Nm = Ncat x 1.767
calculations of the length of a certain
weight of thread and are called inverse, In this way (Table2) a thread of Nm
because the higher the number, the 16,79 / 1 can also be called Ncat 9.5/1
thinner the thread. or Ne 9.9/1.
Type of fibers
Table 1
Length, width and thickness are in inches, average height and weight charts in libras
Denim Book Spinning: Our Fiber Threads
The degree and the direction of thread Strength, which should be greater • Multicount: this type of thread
twist is the number of turns given to the than the tensions that the thread has irregularity is produced by alternating
thread per unit of length. The purpose to endure during different phases of threads with different numbers, in such
of the twist is to increase the cohesion the textile process. a way that areas of thinner thread
of fibers in order to better preserve (26/1c) pass on to areas of thicker
Elasticity is the degree of extension
their position in the yarn. thread (22/1c). Changes in periodicity,
of the thread after it recovers its initial
length and thread number can be
The direction of the thread twist can length. Depending on the type of
controlled ‘on-line’, which results in
be either Z (left twist) or S (right twist) thread, elasticity will be greater, such
‘controlled irregularities.’ Depending on
(Figure 1). as in the case of the ring or compact
the available type of spinning, the same
yarn, and less in the case of open-end.
The twist influences thread resistance: effects could be obtained in open-
the greater the twist, the higher the Regularity of the thread is determined end type spinning as well as in ring or
resistance, but less elasticity – which is by the presence or lack of: compact, by following pre-established
the degree of thread recuperation, after spinning computer programs.
• Knots: loops formed by fibers.
it is stretched.
• Flames or slubs: thick parts • Neps: entangling of fibers.
In warp threads the twist is usually of the yarn. The flame effect Depending on what effect is supposed
greater because it has to endure more is an accumulation of fibers in to appear in the final garment, more or
tension in the dyeing machine as well alternate areas of the thread. less irregularities are created.
as later, in the loom. These accumulations appear due
Absorption capacity of a thread in a
to consecutive stretching and
dye bath is determined by the quality
Z & S twist directions overfeeding of material. Each of these
of cotton and by the orientation of
Figure 1 accumulations is called slub. When
fibers in the thread. The greater the
the number of slubs in yarn is very
orientation in the same direction, the
high, it is called multiflamé. The final
lower the absorption capacity.
appearance of a fabric with this type of
thread is very uneven, with thicker and
thinner areas, therefore washing the
garment will eventually shows special
uneven effects. This is the case of
‘controlled unevenness’.
Spindle rotating clockwise
produces Z twist
Presence of flames or slubs in the yarn The type of yarn used in the
construction of a fabric and later
in garment production decidedly
influences the latter’s final appearance.
Among the different existing
possibilities, already commented,
when it comes to type of yarn, ring
or open-end, we can find differences
as regards the regularity/irregularity,
which influence decidedly the final
appearance of the garment.
The use of yarn that display certain
irregularities is related to the
current tendency to produce final
garments with worn-out or ‘old’
appearance. Attempts are also made
to manufacture jeans using methods
that were used in the past, when the
operation of weaving was craftwork
and the irregularities were produced
accidently or by chance.
Technology
and systems
03
At present there are three different The first system used for denim was
types of preparation and dyeing rope, while slasher and loop were
systems for warp yarn denim which are incorporated later. Historically, you
carried out by the following ranges: could observe a clear differentiation
between geographical areas, which
3.1. Rope dyeing range
gradually disappeared. In the past,
3.2. Slasher dyeing range rope was a system widely used in
3.3. Loop dyeing range North America and Japan, slasher
in Europe and loop in South America.
Denim Book Technology and Systems of Denim Application
Denim
Application
Technology
and systems
These types of continuous process Before entering the dyeing range the Types of warp yarn preparation
systems differ in two aspects: yarn has to be prepared in the form Functional diagrams
of big cylindrical structures called
• The way of preparation and
beams where the threads are wound
transportation of the yarn in the range
in optimal conditions of pressure and
• Mechanical construction of the range regularity. This process, which is begun
by spinning cones is called warping.
Depending on the type of dyeing
range, beams are constituted from
yarn set parallel, flat and open in the
case of slasher and loop, or arranged
in small groups forming ropes, as in
the case of rope range.
To conclude, the different types of Beam Warping (slasher and loop)
existing machinery are made up of
a certain amount of vats or boxes
destined primarily for the preparation
of the material and dyeing and also vats
or boxes for cleaning or final rinsing.
“Slasher and
3.1. Rope Dyeing Range
In this type of denim range warp
threads are extended along the range
rope systems
in the form of a rope. Yarn groups are
composed of 300 and 400 ends forming
ropes or cables.
The total width of rope ranges is taken up
represent at
by a number of ropes ranging between
12 and 48, depending on the width of
the machine. The total number of ends,
depending on the number of ropes, can
range between 3600 and 19200.
denim
The number of yarns per beam ranges
between 300 and 750, while the total
number of threads which make up
the warp yarn vary between 3500 and
production”
9500, according to the thickness and
diameter of the used yarn, the type of
warping range and the denim fabric
design in the weaving process.
Rope range
Functional diagram
Skyer
Softener box
Sheetdyeing, slasher-dyeing
Functional diagram
“Small and
3.5. Analysis of the Ranges at Work
In each of the three ranges it is
possible to apply sulfur dyestuffs
compact
without restrictions of intensity or
fastness. However, with the new
Diresul® RDT Indicolors (under
the “Advanced denim” umbrella)
alternative to indigo, small ranges
denim
begin to appear on the market. They
consist of only one dye padder and
4 boxes, sufficient for sulfur dyeing
application and having the advantage
ranges
of reducing water consumption. They
also have more flexibility with smaller
and varied batches, which are a rising
tendency on the fashion market.
begin to
In case of both open, one-layer slasher
type ranges as well as multilayer ones
such as loop there is a possibility of
working with dye vats under nitrogen
appear on
atmosphere. This is done in the effort
to maintain homogenous chemical
conditions in the bath for a longer
time after the impregnation of the dye.
the market”
It improves the quality of dyeing and
fastness properties of the dyed yarn.
It also requires less consumption of
chemical products.
Oxidation time (air passage or skying In case of sulfur dyes Diresul® RDT This action facilitates the separation
time) which the indigo needs for its liq dyes, oxidation time is not of great of one thread from another inside
complete oxidation (air oxidation), at importance because as a general the rope. It also supports subsequent
the speed at which ropes are usually norm our dyes need a chemical (type) operations such as the formation of
transported, is approximately 4-6 times oxidation in order to completely the beam (the rope is opened and
longer than the duration of the rope- develop the color. later the ends are rolled out flatly on
bath contact. This period depends also a cylindrical surface the warp beam)
In rope type range, and especially in
on other factors such as the degree of and the chemical finish (sizing).
case of mercerized yarn, it is common
squeezing of each rope in the exit from to use a lubricant/softener in the last vat
the dye vat in the squeezing mangle before drying in order to diminish friction
and the speed of the range. between the yarn and to facilitate the
opening of the rope (rebeaming).
Advanced denim
Functional diagram
Yarn
accumulator
Beam creel Dye Oxidation Washing Drying can Sizing Drying can Beam
box box boxes box head
Loop range
Functional diagram
“Warp yarn
extended flatly
in a beam,
entering in a
slasher range”
3.5. Analysis of the Ranges at Work 31
Pretreatment
04
Preparation of yarn before dyeing can Among the main preparation
be realized in rope ranges as well as operations, which can be carried
in loop and slasher type ranges. They out on the warp yarn, we include:
just need to have all the necessary 4.1 Prewetting
characteristics in terms of the number
of pre-dyeing boxes and the possibility 4.2 Scouring
of maintaining constant conditions. 4.3 Mercerizing
4.4 Special Operations
In all of them the main aim is to
obtain a regular absorption in yarn,
which is a fundamental requisite
for successful dyeing.
Denim Book Pretreatment of the Warp Yarn
of the
Warp Yarn
Pretreatment
4.1 Prewetting The prewetting of the yarn should be 4.2 Scouring
uniform and constant. If this condition
The quickness of prewetting is the The aim of this operation is to
is not fulfilled, subsequent differences
most important parameter of the warp eliminate natural impurities of cotton
in the degree of penetration of the
yarn wetting agent and is due to time such as fat, organic matter, wax,
dyestuff could appear, and as a
limitation in the contact between pectin and even heavy metals and/
consequence, different intensities.
the fiber and the bath in normal or alkaline earth metals, in order to
application conditions. The wetting agent of anionic nature is prevent possible interferences in
usually applied at room temperature subsequent operations.
with at least one post-rinsing, in As a result, regular dyeings are
order to prevent possible problems obtained with optimal performance
with stability when the yarn enters of the chemicals and dyestuffs used.
successive dye vats.
In order to scour the cotton some
It is also recommended to use detergents-emulsifiers, alkali,
a dispersing agent, capable of sequestering and wetting agent,
maintaining dispersed those oils and which resist medium -low alkalinities
impurities which are being removed should be used.
during prewetting.
It is important to obtain a regular
cleaning of the cotton and this is the
reason why the turn over of the bath
should be quick enough to avoid it
being filled up with too much dirt
from the yarn. This could produce
certain irregularities in subsequent
dyeing operations.
4.2 Scouring 35
“The mercerizing
4.3 Mercerizing
This process consists of subjecting
yarn to high alkalinity during a
process
short period of time, which will vary
depending on the velocity and the type
of the denim range used.
The effect produced on cotton involves
produces a
a change in its crystalline structure, a
swelling or rounding-off of the cellulose
fiber and its shrinkage. This change in
structure should be controlled because
due to high tensions to which threads are
change in the
exposed, breakage could easily occur.
The quality and the origin of cotton
influences the degree of mercerizing.
crystalline
This way, mercerizing treatment helps
to obtain:
• More intense colors
• Brighter shades
structure of the
• More ring dyeing, superficial dyeing
This operation can be carried out
always when the quality of the thread
cotton fibers”
allows it. Generally, the typology of the
open-end yarn accepts mercerizing.
In the ring type yarn it is necessary to
ensure that the piecing-up has been
very well done.
The mercerizing process is basically
carried out by using caustic soda as
an alkali. Its concentration should be 3. Dispersing agent: optional. On The contact between the alkali and
the necessary one to obtain a density the market there are products which the yarn should last 30-60 seconds
of the bath with values between 6-22º combine various functions. to obtain a complete reaction and
Bè, although this value should be swelling of cotton.
The best mercerizing effect is obtained
adjusted to the requirements of each
in cold temperatures, but it is usual Finally, it is important to eliminate the
type of yarn.
to find applications of up to 30ºC. This excess alkali from the fiber. For that
Other auxiliary products include: is because an exothermic reaction purpose an energetic washing of the
1. Wetting agent: stable to high occurs between the alkali and water, yarn is realized, in order to eliminate
alkalinity and with a quick prewetting which increases the temperature of the the rest of alkalis or at least minimize
capacity. Preferably of anionic nature. mercerizing solution. their presence.
2. Sequestering agent: especially for After the application, the yarn has to This is especially important when
heavy metals such as iron and alkaline pass through a relaxation area where a subsequent dyeing with indigo is
earth metals, such as calcium and shrinkage/swelling of the cellulose going to be carried out. In the case
magnesium. Stable to high alkalinity. fiber occurs. It is important at this of sulfurous dyestuffs Diresul® RDT,
moment to control the tension of the a slight presence of alkali in the bath
thread to avoid breakage. does not have a negative influence.
4.3 Mercerizing 37
Dyeing
“The scope of
possibilities in colors
and effects is wide now
in warp yarn dyeing”
5.0 Introduction 41
05
For more than a century, indigo has In the 1990s, in order to widen the
been used as the main dyestuff in jeans color range, sulfur dyestuffs
the production of standard blue started being used individually,
denim cotton fabrics. However, not combined with indigo. Black
indigo has a limited range of effects has always been the second most
and during the 1980s, traditional commonly used dyestuff after
sulfur dyestuffs were combined with indigo blue. Other colors, such as
indigo in topping and bottoming to brown, olive, burgundy etc. were
create new looks and effects. incorporated as well.
Today the scope of possibilities in
effects and colors is wide and the
new Clariant specialties: indicolor,
make possible the option of Indigo
free blue denim.
Denim Book Dyeing: Warp Yarn Dyeing
Warp Yarn
Dyeing
Dyeing
5.1 The Origin of Denim: Indigo Commercial forms in which indigo is Indigo is an insoluble pigment, without
offered are diversed. However, powder affinity for cellulose in oxidized state.
The indigo dyestuff has not undergone
or granulate is still the most common, in For application the dyestuff should be in
big modifications, neither in its chemical
relation to liquid or dispersed forms which reduced leuco-alkaline, soluble state.
form nor in the way of application.
are being established on the market. In order to maintain the reduced
From a chemical point of view indigo is conditions of indigo, a particular
based on an oxidation-reduction principle, concentration of alkali is used
like in the case of sulfur dyestuffs. (usually caustic soda) as well as
strong reducing agent, the sodium
hydrosulfite, as well as auxiliaries like
dispersing or wetting agents, etc.
Indigo dyebath should be controlled by
means of chemical parameters such as
pH and reduction. Significant changes
in these values could make way for
variations in the reaction’s oxidation-
reduction kinetics, which in turn might
lead to differences in the diffusion of
color, shade and intensity (Diagram 2).
5.1 The Origin of Denim: Indigo 43
The passage of yarn through a denim After impregnation and squeezing in During the dyeing process it is
range consists of impregnation in the squeezing mangle, the yarn should necessary to control certain chemical
preparation, dyeing and washing vats. spend some time in the air duct, where parameters, such as:
the indigo dye becomes gradually
Pre-reduced indigo is applied in • Alkalinity (pH)
oxidized. It becomes insoluble and fixed
numerous big capacity dye vats,
on the yarn by means of weak bonds • Reduction (mV)
containing a low concentration of the
(Eg Van der Waals bonds). This way the • Temperature
dye. The indigo is applied to the yarn
indigo is deposited in as many layers on
by means of repeated impregnations, • Concentration of indigo in the bath
the yarn, as impregnations take place.
and then passed through the skyer to
In any case the final effect of indigo on • Impregnation time; impregnation time
become gradually oxidized.
the yarn is superficial, due to the low of the yarn in the dyebox
Contrary to sulfur dyes, indigo is diffusion of the dye. The usual pH values move between
characterized by a low affinity and
This characteristic implies certain 11.5-13. Values lower than this range
a quick oxidation tendency. Due to
limitations as far as fastness is could trigger inconsistency in shade
these two factors the dye needs
concerned, especially when high during dyeing. This is due to the fact
several impregnations in order to
intensity colors are required. that indigo presents a chemical form
reach medium-high intensities (from
called acid vat, insoluble and without
4-6 to 10-12 impregnations).
affinity. Generally at higher pH values
the shade is more reddish, dye diffusion
is greater and the intensity is lower.
Reduction
Diagram 2. Indigo molecule in its reduced form and after oxidation
O ONa
H H
N N
+ Na2S2O4 + 4 NaOH + 2 Na2SO3 + 2 H2O
N N
H H
O ONa
Oxidation
ONa O
H H
N N
+ 1/2O2 + H2O + 2 NaOH
N N
H H
ONa O
5.2 Sulfur Dyestuffs Sulfur dyestuffs transform into their Sulfur dyestuffs require a much
soluble pre-reduction form when more energetic oxidation in order to
Sulfur dyestuffs evolved from
reducing agents are added in an completely develop the final color.
commercial powder forms with a high
alkaline medium. The application of Contrary to indigo, which becomes
content of sodium sulphide into the
these dyestuffs to cellulose fibers completely oxidized while passing
present day liquid forms with a minimal
is based on the oxidation-reduction several times through air passage
content of sodium sulphide. The latter
balance of their molecules. skying, the sulfur dye needs a chemical
are more practical and ecologic, such
oxidation through the impregnation of
as in the case of Clariant sulfur dyes, Although the chemical rule of
the yarn in a solution with some kind of
Diresul® RDT liq. application of both sulfur and indigo
oxidizing agent.
dyes is very similar, the physical
The sulfur dye molecule can be depicted
behavior of the sulfur dye presents Most commonly used oxidizing
in the following way (Diagram 3).
greater affinity and diffusion capacity agents for sulfur dyeing are: sodium
These molecules are often long and in the yarn. bromate at acid pH, hydrogen
contain few solubilizing groups. In peroxide at both alkaline and
This implies more changeable and
fact, just as in the case of indigo, acid pH and sodium chlorite.
compact conditions of application,
sulfur dyestuffs are insoluble in their
since, in order to obtain medium high In the oxidizing bath the dye returns to
“pigmentary” form which is their
intensities sulfur dyes need only one its initial state - insoluble but already
oxidated state.
or two dye vats. post-reaction and fixed inside the fiber.
S S
NaO S O S
NH NaS N S R
S
NaS S NaO S S O
NH2 NH2 NH NH2
NaO-R-SNa Oxidant
Reducing O=R-S-S-R=O
Quinonic reacting group Thiol reacting group Quinonic reacting group Thiol oxidized group
Responsible for color Responsible for color fixation Oxidized form Sulfur molecules linked to each
development Color totally developed other and also to the cellulose.
Yellow sulfur dye Diresul® RDT liq Interface indigo - sulfur dye Diresul® RDT liq Indigo
5.3 Bottoming/Topping Processes 49
“The main
However, there are also other factors
which influence the intermediate
effects, such as: the preparation of
cotton, concentration of the dye,
range of
concentration of the wetting agent,
impregnation time and the temperature
of the dye bath.
The steamer is an additional element
dyes used
in the denim machine. It is becoming
more and more popular due to the fact
that with this mechanism the sulfur
dye has a greater capacity of diffusion
together with
while maintaining the reduction
conditions and solubility during a
longer period of time.
If a high concentration of the sulfur dye
the indigo
(over 100g/l in the dye vat) is combined
with the steamer effect, the contrast
between the sulfur dye and the indigo
is more distinct in the thread section.
is the sulfur
This way it is possible to obtain more
diverse fashion effects.
Without steamer conditions and with
the sulfur dye concentration lower
dye range”
than 100g/l the contrast effect with the
indigo is less pronounced due to the
fact that the diffusion of the sulfur dye
in the fiber is lower. That is why the
obtained dye is a bit more superficial
and presents a certain blending
between the sulfur dye and the indigo.
A clear example of a blending or
combination of a sulfur dye with indigo
is the case of bottoming with sulfur
yellow. The interface between indigo
blue and yellow can be observed
after local scratching which reveals
a greenish shade – the result of the
combination of the two colors.
On the other hand, there are
application processes which minimize
blending. That is why two different
phases of color can be observed.
Denim Book Dyeing: Warp Yarn Dyeing
Yellow sulfur dye Diresul® RDT liq Interface indigo yellow - sulfur dye Diresul® RDT liq Indigo
5.3 Bottoming/Topping Processes 51
In order to obtain complete diffusion 5.5 Color Denim Processes Non Mercerized Color Denim
of the dye in the fiber, the latter has We use the name color denim for all This type of process can be carried
to be steamed in order to achieve the colors which are dissociated with out in two different ways:
complete diffusion. the traditional blue and black denim. • By dyeing raw yarn with a sulfur
It is also possible to boost diffusion of Dyes used for these types of shades color directly in the first preparation
the black sulfur dye by substantially (brown, gray, olive green, etc.) are or pre-soaked vat. On a technical
increasing the quantity of caustic soda usually sulfur dyes. However, it is also level this type of dyeing process is
to amounts similar to those used in possible to use other dye ranges such called dry/wet due to the fact that
mercerizing. Dyeing and mercerizing as reactive or vat dyes, but in this case the yarn enters the dyeing without
take place simultaneously. With more complex dyeing installations are any previous wetting treatment.
this type of recipe a black dye with required and there are limitations on
increased solubility is obtained due to • By applying sulfur color dye to
final effects in garments.
which it has higher diffusion capacity a yarn which was pre-soaked or
in the fiber as well as greater intensity. In the area of color denim, such as partially scoured in the first vat.
in the case of black denim, mainly This process is called wet/wet due
The diagram below shows a section of processes of mercerizing and non to the fact that the yarn is already
yarn with its centre dyed through the mercerizing are used. treated in the first vat. It is a very
non mercerizing process. uncommon process.
Mercerized Color Denim
Such as in the case of black sulfur
dyes, the processes of mercerizing
and subsequent dyeing can be carried
out. The objective is to obtain high
color intensity at low degree of dye
penetration (ring effect).
“Regularity and
consistency
throughout the
process are the main
goals during dyeing”
In order to obtain total diffusion of the 5.6 Important Dyeing Paramethers Temperature: Diresul® RDT liq dyes are
dye in the fiber, the latter can used together with reducers such as
Regularity and consistency throughout
be steamed. Reducing agent D pw.
the process are the main goals during
In this case it is also possible to boost dyeing. This implies controlling the It means that the minimum application
diffusion of the colors in the yarn parameters which considerably temperature has to be 60ºC and the
by increasing the concentration of influence this regularity. maximum temperature 90º-95ºC and it
caustic soda in the dye bath. However, should be maintained constant.
These are the most important points
as opposed to black, not all of the to consider when establishing control Diresul® RDT liq dyes have greater
sulfur colors are stable at higher over the process and our suggestions cotton affinity and exhaustion at
concentrations of caustic soda in the for its correct development. elevated temperatures. That is why
dye bath. That is why only in some variations of ±10 ºC during the dyeing
cases it is possible to apply dyeing produce shade intensity differences.
and mercerizing processes together
in the same bath.
In the case of color denim, a chemical
oxidation of the dye with a specific
oxidizing agent is recommended.
Generally sulfur colors need a more
energetic and controlled oxidation in
order to obtain more regular dyeing
which are easier to reproduce.
Denim Book Dyeing: Warp Yarn Dyeing
endorsed
as Clariant´s Denim-Ox type processes.
This characteristic also implies the
absence of sodium sulphide both in the
work environment, as well as in the
by the most
effluent generated after dyeing. Sodium
sulphide is a product which is difficult
to eliminate using the usual systems
of waste water treatment, such as the
important
physical-chemical system.
Effluent purification in waste water
treatment plants is carried out through
a physical chemical process of color
eco-labels”
coagulation and flocculation.
As far as the composition of
Diresul® RDT liq dyes is concerned,
we can distinguish:
• The lack of heavy metals in the
composition of the dyes, due to their
5.7 Diresul® Recipes. 5.8 Reusing Dye Baths absence in raw materials used for the
Preparation of the Dye Baths production of the dyes.
After denim warp dyeing dye baths with
A thorough dyeing procedure always Diresul® RDT dyes can be stored and • Absence of halogen elements in
starts with the preparation of adequate reused in the next dyeing. the composition which might derive
dye baths. In the case of dyeing with from AOX (organohalogen derivatives)
There are two main advantages of
Diresul® RDT liq sulfur dyes the order in the waste water.
reusing dye baths:
of the introduction of constituents • Absence of dangerous chemical
should be the following: • Conservation of chemical products
compounds such as formaldehyde,
and the dye.
1. Water (1/3 of the total volume) trichlorophenol or pentachlorophenol.
• The bath remains stable and
2. Ladiquest® 2005 liq c • They do not generate amino
balanced after the previous dosage
(sequestring agent) derivatives, as they are not azo products.
time in bulk production.
3. Reducing agent D pw. Apart from that, fabrics dyed with
Before beginning the dyeing it is
Diresul® RDT liq dyes are endorsed by
4. Caustic soda 50% required to check the conditions of
the most important eco-labels. They
the bath. Normally it is necessary to
5. Diresul® RDT liq also fulfill the RSL (restricted substance
add 20% of the initial quantity of both
6. Leonil® EHC liq c (wetting agent) list) requirements of various well
the Reducer D pw as well as of 48º Bè
known fashion and sportswear brands.
7. Complete the final volume caustic soda.
Advanced
Denim
06
After analyzing the origins and evolution Forget about classical and standard
of denim from the beginning to the products, complicated applications
present moment, Clariant proposes a of dyestuffs and auxiliary chemicals
new approach to the textile industry which require excessive consumption
and especially to the denim sector. of energy and resources. By
introducing Clariant Advanced Denim
we are entering a new concept
where sustainability, effectiveness
and optimization of resources are
the key, but at the same time market
needs stay in focus.
Denim Book Advanced Denim by Clariant
by
Clariant
Advanced
Denim
Advanced Denim came to life thanks From a technical point of view, In the last few years Clariant has
to Clariant’s experience and efforts Advanced Denim is based on the developed a new line of sulfur dyestuffs
in the field of denim in collaboration substitution of the indigo dye by called Indicolors. From the point of
with major denim fabric producers. Clariant´s state of the art sulfur dyes, view of application and handling they
It was created to satisfy the necessity which are very versatile and allow are identical with Diresul® RDT dyes,
of more efficient denim processing. obtaining a great variety of effects. but they give a final look of similar
characteristics to that of blue denim.
6.1 Introduction 61
Wide range of colors and effects with Diresul® RDT liq dyes
6.1 Advanced Denim Technology 63
6.1 Advanced Denim Technology Denim-Ox process: Even though in all these cases the
discharge is minimized thanks to
Several years ago Clariant started
Efficient Denim the use of denim-Ox, there is also
developing a new technology
a range of Diresul® RDT lig dyes,
Thanks to chemical characteristics called pad-OX, which is a system of
which are especially adequate for the
different to those of indigo, sulfur dyes sulfur dyes application through the
conventional bottoming application.
can be employed in much simpler continuous process.
processes and in more versatile and The following dyes minimize the
The pad-OX technology is used for fabrics
compact dyeing ranges than the ones stripping of the sulfur dye in indigo bath.
as well as warp yarn dyeing. In case of
used at present. the latter, called denim-Ox, it is used for • Diresul® Yellow RDT-E liq
The Advanced Denim technology is black/color/blue denim and in bottoming • Diresul® Brown RDT-GS liq 150
based on the optimization of application processes together with indigo.
• Diresul® Navy RDT-GF liq 150
ranges. From mechanically complex Pad-OX can be applied thanks to the
ranges we turn to applications which use of Diresul® RDT sulfur dyes with • Diresul® Blue RDT-2G liq 150
radically minimize this complexity. low sodium sulphide content. That is • Diresul® Olive RDT-B liq 150
For example dyeing ranges consisting why there is no risk of direct contact
of 15 vats are substituted by systems • Diresul® Brown RDT-R liq
with an acidic environment.
which use no more than 4-5 vats. • Diresul® Olive Yellow RDT-Y liq
The diagram in the next page shows
The Advanced Denim technology can the arrangement of washing boxes In the case of Diresul® Black RDT liq
be considered the most efficient at used in pad-OX, which in comparison (or any dye from the black range)
present as far as the optimization of with conventional processes drastically always when the denim-Ox system
resources is concerned: reduces the water quantity and in is used, indigo bath contamination
• Cotton waste is radically minimized. consequence the consumption. is minimal in comparison with
Conversely, the type of fixation conventional application.
• Water consumption is minimal. It also
(oxidation) which is carried out on It is also important to note that the
means considerable conservation of
the dye results in improved control behavior of indigo when applying this
water which should be treated in the
and reproducibility during the dyeing technology is a bit different than in the
waste treatment plant.
process, due to the degree of fixation conventional bottoming process.
• Energy consumption is also of the dye on the yarn.
considerably reduced in comparison Indigo has greater affinity with an added
In the case of bottoming using the ring effect, due to the fact that the yarn
with conventional processes.
pad-Ox technology, there is also a becomes cationized through the denim-
As far as conventional dyeing minimization of sulfur dye discharge Ox process. That is why indigo cannot
processes are concerned, Advanced into the indigo bath, due to strong diffuse entirely inside fiber.
Denim has the following advantages: fixation of the Diresul® RDT dye.
• Easy and quick shade adjustment Both sulfur dyes as well as indigo are
during dyeing. applied under reductive and alkaline
• Easy and quick color change in the conditions. That is why they are soluble
dyeing range. and have affinity for fiber. On the other
hand, both need to be oxidized for their
• Suitable for dyeing short batches.
insolubilization – and fixation. So, under
These three points results in greater reductive and alkaline conditions, the
productivity. sulfur dye is partially resolubilized in
the indigo bath.
Denim Book Advanced Denim by Clariant
Conventional denim
Functional diagrams
Indigo
“21 century:
st
new era of
denim is
coming”
6.1 Advanced Denim Technology 67
• Raw denim: intensity • Eco-wash down. Variety of shades The characteristics and properties
and variety of shades described in this chapter are individual
The range of shades which can be
and in the majority of cases cannot be
‘Raw’ jeans are basically of intense obtained with wash-downs of the
obtained in just one final fabric. That
blue color. They can be obtained fabric is continuously widening.
is why it is important to define and
with blue dyes from the Diresul® RDT Depending on the conditions of
analyze the desired properties and set
liq range, especially with the ‘indis’ application of the diverse chemical
them as an objective.
such as the Diresul® Indinavy RDT-B products and auxiliaries a variety of
liq. Also, they can be combined with shades can be produced. Clariant works and collaborates to
Diresul® Indiblack RDT-2R liq as well as recommend and apply in each case the
Diresul® Blue Black RDT-2B liq in order most adequate processes to attain the
to obtain different shades. final objective.
As already explained, in ‘Raw’ articles
apart from increased intensity a higher
level of fastness is required. It is
obtained through adapted processes.
www.advanceddenim.clariant.com
Denim Book 7. Sizing of the Warp Yarn
Sizing
07
7.1 The Sizing Process In the denim production this
sizing process can be carried out
Neither classical weaving nor modern
continuously linked to the dyeing
high speed weaving can be carried out
process on sheet or slasher dyeing
without sizing agents. These adhere
machine or by using the rope dying
the individual fibers in the yarn to each
machine after the warping of the
other and form a protective film on the
ropes in a separate sizing machine.
fiber surface which enables the yarn to
survive the extreme mechanical stress The sizing process is necessary to
during weaving without damage. Only achieve highest weaving efficiency
the warp yarn has to be sized due to its on the looms.
function as skeleton of the fabric.
Denim Book Sizing of the Warp Yarn
of the
Warp Yarn
Sizing
The aim of this process is to provide Sizing agents are applied to the warp Natural or semisynthetic
the yarn with a protective coating in threads from aqueous liquors. The macromolecular products:
order to: threads pass from the warp beams • Starches from potato, corn, wheat,
through the sizing trough where they
• Protect the yarn from friction; rice, tapioca or manioc and their
dip in the sizing liquor and impregnate derivatives like CMS (carboxymethyl
• Increase resistance to traction; with it. The surplus liquor is then starch), starch ester and starch ether;
• Prevent the warp threads from squeezed off in the immersion rollers
which allows a liquor pick-up of 50 - • CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose);
entangling or sticking to each other;
150 %, depending on the physical warp • CMG (galactomanan and tamarinde
• Increase the tensile strength
characteristics, machine settings and flour derivatives);
to avoid breakages in the loom;
sizing liquor parameters. The sized
• Proteins (e.g. glue, saresh).
• Reduce fiber dusting (formation warp threads are dried in the cylinder
of fiber clusters); drier, separated in the dry splitting field Most of the starch sizing agents are
and wound onto the weaving beam. water insoluble and require enzymatic
• Facilitate the use of a single yarn.
or oxidative desizing process. CMS,
After the weaving process the task
CMC and CMG are water soluble;
of the sizing agent is complete and it
they are easily removed in water, plus
must then be totally removed in the
detergent and dispersing agent.
pretreatment process.
Synthetic polymers:
7.2 Types of Sizing Agents • PVA (polyvinyl alcohol);
Today a large number of classes of • Polyacrylates;
chemical substances are used as sizing
• Polyester condensates;
agents; they can be classified in two
main groups: • Vinyl acetate copolymers.
Synthetic polymers are water soluble
and easily removable with water and
washing agents under control of the
corresponding pH.
7.3 Sizing Recipes 75
Sizing trough
“New generation of
sizing agents such as
Arkofil DEN-FIX pw
®
is already in
the market”
Sizing Machine
Functional diagram
Splitting field
Splitting field
Denim Book Weaving: a Fabric Called Denim
Weaving
08
During the production of denim Fabric is a material obtained in the form
there is a variety of factors that of a sheet by crossing and interlacing
can influence the final aspect of two series of threads, a longitudinal
the garment, such as the type of one called warp and a transverse
machine, yarn and dyestuffs used, one called weft. These two series of
the dyeing process sequence and threads are most often cotton yarn.
the stitching and garment finishing. Denim fabric is distinguished by a colored
Furthermore, weaving section is warp and a raw or uncolored weft.
also crucial. The weaving process is achieved by
using looms which are weaving devices
that maintain the warp tension in order to
facilitate the interweaving of the weft.
There are different shapes and
mechanical looms according to the
type of fabric produced. In the case of
denim fabric the type of looms used are
called plane looms.
Denim Book Weaving: a Fabric Called Denim
a Fabric Called
Denim
Weaving
8.1 Weave structure The most usual weaving structure used Twill weave is normally designated
in denim fabric is Twill. as a fraction, such as 3/1. In this case
Weave structure is the way in which
the numerator indicates the number of
the warp and the weft ends cross and The twill is a loom-woven structure
harnesses which are raised when the
interlace each other. in which the points of interweaving
filling thread is inserted (in this case
are moved during each pass to attain
The most common weave structures it is 3). The denominator indicates the
a visual image of diagonal lines, also
made by using plane looms are: number of harnesses that are lowered
known as wale.
• Twill when the filling thread is inserted (in
The portion of thread or yarn that this case is 1).
• Taffeta crosses over two or more yarns from
A common way to read a fraction like
• Sateen the opposite direction is called float.
3/1 twill it is “three up, one down”
8.2 Characteristics of Denim Twills Right hand twill: the diagonal ribbing The diagonal ribbon would be more
or wale rises from the left selvedge to or less predominant depending on the
Twill fabric has technically two sides,
the top right selvedge. Single warp yarn yarn used:
front and back. Denim twill is a warp-
is woven by using right hand twill.
faced twill with the front side more Yarn twist: tightly twisted yarn gives
visible, the wale more pronounced, Left hand twill: the diagonal ribbing more diagonal effect than more weakly
the aspect more attractive, so it is rises from the bottom right to the top twisted ones. “Z” twist gives more
the side more often used to fashion left selvedge. It is also called “Z twill”. diagonal effect in right hand twill.
the denim fabric. Double yarn warp is woven using left Single or double yarn: Twisted double
hand twill.
The effect in the front side is always yarn gives more wale effect than just
reversed in the back one, eg. If there In denim fabrics, right hand twill is the single yarn.
are floats in the front side (if the warp most common. Yarn type: combed yarn (fibers lay
yarn crosses over two or more weft Reverse twill: the weft is more visible parallel in a thread) gives more
yarns), there will be weft floats in the and predominant than warp threads on diagonal effect than just carded
back side (the weft yarn crosses two the front side. one(less uniform, regular and stronger
or more warp yarns). yarn than combed ones).
Broken twills: the direction of the
diagonal produced by the weft threads Yarn density: twills of greater yarn
is reversed after no more than two density give prominent diagonal effect.
passages of the weft threads. The wale Yarn might reveal irregularities induced
is “broken” by an interruption of the during the spinning phase like knots,
usual twill sequence. slub , multi-count or multi-flamé yarn
which produce irregularities in the
denim twill. These yarn effects are
created intentionally in order to obtain
vintage effect.
Denim Book Weaving: a Fabric Called Denim
Detail of a beam of colored thread placed in the loom, prepared for the weaving of a plane fabric
8.3 Stretch Denim 83
8.3 Stretch Denim Taking the weight of the rigid denim fabric into account,
Stretch denim twills appeared in the following classification can be done
the 1990s, quickly becoming an Table 4 (Considering the denim fabric width 150 cm)
indispensable type of fabric in
women’s and increasingly in men’s Denim fabric Very light Light Medium Heavy
denim collections.
Ounces (oz) 4 to 7 7 to 11 11 to 14 14 to 16
Initially, elastomeric fibers were
applied only in the weft, nowadays, Weight g/m2 136 to 237 237 to 373 373 to 475 475 to 542
bi-elastic fabrics are gaining ground Weight g/lm 204 to 356 356 to 560 560 to 713 713 to 813
with elastomeric fibers in both weft
as well as warp (eg. Jeggins).
The main characteristics of these
“Yarn
fabrics include high degree of
adaptation to the body, comfort,
softness as well as great durability.
containing
The warp yarn containing elastomeric
fibers can be dyed with sulfur dyes
and also with sulfur dyes combined
with indigo in bottoming or topping
processes (see chapter 6).
elastomeric
The general behavior of these fibers
is similar to that of 100% cotton, it
is only necessary to adjust some
mechanical parameters in the denim
fibers are
range to use them.
At present, the strength of these
artificial fibers allows to carry out
used in warp
chemical and physical effects such
as bleach or stone wash, without
losing strength and elasticity.
dyeing”
Denim Book Weaving: a Fabric Called Denim
Weight of fabric 12, 7 ounces 705 g/lm Weight of fabric 6 ounces 285 g/lm Weight of fabric 6.5 ounces 355 g/lm
Width 164cm Width 152 cm Width 155 cm
Metric number: 12.3 Nm irregular Metric number: 40 Nm regular Metric number: 20 Nm regular
Width of the loom: 170cm Width of the loom: 165 cm Width of the loom: 160 cm
Material: ring cotton yarn Material: cotton. open-end yarn Material: regenerated cellulose fiber
100%. Ring yarn
Warp color: Diresul® Black RDT-D liq Warp color: Diresul® Indinavy RDT-B liq
Warp color: Diresul® Blue Black RDT-2B liq
Composition of the weft Composition of the weft
Composition of the weft
Metric number: Metric number: 40 Nm regular
24 Nm Irregular Metric number: 20 Nm
Courses per cm: 20
Courses per cm: 20 Courses per cm: 18.40
Material: cotton
Material: cotton/elastane Material: regenerated cellulose fiber 100%
Weft color: raw
Weft color: raw Weft color: raw
Normal finish
Elastane finish Regenerated cellulose fiber finish
Denim fabric with twill structure The back of loom, where the fabric is visible
8.2 Example of Three Classic Fabrics From Denim Articles. 85
Finishing
“The fusion of
the denim fabric
performance and
the jeans look”
9.0 Introduction 87
09
Finishing for denim fabrics have been Fabrics need to be subjected to
developed a lot over the past few finishing before the manufacturing of
years. Apart from conventional ones the garment. It is necessary to obtain a
that assure standard quality, there are correct physical behavior and stability
also special finishing treatments which of the garment during home laundering.
improve the performance of the fabric On the other hand, the finishing
and the final effect on the garment. treatments of the denim garments are
Nowadays, finishing is an element of based on fashion trends and effects.
differentation in the denim market. In this case physical and chemical
treatments are used (dry and wet
garment processing).
Denim Book Finishes for Denim Fabrics and Garments
Finishing
Generally, finishing processes can be 9.1 Denim Fabric Finishing During the operations the fabric is
divided into the following groups: subject to a superficial combustion
Denim fabric finishing are those
of the fibers with a gas flame at
• Denim fabric finishing which are carried out after weaving
elevated speed (specially adjusted
and conclude with the quality
• Special denim fabric finishing so that the fabric does not suffer any
control checking of the fabric
• Denim garment finishing deterioration or damage).
or garment manufacturing.
After singeing a posterior washing is
They consist of:
carried out in order to clean the fabric.
Basic Operations
Basic operations are always carried
out on the denim fabric just after the
weaving process. They are required
for the correct physical behavior
of the fabric when it is subject to
posterior operations such as tailoring,
final garment finishes as well as
domestic laundering once the garment
reaches the consumer.
• Brushing and singeing
Treatment of a still sized fabric
recently out of the loom. It consists
of the elimination of those superficial
fibers which give the fabric a fluffy
look. Brushing and singeing are
consecutive operations.
“Control of
• Sanforizing
Sanforizing is a physical treatment
carried out on the denim fabric. It is
shrinkage due
technically called control of shrinkage
due to compression.
Both weft as well as warp yarn
undergo a series of movements which
to compression
allow controlled shrinkage.
Shrinkage is required to prevent turning
of seams in the direction of the twill
is a physical
structure once the garment has been
tailored and washed.
The diagram 4 shows the passage of
treatment on the
the fabric through the sanforizing range.
First, the fabric needs to be pre-wetted
in order to assist the movement of the
yarn to facilitate the posterior shrinkage.
denim fabric
Then the denim fabric passes on to
the most important sanforizing phase
where shrinkage takes place. It is
carried out in a cylinder with a rubber
technically called
tape or mat stuck to it which exerts
pressure on another cylinder as it can
be observed on the picture. There is
sanforizing”
a pressure area between the cylinder
and the rubber where the shrinkage of
the fabric takes place, where the warp
thread is joined and evenly shrunk.
Sanforizing range
Diagram 4
Denim Book Finishes for Denim Fabrics and Garments
Singeing Impregnation
Grey fabric
Recipe
Hostapal® MRZ liq. 4 ml/l Bath pH 5-6 • Fast swelling of sizes with the
Bactosol® PHC liquid hc 1 ml/l Bath temperature 60-80 oC high temperature.
Sirrix® ANTOX liq. 2 ml/l Steaming time 1-3 min • Bioconversion of starch into
Steaming temperature 100 oC water-soluble sugar.
• A strong final washing eliminates
sugars from the fabric.
9.1 Denim Fabric Finishing. Optional Operations 93
“Denim fabric
containing
elastomeric
fibers needs to
be thermo-set in
the stenter range”
Denim Book Finishes for Denim Fabrics and Garments
“Mercerizing
• Denim fabric mercerizing
Before mercerizing a denim fabric it is
advisable (although not essential) to
effect
carry out a series of operations which
have previously been explained such
as singeing and desizing. This last
process can be done simultaneously,
desizing and mercerizing at the same
generates a
time. However, this depends on the
machine available.
The mercerizing effect generates
a shinier look of the denim fabric,
shinier look
whether or not combined with sulfur
dyes Diresul® RDT liq. At the same
time a change in the physical structure
of the cotton takes place (swelling
of the denim
of cotton) which produces a fuller
appearance of the fabric and a more
intense and regular shade.
Another effect is the improvement
fabric”
of the recuperation of dimensional
stability after laundering (the effect
is better if ironing is carried out after
the washing).
• Calendering
This process changes the appearance
of the fabric, leaving it more compact,
smooth and shiny, which is similar to
the effect created with strong ironing.
The process is performed by passing
the fabric through heavy cylinders
which rotate under pressure. These
cylinders can be even heated in order
to attain a polished and shiny effect.
This effect is not permanent and
is used as a complement for
postmercerizing, which was explained
previously. Generally it is not a habitual
process on denim.
Washing vat after desizing. The fabric circulates thanks to a series of submerged cylinders
9.2 Special Denim Fabric Finishing 95
Damages/breaks effects
9.3 Special Garment Finishing 97
“Garment
finishes have
become a
cornerstone
of fashion
effects”
Denim Book Finishes for Denim Fabrics and Garments
process neutralizing.
“New technologies
are becoming
progressively popular
for sustainable
finishing treatments
on jeans”
Stone washing is used on fabrics or
garments to produce certain color or
texture effects. When the stones come
in contact with the fabric, abrasion
occurs and superficial coloured fibers
are removed.
Terms such as “deep stone” or “super
stonewash” are an indication of how
long the jeans have been stonewashed.
The longer the wash, the lighter the
color of the jeans.
Enzyme washing/biowashing:
it is a process that uses enzymes
to ‘stonewash’ jeans, it means to
imitate the use of stones. The enzyme
accelerates the superficial degradation
of the fabric, exposing the white core
of the color-dyed yarn. It is often used
in conjunction with pumice stone to
enhance the worn out look.
Denim Book Finishes for Denim Fabrics and Garments
“21 century:
st
sustainable
fashion is
a must”
9.4 Diresul® RDT liq as an Element of Final Distinction between Denim Articles. Special Finishing 103
Clariant Ibérica Producción S.A This information corresponds to the present state of our
Competence Center- PG Special Dyes knowledge and is intended as a general description of
our products and their possible applications. Clariant
Po l.Ind. Can Estapé S.N makes no warranties, express or implied, as to the
08755 Castellbisbal, Barcelona (Spain) information’s accuracy, adequacy, sufficiency or freedom
Phone: +34 938 176 138 from defect and assumes no liability in connection with
any use of this information. Any user of this product is
Fax. +34 937 720 228 responsible for determining the suitability of Clariant’s
* For sales to customers located within
products for its particular application. * Nothing included
in this information waives any of Clariant’s General Terms the United States and Canada the
Email: textile.chemicals@clariant.com and Conditions of Sale, which con trol unless it agrees following applies in addition:
otherwise in writing. Any existing intellectual/industrial
property rights must be observed. Due to possible changes NO EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTY
E, 03.2012 in our products and applicable national and international IS MADE OF THE MERCHANTABILITY,
regulations and laws, the status of our products could SUITABILITY, FITNESS FOR A
change. Material Safety Data Sheets providing safety PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR OTHERWISE
precautions, that should be observed when handling or
OF ANY PRODUCT OR SERVICE.
storing Clariant products, are available upon request and
are provided in compliance with applicable law. You should ® Trademark of Clariant registered in
obtain and review the applicable Material Safety Data many countries
Sheet information before handling any of these products.
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