54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

From which, when a D 0.0025 m and  D 1 ð 103 Ns/m2 ,

k D 6.24 Nsn /m2

PROBLEM 3.39
Two liquids of equal densities, the one Newtonian and the other a non-Newtonian “power-
law” fluid, flow at equal volumetric rates down two wide vertical surfaces of the same
widths. The non-Newtonian fluid has a power-law index of 0.5 and has the same apparent
viscosity, in SI units, as the Newtonian fluid when its shear rate is 0.01 s1 . Show that,
for equal surface velocities of the two fluids, the film thickness for the Newtonian fluid
is 1.125 times that of the non-Newtonian fluid.

Solution
For a power-law fluid:
 n
du
RDk (equation 3.121)
dy
 n1  
du dux
Dk D a dux /dy (equation 3.122)
dy dy
where a is the apparent velocity D kdux /dyn1
For a Newtonian fluid:  
dux
RD (equation 3.3)
dy
When n D 0.5 and dux /dy D 0.01,  D a and:
a D  D kdux /dyn1 D k0.010.5 D 10 k D  and k D 0.1.
The equation of state of the power-law fluid is therefore:
R D 0.1dux /dy0.5
For a fluid flowing down a vertical surface, length l and width w and film thickness S,
at a distance y from the solid surface, a force balance gives:
S  ywlg D Rwl D kdux /dyn wl
dux  g 1/n
or: D S  y1/n
dy k
 g 1/n  
nC1 n
and: ux D S  y n  C const.
k nC1
 g 1/n nC1 n
When y D 0, ux D 0 and the constant D S n
K nC1
 g 1/n n  nC1 nC1

and: ux D S n  S  y n
k nC1
 FLOW IN PIPES AND CHANNELS 55

At the free surface where y D S:

 g 1/n  n

nC1
us D S n (i)
k nC1
The volumetric flowrate Q is given by:
 s  g 1/n  n   nC1 nC1

QD w dy S n sy n
0 k nC1
 g 1/n  n  2nC1
Dw S n (ii)
k 2n C 1
For the non-Newtonian fluid, k D 0.1, n D 0.5 and equation (ii), when expressed in S.I.
units, becomes:
   2
g 2 4 gs2
Dw ð 0.25 s D 25 w (iii)
0.1 
For the Newtonian fluid, n D 1 and k D  and substituting in equation (ii):
 
g 3
QDw ð 0.33SN (iv)

where SN is the thickness of the Newtonian film.
For equal flowrates, from equations (iii) and (iv):
 2 

gs2 g 3
25w D 0.33w SN
 
 
3 g
or: SN D 75 S4 (v)

For equal surface velocities, the term g/K in equation (i) can be substituted from
equation (v) and:
 
g 2
For the non-Newtonian fluid: us D ð 0.33S3
0.1
 3 2
SN
D 100 ð 0.33S3
75S4
6
D 0.00592SN /S5
 
g 2
For the Newtonian fluid: us D ð 0.5SN

 3 
SN 2 5
D ð 0.5SN D 0.0067SN /S4
75S4

and: SN /S D 0.00667/0.00592 D 1.126

56 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

PROBLEM 3.40
A fluid which exhibits non-Newtonian behaviour is flowing in a pipe of diameter 70 mm
and the pressure drop over a 2 m length of pipe is 4 ð 104 N/m2 . When the flowrate is
doubled, the pressure drop increases by a factor of 1.5. A pitot tube is used to measure
the velocity profile over the cross-section. Confirm that the information given below is
consistent with the laminar flow of a power-law fluid.
Any equations used must be derived from the basic relation between shear stress R and
shear rate:
P n
R D k,

radial distance from centre velocity

of pipe (s mm) (m/s)
0 0.80
10 0.77
20 0.62
30 0.27

Solution
For a power-law fluid:

At the initial flowrate: 4 ð 104 D kun

With a flow of: 6 ð 104 D k2un
Dividing: 1.5 D 2n
and hence: n D 0.585

For the power-law fluid:

 
 dux n
R D k  
dy 

A force balance on a fluid core of radius s in pipe of radius r gives:

Rs 2sl D Ps2
 
dux n Ps
or: Rs D k  D
ds 2l
 
dux P 1/n 1/n
 D  s
ds 2kl
   
P 1/n n nC1
Integrating: ux D  s n C constant
2ks nC1
 FLOW IN PIPES AND CHANNELS 57

When s D r, ux D 0 (the no-slip condition):

 1  
P n n nC1
and hence the constant D  r n
2kl nC1
 1/n  
P n nC1 nC1
Substituting: ux D  r n s n
2kl nC1
   
P 1/n n nC1
On the centre line: uCL D r n
2kl nC1
ux s nC1
n
and hence: D1
uCL r
 s 2.71
at when n D 0.585 : D1
r
The following data are obtained for a pipe radius of r D 35 mm:

experimental
ux  s 2.71
radius s (mm) D1 ux (m/s) ux /uCL
uCL r
0 1 0.80 1
10 0.966 0.77 0.96
20 0.781 0.62 0.77
30 0.341 0.27 0.34

Thus, the calculated and experimental values of ux /uCL agree within reasonable limits of
experimental accuracy.

PROBLEM 3.41

A Bingham-plastic fluid (yield stress 14.35 N/m2 and plastic viscosity 0.150 Ns/m2 ) is
flowing through a pipe of diameter 40 mm and length 200 m. Starting with the rheological
equation, show that the relation between pressure gradient P/l and volumetric flowrate
Q is:

Pr 4 4 1
QD 1  X C X4
8lp 3 3

where l is the pipe radius, p is the plastic viscosity, and X is the ratio of the yield stress
to the shear stress at the pipe wall.
Calculate the flowrate for this pipeline when the pressure drop is 600 kN/m2 . It may
be assumed that the flow is laminar.
58 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

Solution
For a Bingham-plastic material, the shear stress Rs at radius s is given by:
 
dux
Rs  RY D Cp  Rs  RY 
ds
dux
D 0 Rs  RY 
ds
The central unsheared core has radius rc D rRY /R (where r D pipe radius and R D
wall shear stress) since the shear stress is proportional to the radius s.
In the annular region:
dux 1 1  s
 D R  RY  D P  RY from a force balance
ds p p 2l
  
1 s2
ux D  dux D P  RY s C constant
p 4l
For the no-slip condition: ux D 0, when s D r
 
1 r2
Thus: 0D P  RY s C constant
p 4l
 
1 P 2 2
and: us D r  s   RY r  s
p 4l
2R
Substituting: P D
l/r
 
1 R 2
us D r  s2   RY r  s (i)
p 2r
The volumetric flowrate through elemental annulus, dQA D us 2sds
 r  
1 R 2
Thus: QA D r  s2   RY r  s 2sds
rc  p 2r
  2 2    r
2 1 r s s4 RY rs2 s3
D R   
p 2r 2 4 R 2 3 rc
RY RY
Writing D X and rc D r , then :
R R
  4   3   
2 1 r r4 r r3 1 X2 r 4 X4 r 4
QA D R  X   
p 2r 2 4 2 3 2r 2 4
 3 2 
r X r 3 X3
CX 
2 3
 
2R 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
D r  X  X2 C X4 C X3  X4
p 8 6 4 8 2 3
 FLOW IN PIPES AND CHANNELS 59
 
Rr 3 5
D 1  4/3X  2X2 C 4X3  X4 (ii)
4p 3
In the core region
Substituting: s D rc D RY /Rr D Xr in equation (i) for the core velocity uc gives:
 
1 R 2
uc D r  X2 r 2   RY r  Xr
p 2r
 
Rr 1 2 Rr
D 1  X   X1  X  f21  X2   4X C 4X2 g
p 2 4p
Rr  
D 2  4X C 2X2
4p

The flowrate through the core is: uc rc2 D uc X2 r 2 D Qc

Rr
Thus: Qc D X2 r 2 f2  4X C 2X2 g
4p
Rr 3 
D f2X2  4X3 C 2X4 g
4p
The total flowrate is: QA C Qc  D Q
Rr 3  
and: QD 1  43 X C 13 X4
4p
Pr
Putting RD then :
2l
Pr 4
QD f1  43 X C 13 X4 g
8lp

When: P D 6 ð 105 N/m2 , l D 200 m d D 40 mm and r D 0.02 m.

r 0.02
Then: R D P D6ð ð 105 D 30 N/m2
2l 400
p D 0.150 Ns/m2
RY D 14.35 N/m2
RY 14.35
and: XD D D 0.478
R 30
 
6 ð 105 0.024 4 1 3
Thus: QD 1  ð 0.478 C 0.478
8 ð 200 ð 0.150 3 3
D 0.000503 m3 /s
 SECTION 4

Flow of Compressible Fluids

PROBLEM 4.1
A gas, having a molecular weight of 13 kg/kmol and a kinematic viscosity of 0.25 cm2 /s,
flows through a pipe 0.25 m internal diameter and 5 km long at the rate of 0.4 m3 /s
and is delivered at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the pressure required to maintain this
rate of flow under isothermal conditions. The volume occupied by 1 kmol at 273 K and
101.3 kN/m2 is 22.4 m3 . What would be the effect on the required pressure if the gas
were to be delivered at a height of 150 m (i) above, and (ii) below its point of entry into
the pipe?

Solution
From equation 4.57 and, as a first approximation, omitting the kinetic energy term:

P2
P1 /vm C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

At atmospheric pressure and 289 K, the density D 13/22.4273/289 D 0.542 kg/m3

Mass flowrate of gas, G D 0.4 ð 0.542 D 0.217 kg/s.
Cross-sectional area, A D /40.252 D 0.0491 m2 .
Gas velocity, u D 0.4/0.0491 D 8.146 m/s
∴ G/A D 0.217/0.0491 D 4.413 kg/m2 s
Reynolds number, Re D du/
D 0.25 ð 8.146/0.25 ð 10
4  D 8.146 ð 104

From Fig. 3.7, for e/d D 0.002, R/u2 D 0.0031

v2 D 1/0.542 D 1.845 m3 /kg
v1 D 22.4/13298/273101.3/P1  D 190.5/P1 m3 /kg
and: vm D 0.923P1 C 95.25/P1 m3 /kg

Substituting in equation 4.57:

P1 P1
101.3103 /0.923P1 C 95.25 D 40.00315000/0.254.7262
and: P1 D 111.1 kN/m2

60
 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 61

The kinetic energy term D G/A2 lnP1 /P2  D 4.4132 ln111.1/101.3

D 1.81 kg2 /m4 s2

This is negligible in comparison with the other terms which equal 5539 kg2 /m4 s2 so
that the initial approximation is justified. If the pipe is not horizontal, the term g dz in
equation 4.49 must be included in the calculation. If equation 4.49 is divided by v2 , this
term on integration becomes gz/v2m .

∴ vm D 0.923 ð 111.1 C 95.25/111.1 D 1.781 m3 /kg

vair D 24.0/29 D 0.827 m3 /kg

As the gas is less dense than air, vm is replaced by vair
vm  D
0.954 m3 /kg.

∴ gz/v2m D 9.81 ð 150/0.9542  D 1616 N/m2 or 0.16 kN/m2

(i) If the delivery point is 150 m above the entry level, then since gas is less dense,

P1 D 111.1
0.16 D 110.94 kN/m2

(ii) If the delivery point is 150 m below the entry level then,

P1 D 111.1 C 0.16 D 111.26 kN/m2

PROBLEM 4.2
Nitrogen at 12 MN/m2 pressure is fed through a 25 mm diameter mild steel pipe to a
synthetic ammonia plant at the rate of 1.25 kg/s. What will be the pressure drop over
a 30 m length of pipe for isothermal flow of the gas at 298 K? Absolute roughness
of the pipe surface D 0.005 mm. Kilogram molecular volume D 22.4 m3 . Viscosity of
nitrogen D 0.02 mN s/m2 .

Solution
Molecular weight of nitrogen D 28 kg/kmol.
Assuming a mean pressure in the pipe of 10 MN/m2 , the specific volume, vm at
10 MN/m2 and 298 K is:

vm D 22.4/28101.3/10 ð 103 298/273 D 0.00885 m3 /kmol

Reynolds number, ud/ D dG/A/.

A D /40.0252 D 4.91 ð 10
3 m2 .
∴ G/A D 1.25/4.91 ð 10
3  D 2540 kg/m2 s

and: Re D 0.025 ð 2540/0.02 ð 10
3  D 3.18 ð 106

62 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

From Fig. 3.7, for Re D 3.18 ð 106 and e/d D 0.005/25 D 0.0002,

R/u2 D 0.0017

In equation 4.57 and neglecting the first term:

P2
P1 /vm C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

or: P1
P2 D 4vm R/u2 l/dG/A2
D 4 ð 0.008850.001730/0.02525402
D 466,000 N/m2 or 0.466 MN/m2

This is small in comparison with P1 D 12 MN/m2 , and the average pressure of

10 MN/m2 is seen to be too low. A mean pressure of 11.75 kN/m2 is therefore selected
and the calculation repeated to give a pressure drop of 0.39 MN/m2 . The mean pressure
is then 12 C 11.61/2 D 11.8 MN/m2 which is close enough to the assumed value.
It remains to check if the assumption that the kinetic energy term is negligible is
justified.

Kinetic energy term D G/A2 lnP1 /P2  D 25402 ln12/11.61 D 2.13 ð 105 kg2/m4s2

The term P1
P2 /vm , where vm is the specific volume at the mean pressure of
11.75 MN/m2 D 0.39 ð 106 /0.00753 D 5.18 ð 107 kg2 /m4 s.
Hence the omission of the kinetic energy term is justified

and the pressure drop D 0.39 MN/m2

PROBLEM 4.3
Hydrogen is pumped from a reservoir at 2 MN/m2 pressure through a clean horizontal mild
steel pipe 50 mm diameter and 500 m long. The downstream pressure is also 2 MN/m2
and the pressure of this gas is raised to 2.6 MN/m2 by a pump at the upstream end of
the pipe. The conditions of flow are isothermal and the temperature of the gas is 293 K.
What is the flowrate and what is the effective rate of working of the pump? Viscosity of
hydrogen D 0.009 mN s/m2 at 293 K.

Solution
Neglecting the kinetic energy term in equation 4.55, then:

P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

where P1 D 2.6 MN/m2 and P2 D 2.0 MN/m2 .

Thus: v1 D 22.4/2293/2730.1013/2.6 D 0.468 m3 /kg

If Re D 107 and e/d D 0.001, from Fig. 3.7, R/u2 D 0.0023.

 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 63

Substituting:

2.02
2.62 1012 /2 ð 2.6 ð 106 ð 0.468 C 40.0023500/0.05G/A2 D 0

from which G/A D 111 kg/m2 s.

∴ Re D dG/A/ D 0.05 ð 111/0.009 ð 10
3  D 6.2 ð 105

Thus the chosen value of Re was too high. If Re is taken as 6.0 ð 105 and the problem
reworked, G/A D 108 kg/m2 s and Re D 6.03 ð 105 which is in good agreement.
A D /40.052 D 0.00197 m2
and: G D 108 ð 0.00197 D 0.213 kg/s

The power requirement is given by equation 8.71 as 1/GP1 v1 lnP1 /P2 

If a 60% efficiency is assumed, then the power requirement is:
D 1/0.6 ð 0.213 ð 2.6 ð 106 ð 0.468 ln2.6/2
D 1.13 ð 105  W or 113 kW

PROBLEM 4.4
In a synthetic ammonia plant the hydrogen is fed through a 50 mm steel pipe to the
converters. The pressure drop over the 30 m length of pipe is 500 kN/m2 , the pressure
at the downstream end being 7.5 MN/m2 . What power is required in order to overcome
friction losses in the pipe? Assume isothermal expansion of the gas at 298 K. What error
is introduced by assuming the gas to be an incompressible fluid of density equal to that
at the mean pressure in the pipe?  D 0.02 mNs/m2 .

Solution
If the downstream pressure D 7.5 MN/m2 and the pressure drop due to friction D
500 kN/m2 , the upstream pressure D 8.0 MN/m2 and the mean pressure D 7.75 MN/m2 .
The mean specific volume is: vm D 22.4/2298/2730.1013/7.75 D 0.16 m3 /kg
and: v1 D 22.4/2298/2730.1013/8.0 D 0.15 m3 /kg

It is necessary to assume a value of R/u2 , calculate G/A and the Reynolds number and
check that the value of e/d is reasonable. If the gas is assumed to be an incompressible
fluid of density equal to the mean pressure in the pipe and R/u2 D 0.003, the pressure
drop due to friction D 500 kN/m2 is:
∴ 500 ð 103 /0.16 D 40.00330/0.05G/A2
and G/A D 658 kg/m2 s.
Re D dG/A/ D 0.05 ð 658/0.02 ð 10
3  D 1.65 ð 106
64 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

From Fig. 3.7 this corresponds to a value of e/d of approximately 0.002, which is
reasonable for a steel pipe.
For compressible flow:

G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0 (equation 4.55)

Substituting:

G/A2 ln8.0/7.5 C 7.52
8.02 1012 /2 ð 8.0 ð 106 ð 0.15

C 40.00330/0.05G/A2 D 0

from which: G/A D 667 kg/m2 s and G D 667 ð /40.052 D 1.31 kg/s
Little error is made by the simplifying assumption in this particular case.
The power requirement is given by equation 8.71:
D 1/GP1 v1 lnP1 /P2 
If the compressor efficiency D 60%,
power requirement D 1/0.6 ð 1.31 ð 8.0 ð 106 ð 0.15 ln8/7.5
D 1.69 ð 105  W or 169 kW

PROBLEM 4.5
A vacuum distillation plant operating at 7 kN/m2 pressure at the top has a boil-up rate of
0.125 kg/s of xylene. Calculate the pressure drop along a 150 mm bore vapour pipe used
to connect the column to the condenser. The pipe length may be taken as equivalent to
6 m, e/d D 0.002 and  D 0.01 mN s/m2 .

Solution
From vapour pressure data, the vapour temperature D 338 K and the molecular weight of
xylene D 106 kg/kmol.
In equation 4.55:

G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

Cross-sectional area of pipe, A D /40.152 D 1.76 ð 10
2 m2

G/A D 0.125/1.76 ð 10
2  D 7.07 kg/m2 s

The Reynolds number, is ud/ D dG/A/

D 0.15 ð 7.07/0.01 ð 10
3  D 1.06 ð 105

From Fig. 3.7, with e/d D 0.002 and Re D 1.06 ð 105 , R/u2  D 0.003.
Specific volume, v1 D 22.4/106338/273101.3/7.0 D 3.79 m3 /kg.
 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 65

Substituting in equation 4.55:

7.02 ln7/P2  C P22
72  ð 106 /2 ð 7 ð 103 ð 3.79 C 4 ð 0.0036/0.157.072 D 0

where P2 is the pressure at the condenser kN/m2 .

Solving by trial and error:
P2 D 6.91 kN/m2
∴ P1
P2  D 7.0
6.91 D 0.09 kN/m2 or 90 N/m2

PROBLEM 4.6
Nitrogen at 12 MN/m2 pressure is fed through a 25 mm diameter mild steel pipe to a
synthetic ammonia plant at the rate of 0.4 kg/s. What will be the drop in pressure over
a 30 m length of pipe assuming isothermal expansion of the gas at 300 K? What is the
average quantity of heat per unit area of pipe surface that must pass through the walls in
order to maintain isothermal conditions? What would be the pressure drop in the pipe if
it were perfectly lagged?  D 0.02 mNs/m2 .

Solution
At high pressure, the kinetic energy term in equation 4.55 may be neglected to give:

P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

Specific volume at entry of pipe, v1 D 22.4/28300/2730.1013/12

D 0.00742 m3 /kg
Cross-sectional area of pipe, A D /40.0252 D 0.00049 m2

∴ G/A D 0.4/0.00049 D 816 kg/m2 s.

Reynolds number, dG/A/ D 0.025 ð 816/0.02 ð 10
3  D 1.02 ð 106

If e/d D 0.002 and Re D 1.02 ð 106 , R/u2 D 0.0028 from Fig. 3.7.
Substituting: 122
P22 1012 /2 ð 12 ð 106 ð 0.00742 D 40.002830/0.0258162
and: P2 D 11.93 MN/m2
and: pressure drop D 12.0
11.93 D 0.07 MN/m2  70 kN/m2

The heat required to maintain isothermal flow is given in Section 4.5.2 as Gu2 /2.
The velocity at the high pressure end of the pipe D volumetric flow/area
D G/Av1 D 816 ð 0.0072 D 6.06 m/s

and the velocity in the plant is taken as zero.

Thus: Gu2 /2 D 0.4 ð 6.062 /2 D 7.34 W
66 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

Outside area of pipe D 30 ð  ð 0.025 D 2.36 m2 .

Heat required D 7.34/2.36 D 3.12 W/m2
This low value of the heat required stems from the fact that the change in kinetic energy
is small and conditions are almost adiabatic. If the pipe were perfectly lagged, the flow
would be adiabatic and the pressure drop would then be calculated from equations 4.77
and 4.72. The specific volume at the low pressure end v2 to be calculated from:

  
 2   
2 
1 P1 A 2 v1  C1 v2
8R/u l/d D C 1

ln
2 v1 G v2  v1
(equation 4.77)
For nitrogen,  D 1.4 and hence:

  
  
1.4
1 12 ð 106 1 2 0.00742 2
80.002830/0.025 D C 1

2 ð 1.4 0.00742 816 v2
1.4 C 1  v2 

ln
1.4 0.00742
Solving by trial and error, v2 D 0.00746 m3 /kg.
Thus:
       
1 G 2 2  1 G 2 2 
v1 C P1 v1 D v2 C P2 v2 (equation 4.72)
2 A 
1 2 A 
1
Substitution gives:

8162 0.007422 /2 C [1.4/1.4
1]12 ð 106 ð 0.00742

D 8162 0.007462 /2 C [1.4/1.4
1]P2 ð 106 ð 0.00746

and: P1 D 11.94 MN/m2

The pressure drop for adiabatic flow D 12.0
11.94 D 0.06 MN/m2 or 60 kN/m2

PROBLEM 4.7
Air, at a pressure of 10 MN/m2 and a temperature of 290 K, flows from a reservoir
through a mild steel pipe of 10 mm diameter and 30 m long into a second reservoir at a
pressure P2 . Plot the mass rate of flow of the air as a function of the pressure P2 . Neglect
any effects attributable to differences in level and assume an adiabatic expansion of the
air.  D 0.018 mN s/m2 ,  D 1.36.

Solution
G/A is required as a function of P2 . v2 cannot be found directly since the downstream
temperature T2 is unknown and varies as a function of the flowrate. For adiabatic flow,
 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 67

v2 may be calculated from equation 4.77 using specified values of G/A and substituted in
equation 4.72 to obtain the value of P2 . In this way the required data may be calculated.

  
 2   
2 
1 P1 A 2 v1  C1 v2
8R/u l/d D C 1

ln
2 v1 G v2  v1
(equation 4.77)
0.5G/A2 v21 C [/
1]P1 v1 D 0.5G/A2 v22 C [/
1]P2 v2
(equation 4.72)
0.5G/A2 v21
v22  C [/
1]P1 v1
or: D P2
[/
1]v2

When P2 D P1 D 10 MN/m2 , G/A D 0.

If G/A is 2000 kg/m2 s, then:

Re D 0.01 ð 2000/0.018 ð 10
3  D 1.11 ð 106

When e/d D 0.0002, R/u2 D 0.0028 from Fig. 3.7 and:

v1 D 22.4/29290/2730.1013/10 D 0.0083 m3 /kg

Substituting in equation 4.77:

 2 
0.36 10 ð 106 1
80.002830/0.01 D C
2 ð 1.36 0.0083 2000

  
0.0083 2 2.36  v2 
ð 1

ln
v2 1.36 0.0083

and: v2 D 0.00942 m3 /kg.

Substituting for v2 in equation 4.72 gives:

P2 D [0.520002 0.00832
0.009422  C 1.36/0.3610 ð 106ð0.0083 ]/1.36/0.36

ð 0.00942
and: P2 D 8.75 MN/m2 .

In a similar way the following table may be produced.

G/Akg/m2 s v2 m3 /kg P2 MN/m2 

0 0.0083 10.0
2000 0.00942 8.75
3000 0.012 6.76
3500 0.0165 5.01
4000 0.025 3.37
4238 0.039 2.04
68 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

5000

4000
G /A (kg / m2s)

3000

2000

1000

0
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Pressure P2 (MN/m2)

Figure 4a.

These data are plotted in Fig. 4a. It is shown in Section 4.5.4, Volume 1, that the
maximum velocity which can p occur in a pipe under adiabatic flow conditions is the sonic
velocity which is equal to
p P2 v2 .
From the above table P2 v2 at maximum flow is:

1.36 ð 2.04 ð 106 ð 0.039 D 329 m/s
The temperature at this condition is given by P2 v2 D RT/M, and:
T2 D 29 ð 0.039 ð 2.04 ð 106 /8314 D 227 K
The velocity of sound in air at 227 K D 334 m/s, which serves as a check on the
calculated data.

PROBLEM 4.8
Over a 30 m length of 150 mm vacuum line carrying air at 293 K, the pressure falls
from 1 kN/m2 to 0.1 kN/m2 . If the relative roughness e/d is 0.002, what is approximate
flowrate?

Solution
The specific volume of air at 293 K and 1 kN/m2 is:
v1 D 22.4/29293/273101.3/1.0 D 83.98 m3 /kg
It is necessary to assume a Reynolds number to determine R/u2 and then calculate a
value of G/A which should correspond to the original assumed value. Assume a Reynolds
number of 1 ð 105 .
 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 69

When e/d D 0.002 and Re D 105 , R/u2 D 0.003 from Fig. 3.7.
G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0 (equation 4.55)
Substituting:
G/A2 ln1.0/0.1 C 0.12
12  ð 106 /2 ð 1 ð 103 ð 83.98
C 40.00330/0.15G/A2 D 0
and: G/A D 1.37 kg/m2 s.
The viscosity of air is 0.018 mN s/m2 .
∴ Re D 0.15 ð 1.37/0.018 ð 10
3  D 1.14 ð 104
Thus the chosen value of Re is too high. When Re D 1 ð 104 , R/u2 D 0.0041 and
G/A D 1.26 kg/m2 s.
Re now equals 1.04 ð 104 which agrees well with the assumed value.
Thus: G D 1.26 ð /4 ð 0.152 D 0.022 kg/s

PROBLEM 4.9
A vacuum system is required to handle 10 g/s of vapour (molecular weight 56 kg/kmol)
so as to maintain a pressure of 1.5 kN/m2 in a vessel situated 30 m from the vacuum
pump. If the pump is able to maintain a pressure of 0.15 kN/m2 at its suction point, what
diameter of pipe is required? The temperature is 290 K, and isothermal conditions may
be assumed in the pipe, whose surface can be taken as smooth. The ideal gas law is
followed. Gas viscosity D 0.01 mN s/m2 .

Solution
Use is made of equation 4.55 to solve this problem. It is necessary to assume a value of
the pipe diameter d in order to calculate values of G/A, the Reynolds number and R/u2 .
If d D 0.10 m, A D /40.102 D 0.00785 m2
∴ G/A D 10 ð 10
3 /0.00785 D 1.274 kg/m2 s
and Re D dG/A/ D 0.10 ð 1.274/0.01 ð 10
3  D 1.274 ð 104
For a smooth pipe, R/u2 D 0.0035, from Fig. 3.7.
Specific volume at inlet, v1 D 22.4/56290/273101.3/1.5 D 28.7 m3 /kg
G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0 (equation 4.55)
Substituting gives:
1.2742 ln1.5/0.15 C 0.152
1.52  ð 106 /2 ð 1.5 ð 103 ð 28.7
C 0.003530/0.101.2742 D
16.3

and the chosen value of d is too large.

70 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS

A further assumed value of d D 0.05 m gives a value of the right hand side of
equation 4.55 of 25.9 and the procedure is repeated until this value is zero.
This occurs when d D 0.08 m or 80 mm.

PROBLEM 4.10
In a vacuum system, air is flowing isothermally at 290 K through a 150 mm diameter
pipeline 30 m long. If the relative roughness of the pipewall e/d is 0.002 and the down-
stream pressure is 130 N/m2 , what will the upstream pressure be if the flowrate of air is
0.025 kg/s? Assume that the ideal gas law applies and that the viscosity of air is constant
at 0.018 mN s/m2 .
What error would be introduced if the change in kinetic energy of the gas as a result
of expansion were neglected?

Solution
As the upstream and mean specific volumes v1 and vm are required in equations 4.55 and
4.56 respectively, use is made of equation 4.57:

G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2RT/M C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0

R D 8.314 kJ/kmol K and hence:

2RT/M D 2 ð 8.314 ð 103 ð 290/29 D 1.66 ð 105 J/kg

The second term has units of N/m2 2 /J/kg D kg2 /s2 m4 which is consistent with the
other terms.

A D /40.152 D 0.0176 m2
∴ G/A D 0.025/0.0176 D 1.414
and Re D dG/A/ D 0.15 ð 1.414/0.018 ð 10
3  D 1.18 ð 104

For smooth pipes and Re D 1.18 ð 104 , R/u2 D 0.0040 from Fig. 3.7. Substituting in
equation 4.57 gives:

1.4142 lnP1 /130 C 1302
P12 /1.66 ð 105 C 4 ð 0.004030/0.151.4142 D 0

Solving by trial and error, the upstream pressure, P1 D 1.36 kN/m2

If the kinetic energy term is neglected, equation 4.57 becomes:

P22
P12 /2RT/M C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0 and P1 D 1.04 kN/m2

Thus a considerable error would be introduced by this simplifying assumption.

 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 71

PROBLEM 4.11
Air is flowing at the rate of 30 kg/m2 s through a smooth pipe of 50 mm diameter and
300 m long. If the upstream pressure is 800 kN/m2 , what will the downstream pressure
be if the flow is isothermal at 273 K? Take the viscosity of air as 0.015 mN s/m2 and
assume that volume occupies 22.4 m3 . What is the significance of the change in kinetic
energy of the fluid?

Solution

G/A2 lnP1 /P2  C P22
P12 /2P1 v1 C 4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 0 (equation 4.55)

The specific volume at the upstream condition is:

v1 D 22.4/29273/273101.3/800 D 0.098 m3 /kg

G/A D 30 kg/m2 s
∴ Re D 0.05 ð 30/0.015 ð 10
3  D 1.0 ð 105

For a smooth pipe, R/u2 D 0.0032 from Fig. 3.7.

Substituting gives:

302 ln800/P2  C P22
8002  ð 106 /2 ð 800 ð 103 ð 0.098

C 40.0032300/0.05302 D 0

and the downstream pressure, P2 D 793 kN/m2

The kinetic energy term D G/A2 ln800/793 D 7.91 kg2 /m4 s2
This is insignificant in comparison with 69,120 kg2 /m4 s2 which is the value of the
other terms in equation 4.55.

PROBLEM 4.12
If temperature does not change with height, estimate the boiling point of water at a height
of 3000 m above sea-level. The barometer reading at sea-level is 98.4 kN/m2 and the
temperature is 288.7 K. The vapour pressure of water at 288.7 K is 1.77 kN/m2 . The
effective molecular weight of air is 29 kg/kmol.

Solution
The air pressure at 3000 m is P2 and the pressure at sea level, P1 D 98.4 kN/m2 .
 
v dP C g dz D 0

v D v1 P/P1 
72 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 1 SOLUTIONS
 
dP
and: P1 v1 C g dz D 0
P
and: P1 v1 lnP2 /P1  C gz2
z1  D 0
v1 D 22.4/29288.7/273101.3/98.4 D 0.841 m3 /kg.
∴ 98,400 ð 0.841 lnP2 /98.4 C 9.813000
0 D 0
and: P2 D 68.95 kN/m2
The relationship between vapour pressure and temperature may be expressed as:
log P D a C bT
When, T D 288.7, P D 1.77 kN/m2
and when, T D 373, P D 101.3 kN/m2
∴ log P D
5.773 C 0.0209 T
When P2 D 68.95, T D 364 K.

PROBLEM 4.13
A 150 mm gas main is used for transferring gas (molecular weight 13 kg/kmol and kine-
matic viscosity 0.25 cm2 /s) at 295 K from a plant to a storage station 100 m away, at a
rate of 1 m3 /s. Calculate the pressure drop if the pipe can be considered to be smooth.
If the maximum permissible pressure drop is 10 kN/m2 , is it possible to increase the
flowrate by 25%?

Solution
If the flow of 1 m3 /s is at STP, the specific volume of the gas is:
22.4/13 D 1.723 m3 /kg.
The mass flowrate, G D 1.0/1.723 D 0.58 kg/s.
Cross-sectional area, A D /40.152 D 0.0176 m2
∴ G/A D 32.82 kg/m2 s
/ D 0.25 cm2 /s D 0.25 ð 10
4 m2 /s
and  D 0.25 ð 10
4 1/1.723 D 1.45 ð 10
5 N s/m2
∴ Re D 0.15 ð 32.82/1.45 ð 10
5  D 3.4 ð 105
For smooth pipes, R/u2 D 0.0017, from Fig. 3.7.
The pressure drop due to friction is:
4R/u2 l/dG/A2 D 40.0017100/0.1532.822 D 4883 kg2 /m4 s2
and:
P D 4883/1.723 D 2834 N/m2 or 2.83 kN/m2 .
 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 73

If the flow is increased by 25%, G D 1.25 ð 0.58 D 0.725 kg/s

G/A D 41.19 kg/m2 s
and: Re D 0.15 ð 41.9/1.45 ð 105  D 4.3 ð 105

and, from Fig. 3.7, R/u2 D 0.00165

The pressure drop D 40.00165100/0.1541.192 1.723 D 4.33 kN/m2 (which is less
than 10 kN/m2 )
It is therefore possible to increase the flowrate by 25%.
 SECTION 5

Flow of Multiphase Mixtures

PROBLEM 5.1
It is required to transport sand of particle size 1.25 mm and density 2600 kg/m3 at the
rate of 1 kg/s through a horizontal pipe 200 m long. Estimate the air flowrate required,
the pipe diameter, and the pressure drop in the pipe-line.

Solution
For conventional pneumatic transport in pipelines, a solids-gas mass ratio of about 5 is
employed. Mass flow of air D
1/5 D 0.20 kg/s
and, taking the density of air as 1.0 kg/m3 , volumetric flowrate of air D
1.0 ð 0.20
D 0.20 m3 /s

In order to avoid excessive pressure drops, an air velocity of 30 m/s seems reasonable.
Ignoring the volume occupied by the sand (which is about 0.2% of that occupied by the
2
air), the cross-sectional area of pipe
p required D
0.20/30 D 0.0067 m ,
equivalent to a pipe diameter of
4 ð 0.0067/ D 0.092 m or 92 mm.
Thus a pipe diameter of 101.6 mm (100 mm) would be specified.
From Table 5.3 for sand of particle size 1.25 mm and density 2600 kg/m3 , the free-
falling velocity is:
u0 D 4.7 m/s
p
In equation 5.37,
uG  us  D 4.7/[0.468 C 7.25
4.7/2600] D 6.05 m/s
The cross-sectional area of a 101.6 mm i.d. pipe D
 ð 0.10162 /4 D 0.0081 m2 .
∴ air velocity, uG D
0.20/0.0081 D 24.7 m/s
and: us D
24.7  6.05 D 18.65 m/s

Taking the viscosity and density of air as 1.7 ð 105 N s/m2 and 1.0 kg/m3 respectively,
the Reynolds number for the air flow alone is:

Re D
0.102 ð 24.7 ð 1.0/
1.7 ð 105  D 148,000

and from Fig. 3.7, the friction factor  D 0.002.

74