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IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E102–A, NO.2 FEBRUARY 2019
PAPER
Specific Properties of the Computation Process by a Turing
Machine on the Game of Life
SUMMARY The Game of Life, a two-dimensional computationally uni-
versal cellular automaton, is known to exhibits 1/f noise in the evolutions
starting from random configurations. In this paper we perform the spectral
analysis on the computation process by a Turing machine constructed on
the array of the Game of Life. As a result, the power spectrum averaged
over the whole array has almost flat line at low frequencies and a lot of
sharp peaks at high frequencies although some regions in which compli-
cated behavior such as frequent memory rewriting occurs exhibit 1/f noise.
This singular power spectrum is, however, easily turned into 1/f by slightly
deforming the initial configuration of the Turing machine. These results
emphasize the peculiarity of the computation process on the Game of Life
that is never shared with the evolutions from random configurations. The
Lyapunov exponents have positive values in three out of six trials and zero
or negative values in other three trails. That means the computation process
is essentially chaotic but it has capable of recovering a slight error in the
configuration of the Turing machine.
key words: Game of Life, computational universality, turing machine,
spectral analysis, Lyapunov exponent
1. Introduction
Cellular automaton (CA) is an n-dimensional lattice where
a finite automaton called a cell is located at each site. Ev-
ery cell is simultaneously updated according to a transition
function. Since CA is considered to be a discrete dynamical
system as well as an information processing system, it is a
suitable framework to investigate the nature of information
processing from the viewpoint of dynamical systems theory.
The Game of Life (LIFE) is a two-dimensional two-
state nine-neighbor (the center and its eight surrounding
cells) outer totalistic CA and it is known as computation-
ally universal CA [1]. Computational universality (CU) is
the capability of executing any algorithms. There are several
systems with CU such as Turing machine (TM), λ calculus,
partial recursive function, register machine, etc. The power
spectrum of the evolution of LIFE starting from random con-
figuration is peculiarly characterized by 1/ f noise [2] that
has the power inversely proportional to the frequency at low
frequencies.
Another CA with CU is rule 110 of elementary (one-
dimensional, two-state and three-neighbor) CA, which can
emulate cyclic tag system (CTS), a system with CU [3].
Rule 110 exhibits 1/ f noise both in the evolution with ran-
dom initial configurations [4] and in the computation process
by means of CTS [5]. These results imply that the behav-
Manuscript received September 26, 2018.
† The
author is with Kanazawa Institute of Technology,
Hakusan-shi, 924-0838 Japan.
a) E-mail: ninagawa@neptune.kanazawa-it.ac.jp
DOI: 10.1587/transfun.E102.A.415
Copyright © 2019 The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers
415
Shigeru NINAGAWA†a) , Member
ior of rule 110 is essentially characterized by 1/ f noise,
irrespective of the nature of the evolution.
The findings mentioned above would make us rashly
jump to the conclusion that the behavior of CAs with CU al-
ways accompanies 1/ f noise regardless of its initial configu-
ration. We should notice, however, that the power spectrum
of the computation process on LIFE still remains unknown.
In this paper we perform the spectral analysis of the compu-
tation process on the array of LIFE and clarify the difference
between the computation process and the evolution from
random configuration in LIFE.
This paper is organized as follows. We explain a TM
simulated on the array of LIFE in Sect. 2. The results of
the spectral analysis of the computation process are given in
Sect. 3. In Sect. 4 we extract the peculiarity of the compu-
tation process of TM on LIFE by means of deforming the
configuration of TM and estimating Lyapunov exponents.
We discuss the meaning of the findings and the future plans
in Sect. 5.
2. Turing Machine on LIFE
We denote the state of the cell (x, y) in two-dimensional
array at time step t by s x, y (t). The evolution of each cell of
LIFE is governed by the transition rule,
s x, y (t + 1) = F (s x, y (t), n x, y (t)), (1)
where n x, y (t) is the number of the state one cells in the eight
nearest neighboring sites around the cell (x, y) at time step
t. The transition function F is defined by
F (0, 3) = F (1, 2) = F (1, 3) = 1,
other wise F = 0. (2)
The formal definition of a TM is given by the 7-tuple
(Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, B, F) where Q is the finite set of states, Σ is
the finite set of input symbols, Γ (Σ ⊆ Γ)is the finite set
of tape symbols, δ(q, X ) = (p, Y, D), q, p ∈ Q, X, Y ∈ Γ,
D ∈ {L, R} is the transition function, q0 is the start state,
B ∈ Γ is the blank symbol and F ⊆ Q is the set of accepting
states.
TM can be emulate on the array of LIFE by placing
some basic components in an appropriate manner. In this
paper we deal with a TM constructed on the array of LIFE [6]
in which Q = {s0, s1, s2, s H }, Σ = {0, 1}, Γ = {0, 1, 2}, q0 =
s0 , B = 0, F = {s H } and the transition function δ is defined
in Table 1. Given 1n, (n ≥ 0) as an initial string on the tape,
 IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E102–A, NO.2 FEBRUARY 2019
416

Table 1 Transition function δ of the string doubler Turing machine. The

leftmost column denotes states and the first row denotes tape symbols.
δ 0 1 2
s0 (s2 , 0, L) (s1 , 2, L) (s0 , 2, R)
s1 (s0 , 2, R) – (s1 , 2, L)
s2 (s H , 0, L) – (s2 , 1, L)

Table 2 Example of the sequence of the configuration of the string dou-

bler Turing machine. The leftmost and rightmost column is the time step
on Turing machine and on the Game of Life respectively.
time step on TM configuration time step on LIFE
0 s0 11 4,500
1 s1 021 15,000
2 2s0 21 26,000
3 22s0 1 37,000
4 2s1 22 49,000
5 s1 222 60,000
6 s1 0222 72, 000
7 2s0 222 82,000
8 22s0 22 93,000
9 222s0 2 104,000
10 2222s0 0 116,000 Fig. 2 Components of the Turing machine on the array of the Game of
11 222s2 20 127,000 Life.
12 22s2 210 137,000
13 2s2 2110 148,000
14 s2 21110 160,000
15 s2 011110 171,000
16 s H 0011110 180,000

Fig. 3 Evolution of a Light Weight Space Ship.

The tape and head of TM correspond to “stack” and

Fig. 1 Initial configuration of the string doubler Turing machine con-
structed on the array of LIFE.
the TM halts with an output of 12n on the tape. So this TM
is called “string doubler”. An example of transition of the
TM is shown in Table 2.
The initial configuration† to emulate the evolution of
the TM in Table 2 is shown in Fig. 1 where a state-zero (one)
cell is depicted by gray (black) pixel. The main components
of the TM on the array of LIFE are schematically shown in
Fig. 2. The configuration spans about 1,600 cells in height
and 1,700 cells in width.
† This file executable in Golly (http://golly.sourceforge.net/) can
be downloaded from http://rendell-attic.org/gol/tm.htm.
“stack control” in this implementation. Contrary to a usual
construction of TM in which the head moves about the fixed
tape, the stack control is immovable and the elements of the
stack are modified according to the transition function. The
symbols aligned at the left-hand (right-hand) side of the head
on the tape are arranged on the upper left (lower right) half
of the stack. The symbol just under the head is encoded into
a sequence of signals propagating from the stack control to
the finite state machine.
The communication between the stack control and the
finite state machine is achieved by usual glider whereas the
signal inside the finite state machine is transmitted by Light
Weight Space Ship (LWSS) shown in Fig. 3. If the current
situation has the state q and the input symbol X, its encoded
sequence is transmitted to the finite state machine in which
there are nine memory cells as schematically shown in Fig. 4
and reach the corresponding memory cell labeled by (q, X) in
Fig. 4. If the current situation (q, X) matches the transition
function δ(q, X ) = (p, Y, D) in Table 1, the memory cell
labeled by (q, X) emits the encoded signals indicating the
transition in the order of (D, Y, p) where D is located at the
head of the sequence.
3. Power Spectra of the Computation Process
The discrete Fourier transform of a time series of states
NINAGAWA: SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF THE COMPUTATION PROCESS BY A TURING MACHINE ON THE GAME OF LIFE
Fig. 4 Configuration of the memory cells in the finite state machine of the
string doubler Turing machine. The pair of labels (si ,X) of each memory
cell means it is evoked in the situation with the current state si and the input
symbol X.
s x, y (t) for t = 0, 1, · · · , T − 1 is given by
1X
T −1
2πt f
ŝ x, y ( f ) = s x, y (t)exp(−i ).
T t=0 T
We define the power as
1 X
S( f ) = | ŝ x, y ( f )| 2,
N x, y
where the summation is taken in N cells in consideration.
The period of the component at a frequency f in a power
spectrum is given by T/ f .
We divide the area in which the configuration of the TM
spreads into 143 sections with 100 × 100 cells and calculate
the power spectrum of each section to compare the regional
difference of power spectra. The area employed to calculate
the power spectra is shaded in Fig. 5. To calculate the power
spectra over the first one step transition of the TM that takes
about 15, 000 time step evolution on LIFE, we take up the first
16, 364 time step evolution on LIFE and we set T = 16, 643
in Eq. (3). The power spectrum S( f ) of the behavior in
LIFE are often characterized by power law S ∝ f β at low
frequencies. Hence we approximate ln(S) by α + β ln( f )
using least squares fitting and estimate the exponent β and
calculate the residual sum of squares σ 2 defined by
fb
21 X
σ = (ln(S) − α − β ln( f )) 2 .
f b f =1
to measure the deviation of power spectrum from power law
in the range of frequencies between f = 1 ∼ f b . In this
research we estimate the exponent β. Most of the power
spectra of the TM have a sharp peak at f = 68 caused by a
commonly observed oscillator with period 241. To exclude
this peak from the estimation of β and σ 2 by the least squares
fitting, we set f b = 50 in Eq. (5).
417
Fig. 5 Area in which power spectra are calculated (shading area). The
flip operation is performed on the shading area as well.
The top of Fig. 6 shows a typical example of power
spectrum observed in a section labeled by ‘A’ in Fig. 5. The
section ‘A’ is located inside the stack control and almost
(3) always exhibits periodic behavior during the computation
process. It is characterized by flat power law at low frequen-
cies and a lot of sharp peaks. The highest peak at f = 546
is caused by the most frequently used oscillator in the re-
alization of TM called ‘queen bee shuttle’ with period 30
(4)
shown in Fig. 7. This kind of power spectrum is widely ob-
served in almost all sections. The middle of Fig. 6 is the
power spectrum with the least value of β = −0.90 among
143 sections with σ 2 < 0.2. This power spectrum presents
1/ f characteristic and its evolution is in a section marked
with ‘B’ in Fig. 5. The power spectrum with the second least
value of β = −0.67 (the bottom of Fig. 6) is calculated in
a section marked with ‘C’ under the section ‘B’. These two
sections ‘B’ and ‘C’ are located in a stack cell that is most
frequently rewritten during the computation process. These
results suggest that complicated behavior such as frequent
modification in stack cell accompanies 1/ f noise.
Figure 8 shows the power spectrum averaged over 143
sections. This power spectrum is quite singular in the way
that it has the exponent β = −0.30 at low frequencies and
has a lot of sharp peaks at high frequencies. This spectrum
is too flat to be considered 1/ f noise and we call it weak
power law. These results are attributed to the fact that almost
all sections exhibit periodic behavior with power spectrum
typically shown at the top of Fig. 6, hence the 1/ f noise
(5)
observed in only a few sections is diluted by being averaged
over all sections.
4. Deformation of the Configuration
Spectral analysis revealed that the computation process on
LIFE has the singular power spectrum that is considerably
different from 1/ f noise created by the evolutions starting
from random configurations. In this section we study the

418
Fig. 6 Power spectra observed in the section marked ‘A’ (top), ‘B’ (mid-
dle) and ‘C’ (bottom) in Fig. 5. Both x and y axes are plotted on a logarith-
mic scale. The broken line represents the least squares fitting of the power
spectrum from f = 1 to f = 50 by ln S ∝ β ln f with β = −0.04 (top),
β = −0.90 (middle) and β = −0.67 (bottom).
Fig. 7 Snapshot of an oscillator ‘queen bee shuttle’ with period 30.
stability of the singular power spectrum when deformation
is exerted into the configuration of the TM.
We define an elementary procedure of deformation as
randomly choosing a pair of state ‘0’ and ‘1’ cells and flip-
ping those states. We call this procedure flip operation and
IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E102–A, NO.2 FEBRUARY 2019
Fig. 8 Average power spectrum of the computation process by the Turing
machine on LIFE with exponent β = −0.30.
Fig. 9 Typical example of the exponent β (left-hand scale) and the resid-
ual sum of squares σ 2 (right-hand scale) as a function of the number of
flips are plotted on a semi-log scale (top) and a linear scale (bottom).
iterate the flip operation several times without choosing any
cell more than once throughout a series of operations. It
is an important property of flip operation that the number
of state ‘1’ cells does not change by the operation. By re-
maining the density unchanged throughout deformation, we
can exclude the unessential effect caused by the change of
the density from the deformation. The area where the defor-
mation could be performed is the same as the one in which
the power spectra were calculated in the previous section (a
shading zone in Fig. 5). The flip operations are accumulated
35,000 times at most in a single trial that means a single
flip operation is successively applied to the configuration on
which the previous flip operation is exerted. We carried out
six trials of the experiment of deformation and call them
NINAGAWA: SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF THE COMPUTATION PROCESS BY A TURING MACHINE ON THE GAME OF LIFE
Fig. 10 Power spectra calculated from the evolutions with the number of
flip operations k = 1 (top) and 35,000 (bottom). The broken line represents
the least square fitting of the power spectrum in the range between f = 1 ∼
50 by S ∝ f β with β = −1.54 (top) and β = −1.42 (bottom).
case 1 ∼ 6. The 35,000 times flipping operations mean that
almost all state ‘1’ cells in the pattern of the TM are flipped.
Figure 9 shows a typical example of the exponent β
(left-hand scale) and the residual sum of squares σ 2 (right-
hand scale) estimated from the evolution starting from a
configuration with k flip operations plotted on a semi-log
(top) and linear (bottom) scale respectively. We can ob-
serve the considerable gap in β between k = 0∼1, although
there is no big difference both in β and σ 2 as k enormously
varies from 1 to 35,000. These results mean that the singu-
lar power spectrum observed in the computation process is
easily replaced by 1/ f -type spectra by a single operation of
deformation and that further flip operations does not change
the power spectra so much. Figure 10 shows the power spec-
tra with the number of flip operations k = 1 (top) and 35,000
(bottom). The broken line represents the least squares fitting
of the power spectrum in the range between f = 1 ∼ 50
by S ∝ f β with β = −1.54 (top) and β = −1.42 (bottom).
There is no considerable difference between two power spec-
tra at low frequencies with k=1 and k=35,000. However the
sharp peaks in the power spectrum with k=35,000 is sparser
than the one with k=1 because the pattern of the TM is
completely destroyed in the case of k=35,000 and so is the
periodic behavior as mentioned later (Fig. 14).
Next let us study the detail of the evolutions from the
deformed configurations. Figure 11 shows a typical example
of the density of state ‘1’ cells at every time step of the
evolution starting from the configurations with the number
419
Fig. 11 Density at each time step during the evolution with the number
of flip operations k = 0, 1, 50, 10,000, 20,000 and 35,000 for 16,384 steps
(top) and for the first 95 steps (bottom).
of flip operations k = 0, 1, 50, 10,000, 20,000 and 35,000 for
16,384 steps (top) and for the first 95 time steps (bottom).
In every case the initial value of the density is the same
value of about 0.0246. The density fluctuates in the range
between 0.0242 ∼ 0.0248 in the original evolution (k = 0).
The changes of density in the case of k = 1, 50 are quite
similar to the original one (k=0) for the first 95 time steps
but afterward they separate as time step proceeds. Figure 12
shows the patterns at time step t = 16,000 evolved from a
initial configuration with the number of flip operations k =
1 (top) and 50 (bottom). It is to an almost equal degree that
both patterns are destroyed as can be predictable from the
top of Fig. 11.
In the case of k from 10,000 to 35,000, the density
declines rapidly in the first few steps and as for the case
of k = 10,000 and 20,000, it grows gradually as time step
proceeds (bottom of Fig. 11). The top of Fig. 13 shows the
configuration at time step t = 0 with the number of flip
operations k = 20,000 in which the original pattern of the
TM can be blurredly recognizable. At the next time step
t = 1 (the bottom of Fig. 13), the shape of the TM slightly
remains and the density declines rapidly to the value of about
0.0075. However the density gradually recovers as time step
proceeds and finally settles into the value of about 0.011. On
the contrary, the density does not recover in the case of k =
35,000. The top of Fig. 14 shows the pattern at time step t
= 0 (top) with the number of flip operations k = 35,000 in
which the pattern of the TM is completely devastated since
almost all state ‘1’ cells in the original pattern are flipped.

420
Fig. 12 Patterns at time step t = 16, 000 evolved from a initial configu-
ration with flip operations of 1 (top) and 50 (bottom) times.
At the next time step t = 1 (bottom), there remain only a few
state ‘1’ cells on the array.
Finally we investigate the stability of the compu-
tation process by calculating Lyapunov exponent. Let
H (t) be the Hamming distance between two configu-
rations {s x, y (t)|(x, y)∈D} and {s 0x, y (t)|(x, y)∈D} where
{s x, y (0)|(x, y)∈D} denotes the initial configuration of the
TM and {s 0x, y (0)|(x, y)∈D} denotes the deformed configu-
ration with the number of flip operations k=1 and D denotes
the shading zone in Fig. 5. H (t) is defined as follows:
X
H (t) = |s x, y (t) − s 0x, y (t)|, (6)
x, y
where summation is taken over D. We define Lyapunov ex-
ponent λ of the Hamming distance as H (t) = H (0)exp(λt).
Figure 15 shows a typical example of the temporal evo-
lution of the Hamming distance H (t) for the first 250 time
steps (top) and for 16,384 time steps (bottom). The Lya-
IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E102–A, NO.2 FEBRUARY 2019
Fig. 13 Patterns at time step t = 0 (top) and 1 (bottom) evolved from the
initial configuration with flip operations of 20,000 times.
punov exponent is 1.30 × 10−2 in case 1 for the first 250 time
steps and 9.47 × 10−4 for the following 3750 time steps. The
Lyapunov exponents take the positive value for three (case 1
∼ 3) out of six trials.
In the case of k=1, the deformed evolution intriguingly
recovers to the original one in two (case 4 and 5) out of six
trials. This is because the flip operation happens to destroy
a glider that is not an information bearing signal. The de-
fect of the non-information bearing glider does not have any
adverse effects on the computation process and eventually
this anomalous signal is erased afterward. These two trials
(case 4 and 5) with recovery phenomena can be considered
to have negative Lyapunov exponents. The recovery phe-
nomena imply that the implementation of the TM possesses
a little robustness to noise and owes its robustness to the
nature of sequential and localized information processing
that is adopted in the same way as in conventional digital
computers.
NINAGAWA: SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF THE COMPUTATION PROCESS BY A TURING MACHINE ON THE GAME OF LIFE
Fig. 14 Patterns at time step t = 0 (top) and 1 (bottom) evolved from the
initial configuration with flip operations of 35,000 times.
And the last deformed evolution (case 6) with the num-
ber of flip operations k=1 exhibits periodic change with pe-
riod 15 in the Hamming distance from about t = 20 as plotted
in the broken line at the top of Fig. 15 and this is considered
to have a Lyapunov exponent of zero. This is attributed
to the fact that the first flip operation destroys an oscillator
with period 15 in a stack cell that does not work during the
computation process.
5. Discussion
At first we performed the spectral analysis of the computation
process on LIFE. Its power spectrum has almost flat line at
low frequencies and a lot of sharp peaks at high frequencies.
That is quite different from 1/ f noise that is observed in the
evolution starting from random configuration.
This result is strikingly different from that of rule 110
that has shown that not only the evolution starting from ran-
421
Fig. 15 Hamming distance between the evolution of original computation
process and the deformed evolution with the number of flip operations k=1
for the first 250 time steps of case 1 and 6 (top) and for 16,384 time steps
of case 1 (bottom). The Lyapunov exponent of case 1 is 1.30 × 10−2 for the
first 250 time steps and 9.47 × 10−4 for the following 3750 time steps.
dom configuration but also the computation process by CTS
exhibit 1/ f noise. Let us make an inference on the disap-
pearance of 1/ f noise in the computation process in LIFE.
During the computation process in rule 110, the evolution
goes through alternately two phases: periodic and chaotic
phase. In the periodic phase, stationary patterns represent-
ing tape symbols of the CTS monotonically shift with a
fixed speed. When a propagating pattern representing ‘mov-
ing data’ of the CTS passes through a stationary pattern,
the chaotic phase starts and lasts for a certain duration in
which the stationary pattern is temporarily disturbed by the
crossing with the propagating pattern. It seems likely that
the recurrence of the periodic and chaotic phases virtually
generates intermittency. Intermittency or intermittent chaos
is an alternate appearance of periodic and chaotic behavior
in some chaotic dynamical systems and it is one of the mech-
anisms to produce 1/ f noise [7]. Unlike the case of CTS
in one-dimensional array, TM on LIFE is constructed on a
two-dimensional array in which the signal can be detoured to
avoid crossing between signals. And furthermore, the elab-
orately arranged fixed and periodic patterns of TM create
highly organized behavior. We can guess that the avoidance
of the crossing signals and the highly organized behavior in-
hibit intermittency and 1/ f noise in the computation process
of LIFE.
The comparison between regional power spectra re-
vealed that the complicated behavior such as frequent rewrit-
 IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E102–A, NO.2 FEBRUARY 2019
422

ing in stack cell is accompanied by 1/ f noise. There is a Shigeru Ninagawa received the Ph.D. de-
possibility that regional spectral analysis might be able to gree from Toyama University in 1998. From
detect the active part in computation process on CA like 1998 to 1999, he was an Research Associate in
Meisei University. In 1999, he joined Kanazawa
neuroimaging used in neuroscience. Institute of Technology, where he was a Lecturer
Next, deforming operations were repeatedly exerted to from 1999 to 2002 and an Associate Professor
the configuration of the TM to investigate the change of from 2002 to 2010. Since 2010, he has been a
power spectra. 1/ f -type power spectrum was destroyed as Professor. His research interests include com-
the number of flip operations k varies from zero to one. al- plex systems and natural computing.
though the power spectra do not vary so much in the range
of k between 1 and 35,000. These results, the significantly
different power spectrum and its vulnerability to slight defor-
mations, imply the specific properties involved in the com-
putation process in LIFE.
Finally, we estimated Lyapunov exponents of the of the
computation process in LIFE. They have positive values in
three out of six trials and zero or negative values in other
three trials. This outcome means that the computation pro-
cess on LIFE is essentially chaotic but attractive in some
degrees of freedom. In other words, it has the ability of au-
tomatically recovering a slight error in the configuration. We
are planning to obtain Lyapunov spectrum more extensively
to elucidate the stability of the computation process in LIFE.
This paper is extended from the article presented in
NOLTA 2015 [8].

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