REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE

REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

TOME / VOLUME 1

FOLHAS / SHEETS
ESPUNGABERA/CHIBABAVA (2032/2033), NOVA/MAMBONE (2034/2035),
MASSANGENA (2131/2132), CHIDOCO (2133), SAVE/BAZARUTO (2134/2135),
CHICUALACUALA (2231), MACHAILA (2232), CHIGUBO (2233),
MABOTE/VILANCULOS (2234/2235), RIO SINGUÉDZI/MASSINGIR (2331/2332),
RIO CHANGANA (2333), FUNHALOURO/INHAMBANE (2334/2335),
CHILEMBENE (2431/2432), CHÓKWÈ (2433), ZAVALA/INHARRIME (2434/2435),
MAPUTO (2531/2532), XAI-XAI/ZAVALA (2533/2534) E /AND BELA-VISTA (2632)

ESCALA / SCALE 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

Volume 1

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 Volume 1

REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE
REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

TOME / VOLUME 1

FOLHAS / SHEETS ESPUNGABERA/CHIBABAVA (2032/2033), NOVA/MAMBONE

(2034/2035), MASSANGENA (2131/2132), CHIDOCO (2133), SAVE/BAZARUTO
(2134/2135), CHICUALACUALA (2231), MACHAILA (2232), CHIGUBO (2233),
MABOTE/VILANCULOS (2234/2235), RIO SINGUÉDZI/MASSINGIR (2331/2332),
RIO CHANGANA (2333), FUNHALOURO/INHAMBANE (2334/2335),
CHILEMBENE (2431/2432), CHÓKWÈ (2433), ZAVALA/INHARRIME (2434/2435),
MAPUTO (2531/2532), XAI-XAI//ZAVALA (2533/2534) AND BELA-VISTA (2632).

ESCALA / SCALE 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT

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© National Directorate of Geology, Republic of Mozambique

Date: 31.12.2006

Electronically available on CD-ROM from:

In Mozambique: In South Africa
The Director The Director
National Directorate of Geology (DNG) Council for Geoscience (CGS)
Praça 25 de Junho, 380, 4th floor 280 Pretoria Str.
Silverton, Pretoria
PO BOX 217 Private Bag X112
Maputo, Mozambique Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
Tel: +258 (21) 312082/3 +27 (012) 8411018
+258 823128670
Fax: +258 (21) 429216 +27 (012) 8411221
e-mail: e-mail:
edaudi@teledata.mz, edaudi@tvcabo.co.mz rprice@geoscience.org.za

Price available on request.

The National Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, Republic

of Mozambique, in collaboration with a consortium headed by the Geological Survey of
Finland (GTK), and with funding from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF Credit 335),
produced this Map Explanation, within the terms of the Mineral Resource Management
Capacity Building Project (MRMP), contract 02/QCBS/B22./ MIREME-UCPM/2002.

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 Volume 1

The GTK Consortium’s field team for LOT 3 (Volume 1) comprised following geologists:
• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK – Project Director, Mineral Expert)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Deputy Project Director, Mineral Resources)
• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC – Project Advisor)
• Robbert Rutten (ITC – Sedimentology Expert)
• Esko Korkiakoski (GTK – Mineral Resources)
• Tapio Kuivasaari (GTK – Industrial Mineral Expert)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK – Field Team Leader)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Saku Vuori (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Toni Eerola (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Amad Mamad (Gondwana, Lda – Sedimentary geologist, Hydrocarbons Expert)
• Reinaldo Gonçalves Jr. (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Mário Deus (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources, Logistics)

The DNG trainee geologists and technicians that participated in LOT 3 mapping:
• Adriano Sénvano, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Vladimiro Manhiça, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Rogério Matola, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Inácio Saranga, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Victorino Joaquim, technician, DNG Maputo
• Carlos Pambo, technician, DNG Maputo

Data base construction and updating:

• Olli Rantala (GTK, design planning)
• Antti Kahra (GTK, planning, coordination)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK, data management)
• Esko Korkiakoski (GTK, mineral data)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK, mineral data)
• Jari Väätäinen (GTK, photo data base)
• Petri Rosenberg (GTK, observation data base)

The processing of data and maps by:

• Olli Rantala (GTK, Manager, databases and airphotos, photo data base)
• Antti Kahra (GKT, data management)
• Hilkka Saastamoinen (GTK, map digitations and data management)
• Eira Kuosmanen (GTK, GIS geologist, map production, satellite images)
• Anneli Lindh (GTK, map production, data management)
• Hanna Virkki (GTK, GIS gelogist, map production)
• Merja Janhila (GTK, GIS geologist, map production)
• Riikka Koskinen (GTK, GIS geologist, map production)
• Mirjami Ajlani (GTK, map production)
• Helena Saarinen (GTK, map production)
• Marita Ranta-Pantti (GTK, input of data)

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The Remote Sensing/GIS team:

• Willy Lehman Weng (GEUS – GIS Expert)
• Bjørn Hermansen (GEUS – GIS Expert)
• Olli Rantala (GTK – Head GIS Department)
• Antti Kahra (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Ernst Schetselaar (ITC – GIS/RS Expert)
• Tsehaie Woldai (ITC – RS Expert)

The Airborne Geophysics team:

• Colin V. Reeves (ITC – Interpretation Expert)
• Sally Barritt (ITC – Processing Expert)
• Hilkka Arkimaa (GTK – Processing Expert)
• Tapio Ruotoistenmäki (GTK – Interpretation Expert)

Written contributions to the present Map Explanation by:

• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC/Westcourt GeoConsult – Principal Author)
• Robbert F.X. Rutten (ITC)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK)
• Saku Vuori (GTK)
• Toni Eerola (GTK)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Mineral Expert)
• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK – Industrial Minerals)

Cover photo: Large flow fold in densely welded ignimbrite of the Pequenos Libombos rhyolite Member.
Aggregate quarry north of the Portela mountain (SDS 2632).

For future reference:

GTK Consortium (2006a). Map Explanation; Volume 1: Sheets 2032 – 2632. Geology of Degree Sheets,
Espungabera/Chibabava, Nova/Mambone, Massangena, Chidoco, Save/Bazaruto, Chicualacuala, Machaila,
Chigubo, Mabote/Vilanculos, Rio Singuédzi/Massingir, Rio Changana, Funhalouro/Inhambane, Chilembene,
Chókwè, Zavala/Inharrime, Maputo, Xai-Xai/Zavala and Bela-Vista, Mozambique. Ministério dos Recursos
Minerais, Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Maputo.

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FOREWORD
The present Map Explanation (Volume 1) and related Geological Maps and Database have
been produced by a consortium composed of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK, leading
partner), the International Institute for Geo-Information and Earth Observation (the
Netherlands), the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) and Gondwana Lda
(Mozambique) as part of the Geo Infrastructure Development Project (GIDP), a sub-
project of the larger Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building Project (MRMP).
This consortium will be further referred to as ‘GTK Consortium’.
The above project and sub-project have been implemented under the supervision of the
National Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, Republic of
Mozambique. The major component of the GIDP has been to re-map, upgrade and improve
existing geological maps in order to create a comprehensive and uniform coverage of
geological maps at scale 1:250 000 and a partial coverage of detailed maps (scale 1:50 000) of
selected areas of high mineral potential. The GTK Consortium undertook this task in LOT 2
(and Extension) and LOT 3 (and Extension) as shown in Fig 1. The scope of LOT 3 included
1) the compilation of existing map data into a series of 1:250 000 map sheets (total 20 pcs), 2)
reinterpretation and compilation of the map legends in terms of the new lithostratigraphic
framework created for Mozambique, 3) a review of the geology, based mainly on remote
sensing data, but including limited fieldwork to resolve critical problems in key areas and
undertake reconnaissance mapping in other areas and 4) provisional mineral maps in scale
1:250 000 accompanied by inventory of mineral deposits and occurrences.
A consortium comprising Norconsult and the Norwegian and British Geological
Surveys (NGU and BGS) has co-implemented a contract for LOT 1 (and Extensions; Fig. 1).
These projects were financed from a special grant from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF).
The remainder of the territory of Mozambique has been re-mapped by the South African
Council for Geoscience (CGS) under a separate bilateral contract.

Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-

mapped by the DNG in collaboration
with various international consortia.

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The present Map Explanation represents Volume 1 of a series of Map Explanations

covering various parts of the territory of Mozambique (Fig. 2). It is bounded by 20° South,
36° East and the international border with Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland and
contains the following Square Degree Sheets (SDS): 2032/2033, 2034/2035, 2131/2132,
2133, 2134/2135, 2231/2232, 2233, 2234/2235, 2331/2332, 2333, 2334/2335, 2431/2432,
2433, 2434/2435, 2531/2532, 2533/2534 and 26321. Each Map Explanation emphasises
certain aspects of the geology of Mozambique. This Map Explanation stresses the
geodynamic development and industrial mineral and hydrocarbon potential of the
Mozambique Basin.
All locations (e.g. in captions) are in UTM coordinates. Please note that in the area
covered by LOT 3 reference is made to the 36 K zone.

Fig. 2. Map Explanation Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+ Extension) and LOT 3 (+ Extension). This Map
Explanation covers Volume 1 (SDS in red colour).

1
A Square Degree Sheet or SDS (1° x 1° or ~ 100 x 100 km) also DS=Degree Sheet, is numbered after the
coordinates of the upper left corner. For example, SDS 1834 is located south of 18° south and east of 34° east.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ....................................................................................................... 6
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... 16
RESUMO ........................................................................................................... 18
RESUMO ALARGADO DA NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA (VOLUME 1).... 18
ANTECEDENTES DO PROJECTO .............................................................. 18
METODOLOGIA ............................................................................................. 18
INFRA-ESTRUTURAS E GEOMORFOLOGIA.......................................... 19
LITO-ESTRATIGRAFIA E GEOLOGIA REGIONAL .............................. 19
TERRENO DO GONDWANA SUL - CRATÃO DO KALAHARI E
CINTURÕES DOBRADOS DE IDADE PROTEROZÓICA....................... 21
COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA - SUPERGRUPO DO KAROO .............. 23
COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA - SISTEMA DO RIFTE ESTE-
AFRICANO ....................................................................................................... 25
RECURSOS MINERAIS.................................................................................. 31
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ 34
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................... 50
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 50
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT..................................................... 50
1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK........................ 50
CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................... 53
METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES.................................................. 53
2.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 53
2.2. EXISTING DATA ...................................................................................... 53
2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS ....................................................... 55
2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps......................................... 55
2.3.2. Satellite Imagery........................................................................................................... 56
Landsat 7 ETM data................................................................................................................ 56
ASTER data ............................................................................................................................. 56
2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics.................................................................................................... 59
2.4. DATA PROCESSING................................................................................ 59
2.4.1. Geometric Registration of Satellite Imagery ............................................................. 60
2.4.2. Topographic Base Maps .............................................................................................. 63
Datum transformation............................................................................................................. 64
Manual digitising .................................................................................................................... 65

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SRTM digital elevation data.................................................................................................... 66

2.4.3. Digital Enhancement of LANDSAT-7 TM Scenes .................................................... 67
2.4.4. Digital Enhancement of ASTER VNIR Scenes.......................................................... 69
2.4.5. Digital Enhancement of Airborne Geophysical Grids .............................................. 69
2.4.6. Digital Enhancement of SRTM Data.......................................................................... 71
2.4.7. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes ........................ 72
2.4.8. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets............... 73
2.4.9. Interpretation of Lithological Units............................................................................ 74
2.4.10. Geological Image Interpretation of Structural Features........................................ 77
2.5. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING............................................. 80
2.6. LABORATORY WORK ........................................................................... 80
2.6.1. Petrography .................................................................................................................. 80
2.6.2. Geochronology.............................................................................................................. 82
2.6.3. Lithogeochemistry........................................................................................................ 82
2.7. GEO-INFRASTRUCTURE PRODUCTS ............................................... 83
2.7.1. Geological Maps ........................................................................................................... 83
2.7.2. Map Explanations ........................................................................................................ 83
2.7.3. Petrophysical Database................................................................................................ 85
2.8. INVENTORY OF MINERAL RESOURCES......................................... 85
CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................... 88
INFRASTRUCTURE........................................................................................ 88
CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................... 90
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY .......................................... 90
4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY............................................................................... 90
4.2. CLIMATE................................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................... 93
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY................................................................................ 93
5.1. PRINCIPLES.............................................................................................. 93
5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT ................................................................. 94
5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY .......................................................................... 94
5.3.1. Archaean Cratons and Mobile Belts........................................................................... 95
5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic Fold Belts....................................................................................... 97
5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic Fold Belts ......................................................................................... 97
5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African Fold Belts ..................................................................... 99
5.3.5. Neoproterozoic – Cambrian Platform Sediments ................................................... 100
5.3.6. Post-Pan-African Cambrian – Carboniferous Platform Sediments...................... 101
5.3.7. Late Carboniferous – Early Jurassic Sediments and Volcanics of the Karoo...... 102
5.3.8. Cretaceous – Recent Sediments and Volcanics of the East Africa Rift System.... 104
5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES: WILSON OR SUPERCONTINENT
CYCLES AND SUPERPLUMES .......................................................... 105
5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles.............................................................................. 105
5.4.2. Superplumes ............................................................................................................... 107

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5.5. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA............ 108

5.5.1. Phanerozoic Cover ..................................................................................................... 108
5.5.2. Crystalline Basement ................................................................................................. 109
5.6. CRYSTALLINE TERRANES AND PHANEROZOIC COVER ....... 109
CHAPTER 6 .................................................................................................... 111
SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – KALAHARI CRATON ............... 111
6.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 111
6.2. UMKONDO GROUP............................................................................... 113
6.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 113
6.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 114
Dacata Formation* ............................................................................................................... 114
Espungabera Formation* (P2UEv) ...................................................................................... 119
6.2.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 121
6.2.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 122
6.3. MASHONALAND SUITE (P2ML)......................................................... 122
6.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 122
6.3.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 123
6.3.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 124
6.3.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 126
CHAPTER 7 .................................................................................................... 128
SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS128
7.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 128
7.2. GAIREZI FORMATION* (P1Z) ............................................................ 129
7.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 129
7.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 130
Arenaceous Mica Schist (P1Zas) .......................................................................................... 131
Mica Schist (P1Zms).............................................................................................................. 132
Saccharoidal quartzite (P1Zqs) ............................................................................................. 133
Muscovite-biotite schist (P1Zss) ............................................................................................ 134
7.2.3. Age ............................................................................................................................... 136
7.3. BÁRUÈ COMPLEX ................................................................................ 137
7.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 137
7.3.2. Chimoio Group........................................................................................................... 138
Migmatitic paragneiss (P2BCmi) .......................................................................................... 138
Inchope gneiss (P2BUig) ...................................................................................................... 139
CHAPTER 8 .................................................................................................... 140
PHANEROZOIC COVER – KAROO SUPERGROUP ............................. 140
8.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 140
8.2. LOWER KAROO GROUP ..................................................................... 141
8.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 141

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8.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 141

Moatize Formation* (PeM).................................................................................................. 141
8.3. UPPER KAROO GROUP ....................................................................... 143
8.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 143
8.3.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 144
Cádzi Formation*(PeC) ........................................................................................................ 144
8.4. RIO NHAVÚDEZI FORMATION* ...................................................... 146
8.4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 146
8.4.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 146
Basalts.................................................................................................................................... 146
Geochemistry ......................................................................................................................... 146
8.5. LEBOMBO MONOCLINE..................................................................... 147
8.5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 147
8.5.2. Letaba-Pafuri Formation (JrLB).............................................................................. 149
8.5.3. Sabie River Formation (JrSba)................................................................................. 149
Basalts.................................................................................................................................... 149
Rhyolites................................................................................................................................. 149
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 150
8.5.4. Umbelúzi Formation (JrU)........................................................................................ 150
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 150
Dacites (JrUt) ........................................................................................................................ 150
Basalt and massive dolerite member (JrUb) ........................................................................ 150
Rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs and ignimbrites (JrUr).................................................................. 151
Rhyolitic lavas........................................................................................................................ 154
Volcanic breccias................................................................................................................... 156
Tuff Member (JrUf) .............................................................................................................. 156
Microgranite (JrUg) .............................................................................................................. 158
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 158
8.5.5. Movene Formation (JrM).......................................................................................... 159
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 159
Basalt (JrM)........................................................................................................................... 159
Pequenos Libombos Rhyolite Member (JrMr)..................................................................... 161
Rhyolite breccia (JrMbr)....................................................................................................... 164
Quartz latite (JrMq)............................................................................................................... 165
Pessene alkaline lava (JrPal)................................................................................................ 165
8.5.6. Upper Karoo intrusive rocks..................................................................................... 166
Pessene nepheline syenite (JrPns)........................................................................................ 166
Mafic dykes and sills (Jrdo, do) ............................................................................................ 167
Gabbroic dykes (Jrgd) ........................................................................................................... 168
8.5.7. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 169
CHAPTER 9 .................................................................................................... 172
PHANEROZOIC COVER – EAST AFRICA RIFT SYSTEM.................. 172
9.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 172
9.2. GENERALISED STRATIGRAPHY ..................................................... 174

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9.3. LATE JURASSIC – EARLY CRETACEOUS (SEQUENCE 1)......... 176

9.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 176
9.3.2. Lupata Group ............................................................................................................. 176
Tchazica Formation* ............................................................................................................ 179
Monte Mazambulo Formation*............................................................................................ 180
Red Beds of the Lupata Group in drill holes........................................................................ 180
Volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group .................................................................................... 181
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 181
9.4. MIDDLE – LATE CRETACEOUS (SEQUENCE 2)........................... 181
9.4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 181
9.4.2. Sena Formation* (CrS).............................................................................................. 181
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 181
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 182
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 184
9.4.3. Domo Formation* ...................................................................................................... 184
9.5. LATE CRETACEOUS – EARLY PALAECENE (SEQUENCE 3) ... 185
9.5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 185
9.5.2. Grudja Formation* (CrG)......................................................................................... 185
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 185
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 185
9.5.3. Incomanini Formation* (CrI) ................................................................................... 186
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 186
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 187
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 187
Undifferentiated Cretaceous (CrM)...................................................................................... 188
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 188
9.6. PALEOCENE-PLIOCENE (SEQUENCES 4 AND 5) ......................... 188
9.6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 188
9.6.2. Mapai Formation* (TeA)........................................................................................... 189
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 189
General lithology ................................................................................................................... 192
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 192
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 198
9.6.3. Mangulane Formation* (TeM) ................................................................................. 198
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 198
9.6.4. Tembe Formation* (TeT) .......................................................................................... 200
9.6.5. Inhaminga Formation* (TeI) .................................................................................... 201
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 201
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 201
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 201
9.6.6. Maputo Formation* (TeP)......................................................................................... 201
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 201
Regional appearance............................................................................................................. 202
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 202
Overall depositional setting................................................................................................... 204
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 204

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9.6.7. Boane Formation* (TeB) ........................................................................................... 205

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 205
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 205
9.6.8. Salamanga Formation* (TeS) ................................................................................... 207
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 207
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 207
9.6.9. Cheringoma Formation* (TeC) ................................................................................ 211
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 211
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 211
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 212
9.6.10. Jofane Formation* (TeJ) ......................................................................................... 212
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 212
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 212
Urrongas Limestone Member (TeJu) ................................................................................... 213
Cabe (Calcarenite) Member (TeJc) ...................................................................................... 215
Sandstone with local silicification (TeJs)............................................................................. 215
Conglomeratic sandstone/ reworked sandstone (TeJco) ..................................................... 216
Divinhe limestones ................................................................................................................ 216
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 216
9.6.11. Inharrime Formation* (TeIn) ................................................................................. 217
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 217
9.6.12. Ponte Vermelha Formation* (TeVs) ...................................................................... 217
9.6.13. Mazamba Formation* (TeZ).................................................................................. 218
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 218
Lithology ................................................................................................................................ 218
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 219
9.7. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS .................................................................. 220
9.7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 220
9.7.2. Aeolian sand (Qe) ....................................................................................................... 220
9.7.3. Fluvial terrace gravel and sand (Qt) ........................................................................ 221
9.7.4. Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi) .................................................................................... 222
9.7.5. Colluvium (Qc) ........................................................................................................... 223
9.7.6. Raised beach sediment/Coastal sand(stone) (Qcs) .................................................. 223
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 225
9.7.7. Lacustrine Limestone (Qll)....................................................................................... 226
9.7.8. Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps) ........................................................................ 227
9.7.9. Alluvial mud of fluvial-marine origin (Qst)............................................................. 228
9.7.10. Alluvium, sand, silt, gravel (Qa) ............................................................................ 228
9.7.11. Internal dune (Qdi) .................................................................................................. 230
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 231
9.7.12. Coastal sand dune and beach sand (Qd) ................................................................ 232
9.7.13. Pebble-bearing debris (Mantos de Cascalheiras) (Qp)......................................... 234
CHAPTER 10 .................................................................................................. 236
STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM .................................................... 236
10.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 236

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10.2. METAMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT............................................................. 236
10.2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 236
10.2.2. Grenville Orogenic Cycle......................................................................................... 237
10.2.3. Pan-African Orogenic Cycle ................................................................................... 237
10.3. MOZAMBIQUE BASIN........................................................................ 237
10.3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 237
10.3.2. Karoo Rift Event ...................................................................................................... 238
10.3.3. Post-Karoo Major Tectonic Events ........................................................................ 238
10.3.4. Principal Structural Elements in the Mozambique Basin.................................... 240
10.3.5. Basin Modelling ........................................................................................................ 242
CHAPTER 11 .................................................................................................. 245
GEODYNAMICIC EVOLUTION ................................................................ 245
11.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 245
11.2. CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT ............................................................. 245
11.2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 245
11.2.2. Archaean Crustal Growth of the Kalahari Craton............................................... 246
11.2.3. Palaeoproterozoic Extension of the Kalahari Craton........................................... 246
11.2.4. Palaeoproterozoic Orogeny ..................................................................................... 247
11.2.5. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran Extension............................................................... 247
11.2.6. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent .............. 247
11.2.7. Post-Rodinia Break-up (Neoproterozoic)............................................................... 248
11.2.8. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovician)............................ 248
11.3. MOZAMBIQUE BASIN........................................................................ 250
11.3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 250
11.3.2. Karoo Rift Phase ...................................................................................................... 250
11.3.3. Neo-Tethys Drift/Rift Phase .................................................................................... 251
Early to Middle Cretaceous Incipient Rift Volcanism and Transgression ......................... 252
Campanian-Maastrichtian Regression................................................................................. 255
Palaeocene passive continental margin................................................................................ 256
Eocene Transgression ........................................................................................................... 257
Late Eocene regression and Oligocene erosive event .......................................................... 258
Lower and Middle Miocene transgression ........................................................................... 258
Late Miocene unconformity and Pliocene transgression .................................................... 259
Pleistocene and Holocene ..................................................................................................... 261
CHAPTER 12 .................................................................................................. 264
MINERAL RESOURCES .............................................................................. 264
12.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 264
12.2. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS .................................................................. 266

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12.2.1. Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in Heavy Mineral Sands ....................................... 266
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 266
Chibuto................................................................................................................................... 266
Xai-Xai ................................................................................................................................... 267
Other ‘Black Sand’ prospects ............................................................................................... 268
12.2.2. Bentonite ................................................................................................................... 268
12.2.3. Diatomite ................................................................................................................... 268
Manhiça ................................................................................................................................. 269
12.3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS........................................................ 270
12.3.1. Aggregates................................................................................................................. 270
12.3.2. Dimension Stone ....................................................................................................... 273
12.3.3. Sand and Gravel ....................................................................................................... 273
12.3.4. Brick Clay ................................................................................................................. 275
12.3.5. Limestone .................................................................................................................. 275
12.4. ENERGY MINERALS .......................................................................... 277
12.4.1. Coal............................................................................................................................ 277
12.5. HYDROCARBONS ............................................................................... 278
12.5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 278
12.5.2. Natural Gas............................................................................................................... 279
12.5.3. Oil............................................................................................................................... 280
12.5.4. Current Developments............................................................................................. 280
12.6. MINERAL POTENTIAL ...................................................................... 284
12.7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION .............................. 285
12.7.1. Basement ................................................................................................................... 285
12.7.2. Phanerozoic Cover ................................................................................................... 285
APPENDIX 12.1 .............................................................................................. 287
REFERENCES VOLUME 1 .......................................................................... 288

Appendix 1. Definition of lithostratigraphic units

Appendix 2. Age Results, Mozambique Mapping Project/LOT3: Map Explanation, Vol. 1
Appendix 3. Chemical analysis of rocks
Appendix 4. Microprobe analysis of minerals
Appendix 5. The sedimentary profile at the Massingir village
Appendix 12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

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ABSTRACT
The area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) comprises a variety of lithologies that
record a wide span of geological eras from Proterozoic until the present. The vast majority of
mapped rocks represent products of sedimentary processes that are associated to the
geodynamic evolution of Africa and South Gondwana Terrain in particular.
The Archaean nucleus of Kalahari Craton is bounded by Proterozoic fold belts that are
observed in topographically elevated areas in northwestern region of this mapping area.
During the Phanerozoic, large segments of the Precambrian basement in Southern Africa were
overlain by sediments and volcanics of Karoo Supergroup. The remnants of sedimentary
rocks of this group are more widespread than the volcanics, which are typically bounded to
the margins of Proterozoic terrains due to extensional and continental rifting processes. The
break-up of the Gondwana supercontinent is typically associated with voluminous extrusive
and intrusive magmatism, but it also initiated the formation of Mozambique Basin.
Subsidence of the basin was prolonged by subsequent development of the East Africa rift
system that resulted in the deposition of Early to Middle Cretaceous sedimentary sequences
on the top of extrusive rocks related to the break-up of Gondwana. These two events,
combined with basin subsidence, continental rise and episodic eustatic sea level fluctuations
have defined the main framework of Mozambique Basin development, which still continues.
This basin forms the main part of the ~ 185 000 km² wide onshore mapping area in addition to
considerable offshore deposits. The overall sedimentary column of the Mozambique Basin
can be divided into a shallow platform sequence and sequences deposited in deeper sea that
are restricted to a few narrow rift structures. Five major Cretaceous-Tertiary basin-wide
depositional sequences are recognized that are delineated by angular unconformities. Facies
changes generally record eastward transition from terrestrial deposits via paralic and shallow
marine to deeper marine deposits, which may reach a thicknesses of >10 000 m in the
Zambezi delta area. Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary rocks were exposed to erosion during
the late Cainozoic resulting in that the Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene deposits consist
essentially of reworked and winnowed weathering products. The Pleistocene consists of red
and consolidated, mostly slightly eroded dune sands, while most of the Holocene comprises
of recent alluvium and inland and coastal dunes. Although these Quaternary deposits occupy
~90% of the current land area of this Map Explanation they typically form only thin
overburden that covers the prevailing Phanerozoic rocks.
Since limited amount of historical exploration has been carried out in the area covered
by this Map Explanation, containing rocks from Proterozoic to present, there is large potential
for various new mineral resources. Currently exploited valuable mineral resources include:
hydrocarbons (natural gas), bentonite, diatomite, rock aggregates, dimension stone, limestone,
brick clay, sand and gravel and mineral water. The presently known valuable natural
resources include: iron, copper, graphite, diamond, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, halite, gypsum,
coal, fluorite and phosphorite.
The metasediments of the Proterozoic Gairezi and Umkondo Groups along the frontier
with Zimbabwe host showings of iron, copper and limestone (marble). Further, graphite exists
in Proterozoic gneisses and schists as small disseminations or as narrow veins and small
lenses, often in the proximity of marble horizons. Alluvial, micro-sized diamonds have been
found in the Limpopo and Singédzi rivers in Gaza Province, probably transported by the

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rivers from the South African Kaapvaal Craton. World class deposits of heavy mineral sands,
enriched in ilmenite, rutile and zircon, are found in dunes and beach sands along the coastal
zone from Maputo to Inhambane as well as in paleodunes from Chibuto to Xai-Xai. Bentonite
occurs typically as a weathering product of rhyolites and rhyolitic tuffs of the Karoo
volcanics, distributed in the Pequenos Libombos range and adjacent areas. Most of the
bentonite from Boane Mine is exported without further treatment. More marketing and
product development are required in order to add value and increase revenues. Many fluvial
and lagoonal depressions between Pleistocene dunes from Inhambane in the north to
Matituine south of Maputo have accumulated diatomite (kieselguhr). Possibilities for creating
a stronger market for good quality diatomite resources in Maputo and Gaza Province,
replacing imported material, should obviously be studied.
Karoo rhyolites provide good raw material for rock aggregates and dimension stones,
which, together with limestone, sand, gravel and various types of clay, are the backbone of the
growing construction industry. Although sand and gravel deposits are widespread, high
quality varieties are less common, as well as good quality clay deposits, which would be
adequate for brick burning. The major resources of limestone, halite and gypsum are
associated with Eocene Cheringoma and the Miocene Jofane Formations*. Associated witth
the Karoo Supergroup, indications of coal seams are found in the Espungabera sub-basin, near
Zimbabwean border. Whereas fluorite occurs in Mesozoic fractures that are related to the
Karoo and/or Cretaceous rift evolution, the sedimentary deposits of phosphorite near Magude,
85 km NNW from Maputo, are associated with calcarenites of the Jofane Formation*. In
addition there are reserves of bat guano in karst-type caverns in Buzi area.
The resources of mineral water are considered to be abundant along the rift faults of
the mountain ridges in the western border area with South Africa and Zimbabwe. Demand for
good quality mineral water is steadily growing both for local consumption and for export.
At present the most important mineral resources in Mozambique south of the 20th
parallel are the hydrocarbons. Indications of hydrocarbons are discovered in the Rovuma and
Mozambique Basins. Commercial natural gas is produced from various horizons in the Lower
Grudja in the central portion of the Mozambique Basin (e.g. Pande, Temane and Buzi), where
the reservoirs constitute shallow water shoals and bars. Potential areas for oil have been
reported in offshore segments of Mozambique Basin. Economically very important are also
the heavy mineral sands and deposits along the coastal zone from Maputo to Inhambane, of
which the Corridor Sands’ Chibuto project is at present the most advanced.

KEY WORDS: Areal geology, basalt, construction materials, Cretaceous, geological

mapping, Gondwana, heavy minerals, Jurassic, Karoo, Lebombo, limestone, natural gas,
Mashonaland, Movene, Mozambique basin, Phanerozoic, Proterozoic, Quaternary, rift,
rhyolite, sedimentary rocks, schist, structure, Umbelúzi, Umkondo, volcanic rocks.

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RESUMO

RESUMO ALARGADO DA NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA (VOLUME 1)

CARTAS GEOLÓGICAS 2032-2035, 2131-2135, 2231-2235, 2331-2335,

2431-2435, 2531-2534 e 2632

ANTECEDENTES DO PROJECTO
Como parte da política geológica e mineira do Governo de Moçambique, o Ministério dos
Recursos Minerais (MIREM), através da Direcção Nacional de Geologia (DNG), encoraja a
expansão das infra-estruturas geocientíficas nacionais, em apoio à promoção de investimentos
mineiros e ao desenvolvimento social e económico sustentável do país.
Desde o tempo colonial que se efectuam trabalhos sistemáticos de cartografia
geológica em Moçambique e, após a Independência (Junho de 1975), foram levados a cabo
inúmeros levantamentos geofísicos, geoquímicos e geológicos. Os arquivos da DNG contêm
uma quantidade apreciável de rica informação geocientífica. Todavia, a maior parte desta
informação encontra-se ultrapassada no que se refere à tecnologia actualmente utilizada e aos
conceitos geológicos baseados em técnicas modernas de apoio à pesquisa mineral. Assim,
tornava-se de extrema importância efectuar-se a conclusão e modernização das infra-
estruturas geocientíficas nacionais. Com vista a se atingirem tais objectivos, o Governo de
Moçambique implementou o Projecto de Apoio Instituicional ao Sector Geológico-Mineiro
(Mineral Resource Management Capacity Building Project - MRMP), como parte de um
grande programa internacional.
O objectivo principal do programa de cartografia do MRMP foi o de rever a
cartografia geológica anteriormente realizada em certas áreas do país, bem como melhorar a
qualidade das cartas geológicas noutras áreas, a fim de fornecer uma cobertura consistente em
termos de qualidade para todo o território moçambicano. A cartografia geológica baseou-se
em princípios lito-estratigráficos modernos e, como tal, um outro objectivo deste programa foi
o de se tentarem resolver problemas estratigráficos, efectuarem controlos geocronológicos e
de se solucionarem problemas estruturais.

METODOLOGIA
A metodologia de implementação do projecto incluiu a execução de um grupo de tarefas
relevantes para a cartografia, bem como um programa de treino para vário pessoal técnico da
DNG. A preparação desta nova geração de cartas geológicas melhoradas foi
convenientemente subdividida em quatro fases, a saber: (1) Preparação; (2) Compilação e
síntese da informação geológica existente; (3) Trabalhos de campo; e (4) Preparação dos
produtos finais.
Os produtos que constituem as cartas digitalizadas são baseados na interpretação
combinada de uma variedade de conjuntos de dados digitais (imagens de satélite, dados de
levantamentos aeromagnéticos e aeroradiométricos), trabalhos laboratoriais (petrologia,

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litogeoquímica e geocronologia incluindo o método SHRIMP e datações convencionais U-Pb

e Sm-Nd) e verificação prática no terreno. A interpretação interactiva das imagens compiladas
e processadas provou ser muito efectiva (p. ex., a banda 5 da imagem Landsat 7, em
combinação com três conjuntos de dados radiométricos, nomeadamente, K, Th e U, co-
registados numa cela comum da dimensão do pixel/malha, foi integrada em imagens coloridas
compostas pela aplicação de um algoritmo algébrico a tais pixels/malhas).
Todos os dados, existentes e novos, foram incorporados num Sistema de Informação
Mineral (Mineral Information System - MIS) em formato ArcGIS, o qual poderá ser
consultado na DNG.

INFRA-ESTRUTURAS E GEOMORFOLOGIA
A área coberta pela presente Notícia Explicativa (Volume 1), mais adiante designada por
‘área cartografada’, ocupa a região meridional de Moçambique, a sul do paralelo 20º S.
Apresenta uma superfície de aproximadamente 170 000 Km2. As infra-estruturas e
geomorfologia da área são abordadas nos Capítulos 3 e 4. O último inclui uma revisão breve
das zonas ou ciclos fisiográficos, de acordo com King (1961) e lida com o conceito de
‘tectónica do sôco’.

LITO-ESTRATIGRAFIA E GEOLOGIA REGIONAL

Aquando da preparação dos produtos cartográficos digitais foram aplicados princípios
modernos de lito- e tecto-estratigrafia. Por forma a facilitar a correlação entre as unidades lito-
e tectono-estratigráficas de Moçambique e as dos países vizinhos, descreve-se no Capítulo 5,
de forma abreviada, a geologia regional de África.
A África é largamente composta por um mosaico de cratões e cinturões móveis
arcaicos, amalgamados por cinturões dobrados alongados, de idade proterozóico-câmbrica.
Estes encontram-se cobertos por sedimentos indeformados e rochas extrusivas associadas, de
idades neoproterozóica, carbonífera tardia a jurássica inicial e cretácico-quaternária (Tabela
A.1; principalmente segundo Gabert, 1984; Dirks and Ashwal, 2002). Cinturões dobrados
mais jovens, deformados durante as orogenias hercínica e alpina, apresentam apenas extensão
local.

Tabela A.1. Domínios tectono-estruturais-magmáticos de África.

Idade
Evento/Sistema Era/Período
(M.a.)
Fase principal Neogénico – Presente 23 - 0
Sistema do Rifte Este-Africano (SREA)
Fase inicial Cretácico – Paleogénico 140 - 23
Karoo Carbonífero Superior – Jurássico Inferior 318 - 180
Terrenos Gondwanides
Plataformas pós-pan-africanas <542
Orogenia pan-africana Neoproterozóico – Câmbrico 750 - 490
Pan-Africano
Bacias do Pan-Africano inicial Neoproterozóico 900 - 700
Kibariano/Irumides/Grenvilliano Mesoproterozóico 1450 - 900
Fase tardia Paleoproterozóico ~ 1860
Ubendiano/Usagariano
Fase inicial 2100 - 2025
Cratões (terrenos de granitos e rochas verdes) e cinturões móveis Arcaico 3800 - 2500

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As unidades lito-estratigráficas constituintes do território moçambicano podem ser

convenientemente divididas entre um sôco cristalino com idade arcaica-câmbrica e uma
cobertura de rochas com idade fanerozóica.
O sôco cristalino compreende um conjunto heterogéneo de paragnaisses supracrustais
metamorfizados, granulitos e migmatitos, ortognaisses e rochas ígneas. Do ponto de vista
geodinâmico, é normalmente aceite que o sôco cristalino de Moçambique é composto por três
terrenos* diferentes, que colidiram e se amalgamaram durante o Ciclo Orogénico Pan-
Africano (COPA).
Anteriormente à amalgamação pan-africana, cada terreno era caracterizado por um
desenvolvimento geodinâmico individual e específico. Provisoriamente, estes terrenos são
designados por Gondwana Este, Gondwana Oeste e Gondwana Sul (Tabela 5.4). As litologias
do sôco discutidas na presente Notícia Explicativa (Volume 1) pertencem ao Terreno do
Gondwana Sul e estão circunscritas à região noroeste da área cartografada.
A grande maioria das unidades litológicas cartografáveis existentes na área abrangida
pelo presente documento representa sucessões sedimentares que estão associadas com a
evolução geodinâmica pós-pan-africana da região sudeste de África. Litologias do Supergrupo
do Karoo foram descritas para consideráveis áreas e compreendem principalmente membros
vulcânicos do Karoo Superior, os quais se encontram tipicamente bordejantes às margens dos
terrenos precâmbricos por força de processos de extensão crustal e de abertura continental. O
desmembramento do Gondwana está estritamente associado com marcante magmatismo
extrusivo com cerca de 190 M.a. e representa o primeiro, mas firme, passo para a formação da
Bacia de Moçambique.
Depois de um período de acalmia que durou cerca de 50 M.a., a deriva e dispersão
continental foi reactivada (aproximadamente aos 140 M.a.), facto que é manifestado pela
instalação de corpos carbonatíticos dispersos, quimberlitos e rochas ígneas alcalinas
associadas, e pela deposição de sequências sedimentares do Cretácico Inferior e até mais
jovens, sobre as rochas relacionadas com o desmembramento do Gondwana.
O desenvolvimento do Sistema do Rifte Este-Africano também foi iniciado no
Cretácico, mas fortemente acelerado no Terciário. No domínio de Moçambique, a formação
de margens passivas e o desenvolvimento do Rifte Este-Africano são processos sobrepostos e
coevos. Os dois processos geodinâmicos combinados iniciaram um período prolongado de
desenvolvimento de bacia, com subsidência, ascensão continental e flutuações episódicas
eustáticas do nível do mar, que definiram a principal moldura do desenvolvimento da Bacia
de Moçambique, o qual tem sido contínuo até aos nossos dias.
Esta bacia forma a porção maior da área cartografada, com uma superfície de cerca de
185 000 Km2 no continente, bem como um considerável domínio marinho. A coluna
sedimentar geral da Bacia de Moçambique pode ser subdividida numa sequência de
plataforma pouco profunda e em sequências mais profundas que estão restritas a várias
estruturas estreitas do tipo rifte. Cinco sequências deposicionais maiores, de idade cretácico-
terciária, foram reconhecidas como estando delineadas por descontinuidades ou hiatus.

____________________
* O termo ‘terreno’ é usado para indicar uma unidade tectónica de dimensão variável, ou seja, uma
placa litosférica, um fragmento ou lasca de placa ou, ainda, uma massa tectónica tal como uma nappe.
Por outro lado, ‘terreno’ constitui um termo genérico, grosseiramente comparável a ‘área’.

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As mudanças de fácies registam geralmente uma transição, em direcção a leste, de

depósitos terrestres, parálicos e marinhos de fraca profundidade, e de depósitos marinhos
típicos e espessos, os quais podem registar espessuras significativas como, por exemplo,
superiores aos 10 000 metros na região do delta do Rio Zambeze.
Rochas sedimentares cretácico-terciárias foram expostas à erosão durante o Cenozóico
Superior, resultando que as épocas do Pliocénico, Pleistocénico e Holocénico consistem
essencialmente de produtos de alteração retrabalhados e desagregados. Embora o
Pleistocénico consista principalmente de areias de dunas erodidas, avermelhadas e
parcialmente consolidadas, a maior parte do Holocénico consiste de aluviões recentes e de
areias de dunas interiores e exteriores. Apesar destes depósitos quaternários formarem
geralmente apenas uma camada de cobertura fina, ocupam cerca de 90% da superfície de
terreno da área presentemente cartografada.

TERRENO DO GONDWANA SUL - CRATÃO DO KALAHARI E

CINTURÕES DOBRADOS DE IDADE PROTEROZÓICA
O Terreno do Gondwana Sul é composto por um núcleo arcaico, sedimentos de plataforma
proterozóicos e cinturões dobrados proterozóicos.
O núcleo arcaico, conhecido como Cratão do Kalahari, foi afectado por um
desenvolvimento geodinâmico prolongado e complexo, entre 3.5 e 2.5 G.a., seguido por uma
extensão paleoproterozóica aos ~2.0 – 1.7 G.a. e por outra extensão mesoproterozóica pré-
kibariana aos cerca de 1350 – 1250 M.a. A maior parte da crusta juvenil foi acrecionada nas
margens oriental e sul do Cratão do Kalahari durante a amalgamação colisional da Antárctica
e a formação do Supercontinente Rodinia aos ~1000 – 1100 M.a. (Jacobs et al. 1993;
Grantham et al. 1997; Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001).
A posterior fragmentação do Rodinia (~1000 – 850 M.a.), dispersão e reagrupamento
de fragmentos, originaram a amalgamação dos Terrenos do Gondwana Este, Oeste e Sul, para
além da impressão sobreposta pan-africana do Grenvilliano e litologias mais antigas grosso
modo entre 0.60 e 0.45 G.a. (de Wit et al. 2001; Manhiça et al. 2001). A deformação pan-
africana ao longo da margem do Cratão do Kalahari é manifestada pelo desenvolvimento de
uma zona de cisalhamento orientada N-S e por uma segunda fase de migmatização e
retrogradação.
Uma pequena parte do Terreno do Gondwana Sul é restrito ao canto noroeste da área
cartografada e coberta pela presente Notícia Explicativa (Graus Quadrados 2031/2032).
Estas rochas proterozóicas podem ser divididas em três categorias, nomeadamente: (1)
Sedimentos autóctones ou in situ e vulcanitos do Grupo mesoproterozóico de Umkondo; (2)
Metassedimentos para-autóctones do Grupo de Gairezi* (engloba as anteriores Formações de
Gairezi e de Fronteira); e (3) Metassedimentos alóctones do Complexo mesoproterozóico do
Báruè.
O Grupo de Umkondo representa uma sequência composta maioritariamente por
rochas vulcano-sedimentares não metamórficas e indeformadas, que repousam
discordantemente sobre o Cratão do Zimbabwe e o Cinturão do Limpopo.
Na área de estudo, o Grupo de Umkondo inclui as Formações de Dacata* e de
Espungabera*. A Formação de Dacata* compreende cinco membros, a saber: Quartzitos
Inferiores (P2UDlq), Xistos Grafitosos (P2UDsc), Chertes (P2UDch), Siltitos (P2UDs) e

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Quartzitos Superiores (P2UDqz). O tipo de rocha epiclástica mais comum é um siltito

acastanhado, localmente xistento (Fig. 6.7), mas há igualmente quantidades consideráveis de
quartzito. As rochas de Dacata são intruídas pelos corpos maciços e volumosos dos doleritos e
dos microgabros de Mashonaland (datados de ~1.102 M.a.). O grau metamórfico no interior
da Formação de Dacata* cresce ligeiramente no sentido este, onde ocorrem rochas do Grupo
de Gairezi. As rochas do Grupo de Umkondo parecem apresentar a mesma idade dos corpos
de doleritos e microgabros (Master, 2006). A Formação de Espungabera* ocupa áreas
situadas a sul da Formação de Dacata* e é formada por andesitos basálticos amigdalóides
(P2Uer). Estatigraficamente, estas lavas cobrem a Formação de Dacata*.
O Grupo de Gairezi é normalmente composto por metassedimentos fortemente
deformados, estendendo-se através de um cinturão estreito ao longo da fronteira com o
vizinho Zimbabwe. Foram ali observadas texturas em duplex, compostas por porções de
gnaisses arcaicos e metassedimentos proterozóicos carreados e dobrados. Rochas da sucessão
metassedimentar para-autóctone de Gairezi foram originadas há ~2.04 G.a., numa garganta
alongada bordejando a margem oriental do Cratão do Zimbabwe. São consideradas como
representando relíquias de um cinturão dobrado e carreado com vergência para oeste,
tectonicamente cobrindo a margem oriental do Cratão do Zimbabwe, formado durante o Ciclo
Orogénico Grenvilliano (COG), há ~1.1 – 1.0 G.a..
O COG foi acompanhado por metamorfismo de grau de anfibolito, em conjunto com a
instalação de granitóides pré- a sincinemáticos e migmatização dispersa. Na área cartografada
as litologias de Gairezi compreendem várias rochas pelíticas como xistos moscovítico-
biotíticos (P1Zss), micaxistos porfiroblásticos (P1Zms) (Fig. 7.3), e micaxistos arenosos
(P1Zas). Ocorrem ainda quartzitos sacaróides (P1Zqs), os quais formam a impressionante
cadeia montanhosa de Sitatonga, orientada N-S, a qual representa uma superfície de
escorrência contra a Formação de Umkondo.
A maior parte dos cinturões proterozóicos dobrados situados ao longo da margem
oriental do Cratão do Zimbabwe, desde o Rio Zambeze até ao Rio Búzi, são atribuídos ao
Complexo do Báruè. Este é formado por unidades tectónicas que constituem massas
alóctones, as quais foram dobradas e carreadas sobre a margem do Cratão do Zimbabwe.
Embora a idade e a origem do Complexo do Báruè sejam duvidosas, o mesmo sofreu
idênticos tipos de metamorfismo e deformação dos do Grupo de Gairezi. As litologias típicas
do Complexo do Báruè compreendem gnaisses quartzo-granatíferos, feldspáticos e micáceos,
bem como migmatitos, com intercalações menores de quartzitos, mármores e, localmente,
rochas máficas. Os protolitos sedimentares destas litologias correspondem mais
provavelmente a sequências monótonas de turbiditos num ambiente de margem passiva.
Baseada numa subdivisão modificada do Complexo do Báruè, foram observadas duas
subunidades na área cartografada: o Grupo de Chimoio e os Ortognaisses do Inchope. O
primeiro consiste de paragnaisses migmatíticos muitas vezes intensamente deformados
(P2BCml), assemelhando-se localmente a gnaisses granulíticos (Fig. 7.9). Apresentam-se
invadidos por uma série de metadoleritos (P2db). Os últimos são os Ortognaisses do Inchope
(P2Buig), com idade de 1.079 M.a., os quais apresentam predominantemente composição
granodiorítica a tonalítica.

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COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA - SUPERGRUPO DO KAROO

A cobertura fanerozóica compreende todas as litologias depositadas posteriormente ao Ciclo
Orogénico Pan-Africano. Geralmente, tais litologias são constituídas por sedimentos
continentais (sub-) horizontais a marinhos, e rochas (sub-) vulcânicas associadas, que não
foram afectadas por deformação penetrativa, mas que puderam ter sofrido deformação
tectónica frágil intensa.
A cobertura do Fanerozóico está dividida em (da mais antiga para a mais recente)
Supergrupo do Karoo e um conjunto de sequências relacionadas com o Rifte Este-Africano. O
primeiro pode ser dividido nos Grupos do Karoo Inferior e do Karoo Superior, os quais foram
depositados durante o evento Karoo, ou seja, num rifte abortado ou numa fase de
desmembramento do Gondwana. É caracterizado pelo desenvolvimento de fossas tectónicas
intracratónicas e de bacias profundas, e terminou com a instalação da Grande Província Ígnea
do Karoo, de idade jurássica inferior (~190 M.a.).
Os sedimentos do Karoo cobrem polígonos pequenos distribuídos no interior da área
cartografada e estão expostos no canto superior esquerdo da carta (Graus Quadrados
2032/2033). O Karoo Inferior compreende as Formações de Moatize* e de Cádzi*. A
Formação de Moatize* (PeM) assenta sobre as rochas metavulcânicas de Umkondo e é
caracterizada por sedimentos argilosos de grão fino com camadas de carvão ocasionais e
horizontes conglomeráticos enquanto que, por seu lado, a Formação de Cádzi* (PeC)
compreende principalmente grés.
Na área cartografada os cinturões vulcânicos do Karoo Superior incorporam o
monoclinal dos Libombos, com direcção N-S a NNW-SSE, o monoclinal do Nuanétzi-Save,
com direcção ENE-WSW a NE-SW e o cortejo filoneano de Okavango, orientado WNW-
ESW, reconhecido como uma junção tripla do Karoo (Botha and de Wit, 1996; More and
Larkin, 2001), sensu Burke and Dewey (1973). Estas três feições lineares estão ligadas ou são
controladas por zonas de fraqueza pan-africanas ou mesmo mais antigas.
A Grande Província Ígnea do Karoo foi instalada na África Austral (a Bacia principal
do Karoo situa-se na África do Sul e o cortejo de diques de Okavango no Botswana), na
Antárctica (p. ex. na Terra de Maud) e nos plateaux basálticos oceânicos no Oceano Índico
(Cunha de Explora e Escarpa de Andenes) durante o Jurássico (195 – 178 M.a.), apresentando
o seu auge cerca dos 183 M.a. (Duncan et al. 1997), embora outros autores (p. ex., Fitch and
Miller, 1984) assumam os dois maiores períodos de produção de mantos basálticos aos 193±5
M.a. e 178±5 M.a. A área presentemente coberta pelos vulcanitos do Karoo atinge cerca de
140 000 km2. Tratam-se apenas das relíquias visíveis deixadas após erosão prolongada ou
sucessivo afundamento. As lavas originais poderão, muito provavelmente, ter coberto uma
extensão de cerca de dois milhões de quilómetros quadrados (Cox, 1970; 1972).
Os monoclinais dos Libombos e do Nuanétzi-Save podem ser considerados como
grandes fissuras do tipo rifte, vulcânicos, que marcam a margem oriental dos Cratões do
Kaapval e do Zimbabwe, em ascensão. A sua localização coincide com um importante
intervalo geodinâmico entre espesso manto litosférico superior arcaico e manto litosférico
superior moderno com espessura normal. Um rifting incipiente no monoclinal dos Libombos
é caracterizado por vulcanismo ultrapotássico, representado pelos nefelinitos de Mashikiri e
por lavas basálticas picríticas com teor elevado em Ti e Zr (Reid et al. 1997).
Subsequentemente, foram instaladas rochas vulcânicas de composição bimodal, com basaltos
toleiíticos do tipo ‘intra-placa’e riolitos.

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 Volume 1

Os basaltos (p. ex., a Formação Basáltica do Rio Sábiè e a Formação do Rio

Nhavúdezi) foram gerados por descompressão adiabática do manto superior seguida por
subducção junto à fronteira entre o manto superior e o manto inferior. A quantidade de riolitos
subsequentemente extruídos (> 30 000 km3) é muito maior do que a prevista. Cleverly et al.
(1984) concluíram que os riolitos foram produzidos por fusão parcial dos basaltos
subductados de idade Karoo, na ou próximo da base da crusta, e não por refusão da crusta
inferior. A descompressão e fusão contínua de gabros subductados principalmente juvenis na
presença de água meteórica produziram vastas quantidades de magmas riolíticos (Harris and
Erlank, 1992). Em Moçambique, junto à fronteira com a África do Sul, ocorrem alguns
basaltos da Formação do Rio Sábiè (JrSba).
Ignimbritos, tufos e lavas (JrU) da extensa Formação de Umbelúzi situados ao longo
da referida fronteira e sobre os basaltos, representam os Riolitos de Umbelúzi em
Moçambique (Figs. 8.7 and 8.21). A Formação de Umbelúzi compreende também alguns
dacitos e traquidacitos (JrUt), brechas, basaltos (JrUb) e doleritos (do).
Na parte superior desta maior litologia riolítica ocorrem níveis coalescentes de riolitos
e basaltos, anunciando a instalação das lavas basálticas da Formação de Movene* (JrM) (Fig.
8.16). Esta formação é caracterizada por vulcanitos de composição máfica, mas está associada
com vulcanitos riolíticos subordinados (JrMr), como por exemplo os tufos do Membro dos
Pequenos Libombos, evidenciando o carácter geoquímico bimodal deste conjunto. Os basaltos
de Movene são dominantemente subalcalinos (Figs. 8.30 and 8.31). Ocorrem também
quartzo-latitos (JrMq).
Os sienitos nefelínicos (JrPns) e as lavas alcalinas de Pessene (JrPal), situados perto da
cidade de Maputo, são mais jovens que a Formação de Movene*, a qual é também intruída
por diques de gabro (Crgd) e doleritos colunares (Jrdo) (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28).
Como as bancadas da Formação de Movene* mergulham com inclinação suave (~10º)
sob as rochas mais recentes da Bacia de Moçambique, então representam as rochas vulcânicas
mais jovens expostas e pertencentes ao monoclinal dos Libombos. Baseando-nos nas
inclinações dos derrames vulcânicos com tendência para leste e também nos perfis de
trabalhos sísmicos anteriores, sugere-se que a continuação do monoclinal dos Libombos em
profundidade constitua a chamada crusta proto-oceânica que forma o sôco da Bacia de
Moçambique (Oil and Gas, July 2001).
As lavas basálticas amigdalóides (JrRN) da Formação do Rio Nhavúdezi* formam um
cinturão contínuo com largura de 15 a 25 Km na área da carta geológica correspondente aos
Graus Quadrados 2032/2033. Estendem-se desde a fronteira com o Zimbabwe até cerca de
250 Km no sentido nordeste. O contacto ocidental entre aquela formação* e as metalavas da
Formação de Espungabera* é tectónico. Por outro lado, a leste, os basaltos da Formação de
Nhavúdezi* encontram-se principalmente cobertos por sedimentos não consolidados da
Formação de Sena*.

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COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA - SISTEMA DO RIFTE ESTE-

AFRICANO
O Supergrupo do Karoo, manifestando uma fase abortada da abertura continental, é seguido
por um período de deriva continental e dispersão do Supercontinente Gondwana, em conjunto
com a abertura dos Oceanos Índico e Atlântico Sul. Esta fase é contemporânea do
desenvolvimento do Sistema do Rifte Este-Africano (SREA), que se iniciou no Cretácico e foi
acelerado durante o Terciário. O desmembramento continental continua até aos nossos dias,
como é provado pela actividade tectónica corrente ao longo do referido SREA. Nas regiões
central e meridional de Moçambique, os processos acima descritos permitiram o
desenvolvimento da Bacia de Moçambique, a qual tem como fundo os vulcanitos do Karoo
Superior de idade jurássica inferior e é coberta por sucessões sedimentares do Cretácico
Inferior a Médio e mais recentes, bem como por rochas (sub-) vulcânicas subordinadas, que
constituem o grosso das rochas descritas na presente Notícia Explicativa (Volume 1).
A sedimentação cretácica corresponde a um conjunto de eventos tectónicos que
afectam o sôco cristalino e a cobertura do Karoo, demonstrando dominância da deriva no
Cretácico Inferior e Médio e pulsações térmicas no Terciário (Coster et al. 1989). Estas
prolongadas forças tectónicas resultaram na criação de gargantas e grabens, separadas por
elevações e horsts, e por uma subsidência importante em certas porções da margem
continental. A deformação frágil encontra-se frequentemente sobreposta em zonas de fraqueza
mais antigas, episodicamente rejuvenescidas, no sôco cristalino. No Cretácico Inferior a
Médio, um rifting incipiente encontra-se associado à instalação de rochas vulcânicas alcalinas,
incluindo carbonatitos e quimberlitos, ao longo dos limites do rifte, em adição à transgressão
com depósitos de fácies continental e depósitos marinhos de fraca profundidade. Durante o
período entre o Cretácico Médio e o Superior, o interior do continente foi levantado
estimativamente cerca de 1000 metros. Isto causou forças de tensão e originou o
desenvolvimento contínuo de grabens e da consequente sedimentação na Bacia de
Moçambique. O aprofundamento dos grabens culminou no Maastrichtiano e acomodou
sequências espessas de sedimentos marinhos argilosos. Fora dos limites dos grabens os
sedimentos são compostos por litologias diferentes, são muito menos espessos ou podem até
mesmo estar ausentes. No sentido do mar e com base em dados sísmicos, verifica-se que a
extensão dos sedimentos do Cretácico Inferior e Superior se torna gradualmente mais fina e
descontínua em direcção a leste e sudeste. Nesta direcção, a crusta continental sobrepõe-se à
crusta oceânica de idade cretácica.
Aproximando-nos do fim do Cretácico, a Bacia de Moçambique torna-se uma
verdadeira margem continental passiva que se estendeu no Oligocénico, quando o continente
africano se elevou substancialmente e sofreu basculamento para oeste. Em Moçambique este
fenómeno resultou na reactivação das falhas bordejantes dos grabens. O termo deste evento
largamente erosivo deixou uma peneplanície apenas com um pequeno local de acomodação,
na sua metade oriental. Aqui, iniciou-se a acumulação de carbonatos de plataforma de
pequena profundidade, enquanto que para nordeste começaram a criar-se grandes complexos
de deltas, preenchendo a depressão do Baixo Zambeze com produtos clásticos fragmentados
de oeste.

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No Miocénico Superior, uma elevação forte de 600 metros ou mais afectou a parte sul
de Moçambique, a qual foi seguida por um levantamento do Pliocénico Superior, como
manifestado pelas falésias levantadas de ‘beach rocks’ situadas dispersamente ao longo das
costas sul e sudeste de África, demonstrando que processos de elevação do continente ainda
estavam a ter lugar. Ao mesmo tempo, iniciaram-se ou foram reactivadas novas falhas de
graben, que afectaram a deposição dos depósitos quaternários.
As sequências sedimentares da Bacia de Moçambique incluem um número de
sucessões de plataforma de pequena profundidade e horizontes de águas mais profundas,
restritas a várias estruturas de rifte mais estreitas. Os estratos da plataforma continental são
representados por uma subsuperfície pouco profunda estendendo-se por vastas áreas, mas
provavelmente não excedendo uma espessura total de 150 metros. Geralmente, é sobreposta
por uma cobertura quaternária fina do tipo Manangas, ou por areias acumuladas pelo vento e,
como consequência disso, a geologia subsuperficial imediata encontra-se completamente
oculta em cerca de 90% da superfície do terreno. Podem-se reconhecer e incorporar num
quadro estratigráfico da bacia completa (no continente e no oceano) seis grandes sequências
deposicionais, a saber (c.f. Coster et al. 1989):
• Sequência 1: Deposição, durante o Jurássico Superior e o Cretácico Inferior, do
Grupo da Lupata no norte e instalação contemporânea dos vulcanitos da Província
Alcalina de Chirua, com descontinuidades no Neocomiano (do Berriasiano ao
Barremiano) e no Aptiano.
• Sequência 2: Deposição, durante o Cretácico Médio a Superior, das Formações de
Sena* e de Domo* e descontinuidade dispersa na bacia intra-Senoniano.
• Sequência 3: Deposição, durante o Cretácico Superior (Campaniano-
Maastrichtiano) e até ao Paleocénico, da porção inferior da Formação de Grudja*,
separada da parte superior da mesma formação por uma descontinuidade do
Paleocénico Inferior.
• Sequência 4: Formação paleocénica de Mapai* sobre descontinuidades do
Eocénico Inferior e sob intra- e descontinuidades do Oligocénico Superior.
• Sequência 5: Deposição, durante o Paleocénico-Pliocénico, das Formações de
Mangulane*, Tembe*, Inhaminga*, Maputo*, Boane* e Salamanga* e do
‘Complexo Deltaico do Zambeze’ a leste, com produtos de erosão e de reposição
distribuídos por toda a parte.
• Sequência 6: Depósitos quaternários, subdivididos em depósitos pleistocénicos,
como por exemplo as dunas interiores, terraços fluviais, grés costeiros (ou ‘beach
rocks’) e calcários lacustres, e em depósitos holocénicos, como por exemplo os
eluviões argilo-arenosos e areno-argilosos ou com composição argilosa, as dunas
costeiras e os depósitos aluvionares.

Estas sequências encontram-se separadas entre si por descontinuidades angulares e por

períodos de não deposição ou erosão devidos aos ciclos transgressivo-regressivos, resultando
da acção combinada entre flutuações eustáticas do nível do mar, subsidência da bacia e
elevação continental. As mudanças de fácies, variando de continentais a parálicas até de
marinhas pouco profundas a realmente marinhas, verificam-se geralmente no sentido de oeste
para leste.

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As seguintes sequências foram encontradas na área cartografada constante do presente

volume:

Sequência 1
As rochas sedimentares da Lupata não estão expostas na área cartografada, mas conhecem-se
dos dados das sondagens profundas realizadas no âmbito da pesquisa de hidrocarbonetos.

Sequência 2
Representa os sedimentos que foram depositados durante o Cretácico Médio a Superior e
compreende a importante Formação continental de Sena* na parte oeste. Distinguem-se dos
sedimentos subjacentes do Grupo da Lupata por descontinuidades do Cretácico Médio ou
mais antigas. A Formação de Sena* reflecte as fácies continentais da subsidência da bacia na
margem interior da planície costeira e está presente ao longo de vastas áreas nas regiões
centro-oeste e norte da Bacia de Moçambique. A Formação de Sena* foi depositada durante a
grande e prolongada transgressão senoniana e é caracterizada pela ocorrência de grés
arcósicos de grão médio a grosseiro (CrSt, CrSas), localmente com calhaus e conglomerados
arenosos maciços (CrSb), alternando com intervalos de siltitos. Localmente, o grés
apresentam elevadas expressões de tório e potássio.

Sequência 3
É caracterizada pela Formação de Grudja* de idade cretácica superior a paleocénica, em
conjunto com a mais localizada e menor Formação de Incomani*, as quais sobrepõem
discordantemente as litologias da Sequência 2.
A Formação de Grudja* consiste de estratos marinhos, iniciando com uma camada
basal com Alectryonia ungulata, que é usada como um horizonte marcante separando a
Formação de Grudja* da Formação de Sena*, em conjunto com uma descontinuidade e hiatus
intra-senonianos. A Formação de Grudja* é caracterizada pela ocorrência de calcarenitos ou
calcarenitos glauconíticos, siltitos e margas (CrG), intercaladas com calcários em menor
proporção. Local e esporadicamente, observam-se variedades conglomeráticas com
macrofauna marinha, atingindo grés glauconíticos marcadamente enriquecidos em fósseis.
Baseada numa descontinuidade e hiatus do Paleocénico Inferior, a Formação de
Grudja* pode ser dividida em duas partes, sendo uma inferior e outra superior. Durante a
deposição dos clastos marinhos de baixa profundidade da Formação de Grudja Inferior* na
parte ocidental da Bacia de Moçambique, foram depositados carbonatos de águas profundas
quer no oceano quer na parte oriental da bacia. Durante a elevação verificada no Eocénico
Inferior, a Formação de Grudja* foi erodida em alguns locais.
Entre os Rios Movene e Maputo ocorrem calcarenitos marinhos bem fossilizados, com
horizontes conglomeráticos ocasionais, os quais contêm fósseis de lamelibrânquios,
gasterópodes (Turrilites) e baculites (Moura and Oberholzer, 1969). Estes calcarenitos (CrI)
(Fig. 9.10) representam as rochas da Formação de Incomani*, uma vez que elas foram
consideradas como sendo os equivalentes daquelas de Incomanini e mais jovens que os grés
cenomanianos de Mapicane descritos por Förster (1975). As restantes rochas sedimentares
ocorrendo próximo dos Basaltos de Movene foram reagrupadas no Cretácico Indiferenciado
(CrM).

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Sequência 4
A Formação paleocénica de Mapai* ocorre maioritariamente na parte ocidental de
Moçambique ao longo das escarpas suaves dos vales dos Rios Limpopo, Uanétzi e Singuédzi,
na Barragem de Massingir e no Rio dos Elefantes (Graus Quadrados 2331/2332). Por vezes,
jazem discordantemente sobre os vulcanitos dos Libombos. Trabalhos de campo realizados
pelos geólogos do Consórcio GTK permitiram a identificação de seis subunidades
cartografáveis, às quais foram atribuídas as seguintes nomenclaturas (do topo para a base):
Calcários Superiores (TeAuL), Grés Superiores (TeAuc), Grés Médios (TeAcs), Calcários
Médios (TeAml), Grés Inferiores (TeAlc) e Calcários Basais (TeAbl) (Figs. 8.7 and 8.18).
Contudo, sob o ponto de vista sedimentológico, é difícil usar esta subdivisão num
sentido genético. Estes depósitos consistem de aluviões muito grosseiros constituídos por
barras de canais medianos (períodos alternantes de calhaus rolados e de conglomerados) e
áreas entre canais dominadas por areias mais finas e siltitos. As litologias calcárias
dominantes podem corresponder a períodos de cheias ou a um nível do mar mais elevado. Os
grés e os conglomerados são predominantemente ferruginosos e possuem coloração vermelha
(côr de tijolo) com, em alguns locais, zonas esbranquiçadas lixiviadas devidas à redeposição
carbonática. Estes depósitos imaturos de grão grosseiro foram classificados como planícies
arenosas gerais, drenando a margem escarpada elevada situada ocidentalmente e
correspondente ao Cratão do Kaapvaal e à Cadeia dos Libombos. De destacar que a Formação
de Mapai, muito rica em fósseis, foi definida como uma formação ‘nova’ pelos geólogos do
Consórcio GTK.

Sequência 5
Esta sequência representa os sedimentos de idade do Paleocénico-Pliocénico atribuídos às
Formações de Mangulane*, Tembe*, Inhaminga*, Maputo*, Boane*, Salamanga*,
Cheringoma*, Jofane*, Inharrime*, Ponta Vermelha* e de Mazamba*.
O evento regresssivo oligocénico mais importante foi seguido por uma transgressão
gradual. Na vasta área localizada entre os paleodeltas dos Rios Zambeze e Limpopo, muito
pouco profunda, depósitos marinhos restritos a lagunares marcam a fase primária da
transgressão. Os estratos relacionados com a transgressão são as camadas de dolomitos
vermelhos, argilas vermelhas e silte/grés, com intercalações locais de anidrite, do Miocénico
Inferior. Estas camadas são referidas como constituindo a Formação de Inharrime*, que
assenta discordantemente sobre a Formação de Cheringoma* (Salman and Abdulá, 1995).
A Formação de Temane* pode passar gradualmente à Formação de Inharrime* e
encontra-se desenvolvida numa pequena bacia evaporítica perto da foz do Rio Save.
Compreende argilitos margosos cinzentos-escuros e siltitos com intercalações de calcários
portadores de gesso e poucas areias (Pinna et al. 1986).
A Formação de Mangulane* é caracterizada por calcários do Miocénico (TeMl), com
intercalações de grés (TeMm) contendo fósseis do género Spondylus, Teredo e Ostrea (c.f.
Borges et al. 1939).
A Formação de Inhaminga* compreende uma parte basal composta por grés micáceos
a argilíticos de grão fino a médio (Tel). Os pequenos fósseis de gasterópodes e bivalves e
litofáceis associadas são indicadores de um meio de deposição marinho litoral, com possíveis
intercalações deltaicas. A transgressão culminou no fim do Miocénico Inferior e resultou
numa sedimentação costeira, marinha, de pouca profundidade, passando no sentido oeste para
ambientes continentais.

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A deposição do Miocénico foi mais extensa a leste e é representada pelos calcarenitos

e calcários bioclásticos da Formação de Jofane*. Esta unidade pode ser dividida nos seguintes
membros (de baixo para cima): Calcários de Urrongas (TeJu), Calcarenitos do Cabe (TeJc),
Grés Silicificados Locais (TeJs) e Grés Remobilizados/Conglomerados (TeJco).
A Formação de Mazamba* compreende dominantemente uma sequência continental
areno-greso-conglomerática (TeZ) composta por depósitos detríticos de material não
calibrado argilo-arenoso ou conglomerático, jazendo no topo da dominante Formação marinha
de Jofane*.
A Formação da Ponta Vermelha* compreende, na sua porção superior, grés
ferruginosos vermelhos e areias siltíticas (Föster, 2004). Os siltitos e margas desta unidade
são rochas semiconsolidadas, friáveis, apresentando acamamento e a característica erosão do
tipo ‘terreno caótico’ (‘bad land’). À porção inferior da Formação da Ponta Vermelha* foi
atribuída uma idade pliocénica, mas está associada de perto com as dunas internas do
Pleistocénio.
Na parte oriental e marítima da Bacia de Moçambique a sedimentação marinha
continuou sem interrupção através do Eocénico. Contudo, na parte ocidental, esta fase de
desenvolvimento da bacia iniciou-se com um hiatus e discordância de idade paleocénica a
eocénica inferior e terminou com uma descontinuidade e hiatus no Oligocénico e no
Oligocénico Superior. Calcários marinhos da Formação de Cheringoma* ocorrem por cerca
de 50 Km ao longo do Rio Búzi para oeste e depois na direcção SSE, jazendo
discordantemente sobre a Formação de Grudja*, do Paleocénico. Na localidade-tipo, a
Formação de Cheringoma* apresenta fácies marinha de fraca profundidade, altamente
energética, no interior da zona fótica. Para oriente e no sentido das zonas mais profundas da
rampa carbonatada no oceano, estes calcários (TeC) transformam-se em calcários margosos e
em margas calcárias. As cheias do Eocénico Superior resultaram nos calcários numulíticos e
recifais da Formação regressiva de Cheringoma. Fósseis são muitas vezes encontrados nos
calcarenitos e calcários da Formação de Tembe (TeT).
A Formação de Maputo* é uma sequência de grés glauconíticos finamente acamados
(TeP) com nódulos calcários, indicando condições de deposição costeiras a de mar aberto,
ambiente que é condicionado pelo desenvolvimento de duas estruturas de rifte profundas,
grosso modo paralelas e alinhadas N-S, ou seja, o Graben de Mazenga (a este) e o Graben de
Funhalouro (a oeste).
A Formação de Boane*, não datada, consiste de siltitos arenosos vermelho-
acastanhados escuros, friáveis (TeB) (Fig. 9.30). Esta unidade pode representar uma fácies
continental mais ferruginosa, variedade basal da Formação de Maputo*.
A Formação de Salamanga*, que cobre discordantemente a Formação cretácica de
Maputo*, é composta por níveis heterogéneos compreendendo calcários arenosos e grés
calcários (TeSa) com calcários bioclásticos (Fig. 9.38). A eles associados de perto, ocorrem
também grés avermelhados (TeSs). Concluindo, a maior parte dos calcários das Formações de
Cheringoma* e de Salamanga* representam depósitos de recifes interiores.

Sequência 6:
Os sedimentos quaternários mostram variações marcadas de rochas consolidadas a sedimentos
friáveis não consolidados e cobrem o grosso da área coberta e discutida na presente Notícia
Explicativa. A cobertura quaternária pode ser dividida em sub-membros no interior da área de
estudo.

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Os sedimentos quaternários incluem: (1) Areias eólicas (Qe) com níveis arenosos não
consolidados formando lençóis superficiais, geralmente com poucos metros de espessura, (2)
Terraços fluviais que são geralmente constituídos por areias argilosas com um elevado
cimento argiloso, variando de grão fino a médio, com côr castanha escura a negra, (3)
Depósitos de escorrência eluvionares com composição argilosa (Qpi), contendo material
argiloso de côr escura, (4) Depósitos de vertente coluviais (Qc), (5) Grés costeiros/’Beach
Rocks’ (Qcs), os quais são constituídos por rochas litificadas compostas por depósitos
arenosos com matriz calcária, fossilíferos, não calibrados, mostrando ocasionalmente
estratificação entrecruzada, (6) Calcários lacustres (Qll), compostos geralmente por calcários
de água doce, fossilíferos, compactos ou friáveis, ocasionalmente alterados, (7) Depósitos de
escorrência eluvionares com composição areno-argilosa (Qps), os quais se formaram devido à
actuação dos processos erosivos normais agindo em unidades de grés, (8) Argilas aluvionares
de origem fluvio-marinha (Qst), caracterizadas por apresentarem teores elevados de argila e
côr cinzenta escura a negra, (9) Depósitos aluvionares recentes (Qa), compostos por areias,
silte e cascalho depositados pelas águas correntes ou material de inundação em ambiente
fluvial ou deltaico, (10) Dunas interiores (Qdi), as quais são compostas por areias eólicas,
geralmente consolidadas pela vegetação e localizadas no interior, não longe da actual linha de
costa, mas não fazendo parte do sistema actual de dunas activas, (11) Dunas costeiras e areias
de praia recentes (Qd), distribuídas ao longo da actual linha de costa, as quais são geralmente
constituídas por areias não consolidadas e são originadas pela acção combinada do
fornecimento fluvial e de factores erosivos.
A deposição da cobertura quaternária é parcialmente controlada por forças endógenas
exercidas durante o desenvolvimento da bacia. Contudo, para a deposição do Quaternário, os
processos exógenos foram mais importantes, notavelmente as flutuações do nível do mar
devidas à alternância de episódios glaciares e intraglaciares. Como sempre, as unidades
cartografáveis depositadas durante este período estão relacionadas com o respectivo ambiente
de deposição (marinho, lacustre, fluvial, eólico, solos antigos, etc.) e relacionadas também
com a idade relativa das diferentes regiões e unidades fisiográficas do território. A cronologia
proposta joga com quatro avanços (transgressões) e cinco recuos (regressões) do mar,
correspondendo às fases glaciais e intraglaciais:
• Transgressão e sedimentação aluvial e lacustre mantida ao longo de uma zona a
mais de 100 Km para oeste da actual linha de costa;
• Primeira regressão do mar, correspondendo com uma segunda interfase lacustre a
leste da primeira;
• Deposição fluvial cobrindo o talude de abrasão marinha. Os depósitos aluvionares
encontram-se parcialmente bloqueados por uma barreira dunar consolidada, a qual
constitui um obstáculo à descarga fluvial normal para um mar aberto. Na interfase
das águas doces e salgadas nos lagos intradunares, foi depositado o primeiro nível
de diatomitos;
• Mudança dos canais deposicionais intradunares pela acreção de novas barreiras
dunares. Formaram-se lagoas com mangais entre as zonas de marés e os lagos
interiores.

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RECURSOS MINERAIS
Moçambique possui um elevado e diverso potencial em recursos minerais inexplorados.
Apesar de tal variedade mineral, a actividade mineira tem jogado um fraco e insignificante
papel no desenvolvimento da economia do país.
Actualmente a situação está a inverter-se, devido principalmente à produção de gás
natural e ao desenvolvimento de trabalhos de pesquisa em depósitos de carvão e de minerais
pesados das areias costeiras, de dimensão mundial. A produção planificada para o ouro,
minerais pegmatíticos de metais raros e de terras raras, bem como de minerais industriais,
aumentará igualmente a contribuição do sector extractivo para a economia nacional. As razões
principais para a baixa utilização dos recursos minerais nacionais foram, entre outras, a
existência de infra-estruturas capazes e de bancos de dados da especialidade incompletos, os
quais comprometem a pesquisa e exploração desses recursos. A falta de capitais quer internos
quer externos, contribuiu igualmente para um lento desenvolvimento do sector mineiro numa
escala industrial.
Independentemente do anteriormente descrito, prospectores e mineiros artesanais
desempenharam um importante papel na economia nacional, especialmente a nível das
povoações e localidades. As suas actividades resultaram na identificação e exploração de
depósitos de ouro, gemas de vários tipos e alguns materiais de construção. Os depósitos de
ouro localizados nos cinturões de rochas verdes a leste do Lago Niassa, na região setentrional
do país, foram inicialmente descobertos e minerados artesanalmente por prospectores locais.
A maioria das gemas que ocorrem no Campo Pegmatítico do Alto Ligonha na Província da
Zambézia e no de Nampula, no centro-norte do país, são ainda mineradas por mineiros
artesanais locais.
De forma a aumentar a exploração da riqueza mineral do país, a Direcção Nacional de
Geologia (DNG), com o apoio de empresas mineiras privadas e de missões bilaterais e
multilaterais, levou a cabo trabalhos significativos de prospecção e pesquisa durante as
últimas décadas. Tal conduziu à descoberta de depósitos importantes de carvão, minerais
pesados das areias costeiras, ouro, columbo-tantalite, fosfatos e rochas decorativas, bem como
de pedra para construção, argilas e cascalho. Muitos destes depósitos encontram-se
presentemente em fase de desenvolvimento. O desenvolvimento dos recursos minerais tornou-
se uma prioridade para a economia nacional, por forma a que seja mutuamente atractiva e
benéfica, quer para o investidor estrangeiro, quer para o Governo de Moçambique.
Como uma consequência do aumento do conhecimento geológico, facilitado pelas
actividades desenvolvidas no âmbito do Projecto de Capacitação e Gestão dos Recursos
Minerais, os investimentos no sector, encabeçados por companhias mineiras regionais e
internacionais, encontram-se já em crescimento. Espera-se que companhias mineiras invistam
na pesquisa de minerais energéticos (hidrocarbonetos, carvão e urânio), de minerais de titânio
e de zircónio existentes nas chamadas ‘areias pesadas’, na pesquisa de ouro, diamantes e
outras gemas, de agrominerais e fosfatos, de minérios de tântalo, fluorite e de outros minerais
industriais. A produção de materiais de construção poderá beneficiar muito a partir dos
investimentos efectuados por empresas e investimentos locais.
O Cinturão de Rochas Verdes Ódzi-Mutare-Manica, de idade arcaica, hospeda um
elevado potencial em ouro, cobre, níquel, asbestos e minérios de ferro. Depósitos primários e
aluvionares (‘placers’) de ouro foram explorados nesta região durante muitas décadas.

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Depósitos de bauxite com baixo teor industrial são minerados na área de Moriangane,
na Província de Manica, ao longo da fronteira com o Zimbabwe. Outras áreas com
ocorrências de bauxite e com algum potencial são constituídas pelo Monte Salambídua, na
Província de Tete e pelo Monte Maúzo, na Província da Zambézia.
As rochas metassedimentares dos Grupos proterozóicos de Gairezi e de Umkondo,
situadas ao longo da fronteira do Zimbabwe, hospedam mineralizações de ferro e de cobre,
bem como de calcários cristalinos.
A grafite encontra-se em gnaisses e xistos de idade proterozóica, geralmente
distribuídos na proximidade dos calcários, formando pequenas disseminações ou ocorrendo
como veios estreitos e pequenas lentículas.
Na região nordeste do país, junto ao Alto Ligonha, jazigos pegmatíticos são portadores
de reservas significativas de tântalo, em associação com nióbio, antimónio e bismuto
subordinados, assim como com minerais de lítio, berilo industrial e gemológico, mica, quartzo
industrial e gemológico e feldspato. O tântalo e o nióbio são os recursos mais importantes e
que mostram potencial mineiro imediato.
A fluorite ocorre em fracturas de idade mesozóica, em associação com a evolução do
rifte de idade Karoo e/ou cretácica, e ainda associada a intrusões carbonatíticas, como por
exemplo o Monte Muambe, assim como a apatite que ocorre no Monte Muande, ambos
localizados na região de Tete.
Depósitos de carvão de dimensão mundial ocorrem na porção inferior do Supergrupo
de Karoo. A empresa brasileira CVRD, registada em Moçambique como Rio Doce
Moçambique, Lda., está actualmente envolvida num grande projecto na área de Moatize, para
carvão de coque e de queima, o qual está previsto que entre em produção no ano de 2009.
Tais depósitos situam-se entre os maiores e mais importantes recursos minerais de
Moçambique, em conjunto com outros grandes depósitos de minerais pesados das areias
(‘black sands’), igualmente de dimensão mundial, que se desenvolveram quer em dunas ao
longo da costa quer interiores, e nas areias das praias actuais.
A porção meridional de Moçambique, localizada a sul do paralelo 20º de latitude sul
(correspondente à área abrangida pela presente Notícia Explicativa), é coberta principalmente
por rochas do Fanerozóico. Os recursos minerais mais importantes e economicamente
potenciais nesta área são os vários campos de gás natural situados na Província de Inhambane.
Quantidades comerciais de gás natural foram reportadas de muitos horizontes da Formação de
Grudja Inferior* na parte central da Bacia de Moçambique, como é o caso dos depósitos de
Pande, Temane e Búzi, dos quais os primeiros dois já se encontram em produção. Os
reservatórios constituem formações originadas em águas pouco profundas e de barras (Salman
and Abdulá, 1995).
Também se encontram indícios de hidrocarbonetos nas Bacia do Rovuma e de
Moçambique. Potencial para petróleo foi reportado como existente nas áreas da plataforma da
Bacia de Moçambique.
Os minerais pesados das areias costeiras situados na orla marítima entre Maputo e
Inhambane possuem igualmente um grande potencial para a exploração de minerais de titânio
e de zircónio a grande escala. Nesta área, os projectos mais avançados localizam-se nas áreas
de Chibuto e de Xai Xai-Chongoene.
As matérias-primas industriais representam um outro recurso muito importante. Na
Província de Maputo incluem riolitos para a indústria de construção na área entre Boane e
Massingir, calcários para a indústria de cimento na área de Salamanga, matérias-primas estas

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que, em conjunto com areias, cascalho e vários tipos de argilas, constituem o suporte da
indústria de construção actualmente crescente.
As possibilidades de se criar um mercado mais forte para os recursos de diatomito de
boa qualidade existentes na Província de Maputo e de Gaza, com vista à substituição de
matérias-primas importadas, deverão ser encaradas com mais seriedade.
A maioria da bentonite de Boane é exportada sem praticamente qualquer tratamento.
Neste sentido, uma procura de melhores mercados e desenvolvimento do produto são
requeridos de forma a acrescentar valor e aumentar os proveitos da bentonite actualmente
extraída.
Recursos de águas termais são abundantes ao longo das falhas do rifte localizadas nas
zonas de montanha na área da fronteira ocidental com a África do Sul e Zimbabwe.
A procura para água mineral de boa qualidade está constantemente a aumentar, quer
para o consumo interno, quer para exportação.
As indicações mais meridionais de carvão no país, correspondentes aos estratos mais
inferiores do Supergrupo do Karoo, encontram-se em Espungabera, Província de Manica
(Grau Quadrado 2032), junto à fronteira com o Zimbabwe.
Micro-diamantes aluvionares foram encontrados nos leitos dos Rios Limpopo e
Singuédzi, na Província de Gaza, os quais foram provavelmente transportados pelos rios de
drenavam o Cratão sul-africano do Kaapvaal.
Depósitos sedimentares de fosforite são conhecidos como ocorrendo em Magude, nos
calcarenitos da Formação de Jofane*, a NNW de Maputo. De acordo com Manhiça (1991), os
depósitos apresentam possança superior a 50 metros e possuem um teor em glauconite de
50%. Adicionalmente, conhecem-se reservas de guano de morcego na região do Búzi. A
Formação eocénica de Cheringoma* e a Formação miocénica de Jofane* possuem grandes
reservas de calcário, halite e gesso.
Moçambique possui um grande potencial para promover grandes investimentos no
sector mineiro. Tudo dependerá das medidas estratégicas e activas que as autoridades
moçambicanas possam via a criar e implementar.

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LIST OF TABLES
Tabela A.1. Domínios tectono-estruturais-magmáticos de África. NUMEROINTI, Table
1.?.................................................................................................................................. 19
Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters from Tete datum (20 – 24°S) to
MOZNET datum (assuming MOZNET is equivalent to WGS84) valid for
provinces of Gaza, Inhambane and southern parts of Sofala and Manica, i.e.,
between approximately 24° and 20° S Tete, EPSG 2003)............................................ 60
Table 2.2. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 and LOT 3(+ Extension) area, showing
Square Degree Sheet number, Sheet Codes and Names. .............................................. 84
Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains....................................................... 95
Table 5.2. Lithostratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al. 1996) . 103
Table 6.1. Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et
al. 2002). ..................................................................................................................... 111
Table 6.2. Simplified stratigraphic order in the Umkondo Group. ........................................ 113
Table 7.1. Sub-division of the Gairezi/ Fronteira Group according to Hunting (1984) and
GTK Consortium (2006a; this Map Explanation). ..................................................... 131
Table 8.1. Lithostratigraphic subdivision of volcanic rocks of the Lebombo Monocline.
Only the coloured units are present in Mozambique (modified after Riley et al.
2004, and references therein). Ages refer to rocks in South Africa............................ 148
Table 9.1. Lithostratigraphic units and codes as presented in the accompanying geological
maps. ........................................................................................................................... 177
Table 9.2. Litho-stratigraphic units in the Lupata Group....................................................... 179
Table 9.3. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group. .......................................... 181
Table 9.14. Simplified stratigraphic order of the uppermost Mapai Formation sub-units
TeAul, TeAuc and TeAcs and the overlying Mazamba Formation (TeZ) in a 100
km long N-S trending section from the map sheet SDS 2231, 2232 to sheet SDS
2331/2332. .................................................................................................................. 192
Table 11.1. Neogene stratigraphy. VIITTAUS? .................................................................... 259
Table 12.1. Aggregate rock quarries in operation in Maputo Province in 2005. ................... 271

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-mapped by the DNG in collaboration with various
international consortia. .................................................................................................... 6
Fig. 2. Map Explanation Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+ Extension) and LOT 3 (+
Extension). This Map Explanation covers Volume 1 (SDS in red colour)..................... 7
Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project. ........................................... 54
Fig. 2.2. Availability and quality of existing map products (scale 1:250 000) LOT 3 area
(this Map Explanation) and LOT 3 Extension area. ..................................................... 55
Fig. 2.3. Layout of LANDSAT-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000
topographic and geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT3 and LOT2/3
Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1 and 3, respectively)......................... 57
Fig. 2.4. Layout of ASTER VNIR scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000
topographic and geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT3 and LOT2/3
Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1 and 3, respectively)......................... 58
Fig. 2.5. Index map of southern and central Mozambique showing survey blocks covered
by air-borne and marine geophysics. ............................................................................ 59

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Fig. 2.6. Merged blocks of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes. Initial blocks of LANDSAT
scenes (bands 7, 3 and 1) with similar radiometric responses. ..................................... 61
Fig. 2.7. LANDSAT 7 ETM mosaic (LOT3). Final mosaic generated by merging the
LANDSAT scene blocks shown in Fig. 2.6. Differences in radiometric responses
were levelled using histogram matching and feathering functions. Red = band 7,
Green = band 3 and Blue = band 1. .............................................................................. 62
Fig. 2.8. Example showing overlays of digitised lithological contacts on LANDSAT
ETM colour composite images to illustrate registration problems of the digitised 1:
250 000 scale geological maps with respect the LANDSAT ETM colour composite
images. Note the variation in direction and magnitude of the shifts. The
superimposed grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 1 km. .................................. 63
Fig. 2.9. Parameters for Datum transformation........................................................................ 64
Fig. 2.10. GPS track logs collected by the GTK Consortium superimposed on LANDSAT
TM mosaic to verify accuracy of geometric registration.............................................. 65
Fig. 2.11. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032)..................... 67
Fig. 2.12. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images by E.
Schetselaar). .................................................................................................................. 68
Fig. 2.13. Landsat ETM sub-scene colour composite, bands 7, 3 and 1 (A) and ASTER
VNIR colour composite bands 3, 2 and 1 (B) to illustrate the advantages of the
higher spatial resolution of the ASTER scenes in areas of complex unit geometry
(Quaternary units Qpi and Qps, 5 km grid). ................................................................. 69
Fig. 2.14. Comparison of the spatial resolution of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies
from the 1983 (right) and 2003 (left) airborne surveys. The white line marks the
boundary between the two surveys. .............................................................................. 71
Fig. 2.15. Image clips to illustrate the effects of merging relief-shaded SRTM data with
gamma-ray spectrometry channels. (A) Original ternary radioelement map, (B)
ternary radioelement map ‘sharpened’ with relief-shaded SRTM data, (50 km
grid). Note that the integrated terrain rendition in the ternary radioelement map
facilitates the perception of 3-D relationships between geological units (Images by
E. Schetselaar)............................................................................................................... 73
Fig. 2.16. Potassium-rich signature (red-pink hues) consistent with exposure of Sena
Formation* to the west on a fused image of relief-shaded SRTM and gamma-ray
spectrometry channels suggest that a small domain of the Sena Formation* (red
arrow), not previously mapped, is exposed as an erosion window in the upper
valleys of one of the tributaries of the Save River. Also note the distinct contrasts
between potassium and thorium signatures within the Sena Formation*, suggesting
internal variations in lithological composition. Grid is north oriented and has a
spacing of 10 km........................................................................................................... 75
Fig. 2.17. Tone and textural image characteristics on a Landsat ETM colour composite
image (red= band 7, green = band 3 and blue = band 1) suggest exposures of Sena
Formation* (indicated by red arrows) in drainage system, similar to the setting
shown in Fig. 2.16. Grid is north oriented with a spacing of 5 km............................... 76
Fig. 2.18. Image interpretation of ASTER VNIR scene at ~ 23°25S and 31°50 E. The
interpretation shows isolated outcrops of Umbelúzi rhyolite (Karoo) E of its main
contact with the Cretaceous Grudja Formation*. Note the consistency between hue
and joint patterns between the large western polygon and the isolated outcrops.
Note also the isolated pockets of Quaternary cover (Qp1) covering the Grudja
Formation* (K/Ksm). Grid lines are north oriented and spaced 2 km apart................ 77

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Fig. 2.19. Relief-shaded SRTM data (90-m pixels) manifesting the intersecting NNW-
SSE and N-S trending rift structures. Dextral shearing along WNW-ESE and ENE-
WSW faults offset the small-scale rift structures. These strike-slip faults are also
reflected in the drainage pattern. Inset shows detail with overlay of published
1:250 000-scale geological map (orange lines) and the image interpretation
(yellow lines) of Quaternary units. Note the shifts between the overlays and the
differences in interpretation styles. The image interpretation positions the
boundary between the Quaternary units at the lower break of slope, effectively
outlining the floor of the depressions whereas the map compilation puts the
boundaries closer to the upper break of slope. The round to oval- to irregular-
shaped depressions are believed to represent solution-collapse features in sub-
outcropping rock units. ................................................................................................. 78
Fig. 2.20. Structural interpretation of the south-eastern corner of Volume 1 area. Orange
lines represent palaeo-beach ridges and light brown dotted lines are dunes axes
that overprint the former. Red lines indicate tectonic faults that correspond to
offsets of the beach ridges with an apparent displacement of 1 – 5 km. The grid is
north oriented with a spacing of 50 km. ....................................................................... 79
Fig. 2.21. Structural interpretation of the area directly north of Maputo on relief-shaded
SRTM data. Magenta lines indicate the traces of igneous layering in Karoo
volcanic complexes, red lines indicate inferred faults. Green lines indicate
lineaments. Also note the NNE-SSW directed rift feature in the eastern part of the
image. Light brown lines indicate depositional (dunes) and possibly denudation
features of aeolian transport. The grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 50 km. . 79
Fig. 2.22. Map sheet division and locations of field observations (●), thin sections (■),
geochemical analysis (■), and age determinations (■ ; 1.1 Ga Mashonaland
dolerite in north and Pessene nepheline syenite in south) in Volume 1 area.
Background map with road network tracked by GTK Consortium on simplified
geology.......................................................................................................................... 81
Fig. 2.23. Histogram showing magmatic age peaks as achieved from GTK Consortium
datings. .......................................................................................................................... 82
Fig. 2.24. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets scale 1: 250 000.
Degree sheets 2032/2033, 2034/2035, 2131/2132, 2133, 2134/2135, 2231, 2232,
2233, 2234/2235, 2331/2332, 2333, 2334/2335, 2431/2432, 2433, 2434/2435,
2531/2532, 2533/2534 and 2632 are discussed in Map Explanation - Volume 1. ....... 83
Fig. 2.25. Petrophysical characteristics of rock samples from Volume 1 area. ....................... 85
Fig. 2.26. Structure of the database used in LOT 2 and LOT 3 mineral occurrence
inventory. ...................................................................................................................... 86
Fig. 2.27. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for
identification. ................................................................................................................ 86
Fig. 2.28. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit
information.................................................................................................................... 87
Fig. 4.1. Inselberg south of the town of Chimoio close to Sussundenga at Zenabe. (SDS
1932/1933). ................................................................................................................... 91
Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 Ma) (Dirks
and Ashwal, 2002). ....................................................................................................... 96
Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002). .. 98
Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 500 Ma) (Dirks
and Ashwal, 2002). ....................................................................................................... 99
Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (~ 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal,
2002) ........................................................................................................................... 101

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Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo rocks (outcrop and subsurface) in southern Africa (adapted
from Verniers et al. 1989)........................................................................................... 102
Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002) ......................... 105
Fig. 5.7. Africa in the Tertiary-Quaternary (30 Ma – Recent) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002)Error! Bookmark no
Fig. 6.1. Simplified map of the Zimbabwe Craton showing the major litho-tectonic units
(after Hofmann et al. 2002). Key: 1 = Mutare-Manica greenstone belt; 2 = Makaha
greenstone belt; 3 = Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt. The northern Archaean
gneiss terrain comprises the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT). ........ 112
Fig. 6.2. Sub-horizontal ortho-quartzite (cliff) of the Lower Quartzite Member. Rio Búzi
bridge (0485021/7738331).......................................................................................... 115
Fig. 6.3. (A) Tangential cross-bedding in laminated orthoquartzite of the Lower Quartzite
Member, (B) Intraformational, monomict conglomerate horizon with subrounded
quartzite clasts. The Lower Quartzite Member. Rio Búzi bridge (0485021/
7738331). Scale bar is 15 cm...................................................................................... 115
Fig. 6.4. (A) Graphite-rich sericite schist in quarry for road construction material. SW of
the Dacata village (0498165/7750932), (B) Detailed photograph of sulphide-
bearing graphite schist of the Graphite Schist Member. NW of the Dacata village
(049684/ 7764535). Scale bar is 10 cm. ..................................................................... 116
Fig. 6.5. (A) Bedded and laminated chert with strongly weathered calcareous interbeds in
the Calcareous Chert Member of the Dacata Formation*. SW of the Dacata village
(0498848/7752004), (B) Detailed photograph of chert with calcareous interbeds.
Note calcareous concretion in top of photograph, (C) Black chert with distinct
bedding. The Calcareous Chert Member in the Lucite river (0512582/7778174).
Scale bar is 10/15 cm. ................................................................................................. 117
Fig. 6.6. South-east dipping siltstone beds of the Siltstone Member. Rio Buzi (487929/
7732447). .................................................................................................................... 118
Fig. 6.7. Sub-horizontal, weathered reddish brown slate of the Siltstone Member at slope
of a hill. 4 km NE of Dacata village. (0509929/7758344). Scale bar 10 cm.............. 118
Fig. 6.8. (A) Phyllite slabs of the Siltstone Member. Outcrop near power line service road
(0510603/7747273), (B) Detailed photograph of magenta-coloured siltstone with
dark, greenish-coloured interbeds. Siltstone Member. Quarry near the Búzi River
bridge (0483259/7739622). Scale bar is 15 cm. ......................................................... 118
Fig. 6.9. Gently south dipping orthoquartzite of the Upper Quartzite Member. N of the
Espungabera village (475587/ 7741590). Scale bar is 15 cm..................................... 119
Fig. 6.10. Exfoliation features in andesitic lava flow of the Espungabera Formation*,
lying directly on top of light brown orthoquartzite of the Dacata Formation*. Rio
Chinhica (0484883/7722769) ..................................................................................... 120
Fig. 6.11. Lava textures of the Espungabera Formation*. (A) Regular cooling jointing in a
thick andesitic lava flow. N slope of Mte Chiurainue (0479893/7724664)), (B)
Large quartz-filled amygdules in the upper part of andesitic lava flow
(0465184/7725699), (C) Irregular quartz and epidote-filled amygdules in upper
part of lava flow. Espungabera Formation* SE of Espungabera village (0482461/
7733614), (D) Fault breccia between the Espungabera Formation* and the Rio Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation*. SE of the Macuo village (0461458/7700601). Scale bar is
10/15 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm............................................................................. 121
Fig. 6.12. (A) Massive sub-horizontal Mashonaland dolerite sill. North of the Goi-Goi
village (0510730/ 7759986), (B) Detailed photograph of Mashonaland dolerite sill,
sampled for age determination. NE of the Mte Macuiana (0491577/7758265).
Scale bar is 12 cm. ...................................................................................................... 123

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Fig. 6.13. Chemical classification diagrams of metavolcanic rocks from the Mashonaland
dolerite-gabbro (the Umkondo Igneous Province) and Manica greenstone belt.
Classification in diagram (A) by Winchester and Floyd (1977), diagram (B) by Le
Bas et al. (1986), diagram (C) by Irvine and Baragar (1971) and diagram (E) by
Jensen (1976). ............................................................................................................. 125
Fig. 7.1. (A) Outcrop of massive but foliated arenaceous schist (meta-arkose ?), (B)
Detailed photo of the rock with plenty of oriented potassium feldspar
porphyroblasts. East of the Serra Sitatonga range (0522448/7757322), (C) Obscure
bedding in arenaceous schist with quartzofeldspathic veins (segregated
leucosome) and feldspar porphyroblasts. E of the Serra Sitatonga range
(0522599/7759173). Scale bar is 15 cm, diameter of coin is 28 mm. ........................ 131
Fig. 7.3. (A) Knife blade outcrops of intensively foliated garnet-staurolite mica schist. E
of the Sitatonga mountain (051992/7763521), (B) Folded garnet-sillimanite-biotite
gneiss, which comprises thin leucosome veins. E of the Sitatonga mountain.
(0524047/7765993). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 133
Fig. 7.4. Strongly foliated quartzite in a road cut at the Sitatonga ridge (0518596/
7761770). .................................................................................................................... 134
Fig. 7.5. (A) Pure quartzite with obscure plane-parallel bedding. N of Rio Muzezigi and
Rio Búzi confluence (05180360/7738430), (B) Tangential and tabular cross-
bedding in saccharoidal quartzite. W slope of the Sitatonga ridge
(0517084/7761607). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 134
Fig. 7.6. Muscovite-biotite schists of the Gairezi Formation*. (A) Muscovite-biotite
schist with boudinaged quartz veins, (B). Detailed photo of garnetiferous
muskovite-biotite schist. E slope of the Sitatonga mountain (0521226/7753029),
(C) Garnet and kyanite-bearing schist in the tributary of Rio Meruaze (0520101/
7761713). Scale bar is 10/15 cm................................................................................. 135
Fig. 7.7. Sharp contact between mica gneiss of the Gairezi Formation* and mafic dyke. S
of Rio Lucite. (0526523/7779093) Diameter of coin is 25 mm. ................................ 136
Fig. 7.8. A boulder of quartz rock. They form several meters long elongated ‘piles’ on the
surface. East of the Serra Sitatonga mountain ridge. (0521804/7776875). Scale bar
10 cm........................................................................................................................... 137
Fig. 7.9. Migmatitic paragneisses of the Báruè Complex. (A) Banded paragneiss, which
comprises granitic veins and segregations. Rio Lucite, (0527728/7779999/). (B)
Close up photo of the granitic gneiss. 20 km SW of Dombe. (0530080/7777250).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 139
Fig. 8.1. Distribution of the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups in the Map Explanation area,
Volume 1..................................................................................................................... 142
Fig. 8.2. A) Argillitic shale with distinct bedding in the lower part of the Moatize
Formation*. Tributary of M'Pote Pote river (0452294/7699036) Scale bar is 10
cm, (B) Coal seams in siltstone of the Moatize Formation*. M’Pote Pote river.
Hammer is 65 cm long. (C) Faintly imbricated, monomictic conglomerate with
well-rounded quartz clasts in a coarse, sandy matrix. Upper part of the Moatize
Formation*. A hill south of the M'Pote Pote river (0447697/7699944), (D)
Polymictic conglomerate, clasts mostly comprising amygdaloidal lavas of the
Espungabera Formation* (Umkondo Group). Upper part of the Moatize
Formation*. Tributary of M'Pote Pote river (0448850/7699338). Scale bar is 10
cm................................................................................................................................ 143
Fig. 8.3. Sandstone cliff of the Cádzi Formation*. South of Rio M'Pote Pote
(0448126/7698298)..................................................................................................... 145

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Fig. 8.4. Sedimentary textures of the Cádzi Formation*. (A) Massive sandstone bed on
the foot of the cliff, (B) Alternating beds of light grey, sugary sandstone and
pinkish siltstone, (C) Possible trace fossil burrows in sandstone. A cliff south of
Rio M'Pote Pote (0448126/7698298), (D) Roundish knots, probably concretions,
on the weathering surfaces of Cádzi sandstone south of Rio Gaba
(048916/7704550). Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................... 145
Fig. 8.5. Lava features of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*. (A) Rapids in the Bùzi river,
formed by basaltic lava flows, (B) Quartz-filled mega-vesicles in the upper part of
a lava flow, (C) Quartz-filled vesicle cylinder in a basaltic flow. S of Monte
Sitatonga (0523719/7743119), (D) Zeolite-filled amygdules in the upper part of a
basaltic lava flow. Rio Merenguese (0470676/7702175). Scale bar is 15 cm. ........... 147
Fig. 8.6. Volcanic rocks occurring within the Umbelúzi rhyolites. (A) Massive dacitic
lava with quartz-filled amygdules and small feldspar phenocrysts. N of the
Namaacha border post (0402172/7127738/), (B) Dacitic lava with quartz-filled
amygdules, 1 – 2 cm in size. W of the Massingir Lake (0376439/7361660). (C)
Basaltic andesite, which contains quartz and carbonate-bearing amygdaloids.
North of the Gaza Camp. (0355966/ 7431830). (D) Mafic massive rock, which
comprises pseudomorphic amphibole ‘knots’. SE of the Gaza Camp. (0361728/
7415296). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 151
Fig. 8.7. (A) Ramp structure with subvertical shrinkage joints in massive rhyolite flow.
West of the Massingir dam, (B) Regular parallel cooling joints in rhyolite of the
Umbelúzi Formation. NW of the Massingir dam (0317013/7380421), (C) Flow
folding in rhyolite. NW of the Mapulanguene village (0403024/7294931), (D)
Contorted flow banding in lava-like rhyolite. Note roundish rhyolite fragments,
which possibly represent a volcanic bomb. West of the Massingir dam.
(0392921/7352615), (E) Folded flow bands in rhyolite. Road cut NEE of
Nanaacha (0412929/7128745), (F) Detailed photo of the flow bands. Hammer is
65 cm long, scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 28 mm........................................ 152
Fig. 8.8. (A) Eutaxitic texture in densely welded ash-flow tuff of the Umbelúzi
Formation, (B) Microphotograph of the sample with vitric layers and small
spherulites. W of the Corumana Lake (0403182/7228703), (C) Star-shaped
lithophysae ('thunder eggs') in a rhyolitic flow. NE of Namaacha
(0408713/7141567), (D) Lithophysae with concentric shells of vapor-phase
minerals. NE of Namaacha (0408562/7142266). Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of
coin is 2.5 cm, width of the microphoto (B) is 20 mm. .............................................. 153
Fig. 8.9. (A) Detailed photo of a massive part of a rhyolite flow of the Umbelúzi
Formation*. Note euhedral feldspar phenocrysts and crystal aggregates, (B) Highly
vesicular upper part of the same flow, (C) Flow-top breccia of the same flow,
comprising angular fragments of feldspar-phyric rhyolite. Road cut south of
Ressano Garcia (0399017/7183886). Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm... 154
Fig. 8.10. (A) Basaltic inclusios in massive rhyolitic flow of the Umbelúzi Formation*.
Note diffuse margins of inclusions. NW of the Massingir dam (0366406/7388298),
(B) Sheet-like basaltic fragments in a massive rhyolitic flow of the Umbelúzi
Formation*. NW of the Mapulanguene village (0400973/7295720). Scale bar is 8
cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm. ...................................................................................... 155
Fig. 8.11. (A) Exposed contact between amygladoilal basaltic lava of the Sabie River
Formation and auto-brecciated rhyolite flow of the Umbelúzi Formation. SE of
Ressano Garcia (0398706/7184575), (B) Pipe- vesicles at the base of a basaltic
lava flow. Old quarry SE of Ressano Garcia (0398981/ 7184380). Scale bar is 10
cm................................................................................................................................ 155

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Fig. 8.12. Volcanic breccias in rhyolitic rocks of the Umbelúzi Formation*. (A) Flow-top
breccia, which comprise large lava fragments. ~14 km SSW of the Gaza Camp
(0351845/7416592), (B) Volcanic breccia composed of mafic and felsic lava
fragments. ~ 8 km S of the Gaza Camp (0354539/7421885). Scale bar is 10 cm. ..... 156
Fig. 8.13. Pyroclastic ash-fall deposits in rhyolites of the Umbelúzi Formation. (A)
Tabular bedding of rhyolitic ash-fall tuff, (B) A layer of lapilli tuff with pumice
fragments on top of a fine-grained tuff with graded bedding, (C) Detailed photo of
the contact between ash-fall tuff and overlying lapilli tuff layers, (D) A pumice
fragment embedded in fine-grained tuff. Note shard layers in the upper part of the
photo, (E) Detailed photo of sharp-edged, partly devitrified fragments of volcanic
glass (shards). Old quarry by the road, north of Mte Ligadjanga
(0414117/7107659). (F) Collapsed pumice fragments (fiamme) in a fine-grained
tuff matrix. Road cut on the EN4 highway (0409944/7169003). Diameter of coin
is 28 mm, pen is 15 cm long. ...................................................................................... 157
Fig. 8.14. Microtexture of pyroclastic rocks, which may partly represent weathering
products of volcanics. (A) Fine-grained tuff, which macroscopically resembles
siltstone. It comprises subangular quartz clasts with rare mica clasts. Wide of
photo 0.6 mm. (0414117/7107659). (B) Medium(-coarse)-grained rock composed
of subrounded volcanic fragments. Wide of photo 1.5 cm. (0414602/7218759) ....... 158
Fig. 8.15. (A) Massive microgranite at Gaza Camp (0353555/7430267), (B) Speroidal
weathering in microgranite. S of the Gaza Camp (0352881/ 7404493), (C)
Microphotograph of granophyric texture in microgranite. Note the bluish
clinopyroxene. Crossed nicols. S of the Gaza Camp (0342890/7467720). Scale bar
is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................................... 159
Fig. 8.16. Amygdaloidal textures in basaltic lavas of the Movene Formation. (A)
Amygdule-rich upper zone of a basalt flow with typical brownish weathering
surface (0412516/7253096), (B) Large, quartz-filled amygdules in the upper zone
of basalt flow near the Pequenos Libombos dam (042210/7113705), (C) A large,
quartz crystal coated geoid in the upper part of the same inflated pahoehoe flow
unit (0424177/7113835), (D) Previously horizontal agate layers in partially filled
amygdules. NW of Monte Portela (0418871/7120492). Scale bar is 10 cm. ............. 160
Fig. 8.17. Textures of the basaltic flows. (A) Medium-grained and uniform, subophitic
core of a lava flow (0411494/7257363), (B) Plagioclase porphyritic basalt that
contains also some carbonate filled amygdules (0412516/7253096) (C)
Phonotephrite with sparse amygdules (0430758/7157 784). Scale bar is 10 cm........ 161
Fig. 8.18. Contact between a yellowish brown rhyolite flow of the Pequenos Libombos
Member (on top) and maroon basaltic lava of the Movene Formation. A quarry on
the western side of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0421955/ 7119193).
Hammer is 65 cm long................................................................................................ 162
Fig. 8.19. (A) Detailed photo of plastically deformed (ash flow) tuff fragments in a non-
welded zone. A quarry on the western side of the Pequenos Libombos mountain
(0421955/7119193), (B) A non-welded ash-fall deposit on the base of rhyolitic
flow. A quarry north of the Sica mountain (0424899/7108411). Diameter of coin is
3 cm............................................................................................................................. 162
Fig. 8.20. Cluster of large lithophysae in rhyolite. Old quarry north of the bentonite plant
(0423900/7119729). Scale bar is 8 cm, (B) Detailed photo of onion-like structure
of lithophysae. Old quarry NE of the Portela ridge (0422725/7118163). Diameter
of coin is 2.5 cm.......................................................................................................... 162

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Fig. 8.21. (A) Magmatic folding in flow-banded rhyolite in an aggregate quarry north of
the bentonite plant (0423900/7119729), (B) A zone of tight, recumbent flow folds
in densely welded ash-flow tuff in the northern part of the Pequenos Libombos
mountain (0426480/ 7147382), (C) Small fiamme and stretched vesicles in
partially welded, eutaxitic tuff. Aggregate quarry north of the Portela mountain
(0422028/7119159), (D) Detailed photo of flow-banded rhyolite with rolled
rhyolite clasts. Old quarry north of the Pequenos Libombos dam
(0423468/7114906) Hammer is 65 cm long/scale bar is 10 cm/diameter of coin is
2.5 cm.......................................................................................................................... 163
Fig. 8.22. (A) A probable volcanic vent or feeder on top of the Pequenos Libombos ridge,
(B) Detailed photo of surrounding rhyolite with flow banding and (possible)
deformed pumice fragments. S of Monte Muguene (0427990/7109961). Scale bar
is 8 cm. ........................................................................................................................ 164
Fig. 8.23. Pyroclastic breccia, comprising juvenile and accessory fragments in a tuff
matrix, (B) Detailed photo of pyroclastic breccia. A hill east of the Pequenos
Libombos mountain (0425129/7117510). Length of pen is 15 cm, diameter of coin
is 28 mm...................................................................................................................... 164
Fig. 8.24. Quartz latite with mafic enclaves and obscure banding. Aggregate quarry
(0428363/ 71223753). Marker pen is 14 cm long...................................................... 165
Fig. 8.25. Close up photo of Pessene alkaline lava. SE of the Moamba town. (0430758/
7157784). Scale bar 10 cm.......................................................................................... 166
Fig. 8.26. (A) Porphyritic texture of the Pessene nepheline syenite, (B) Microphotograph
of nepheline syenite, where euhedral phenocrysts are enclosed in ophitic
groundmass. Nic X. The Pessene quarry (0431268/7150433). Diameter of coin is
2.5 cm, width of photo is 35mm. ................................................................................ 166
Fig. 8.27. (A) Vertical mafic dyke intruding a dacitic lava of the Umbelúzi Formation in
Rio Singuedzi (0361577/7414943), (B) Vertical diabase dyke in quartz latite of the
Pequenos Libombos Formation. NW of Boane (0428363/7123753), (C) Columnar
jointing in a basaltic sill, (D) Detailed photo of regular columnar jointing. Quarry
in the west side of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0424318/7145314).
Hammer is 65 cm long................................................................................................ 167
Fig. 8.28. Gabbroic dyke (light brown, middle part of figure) crosscuts the Movene basalt
(dark brown, lower part of the photo). Close up photo is of the gabbroic dyke.
Dam of the Albufeira dos Pequenos Libombos. (0424161/ 7113823). ...................... 168
Fig. 8.29. Obvious mafic dykes. (A) Massive, pyroxene-bearing gabbroic rock, which
comprises spheroidal weathering. SW of Boane town. (0425018/ 7172522), (B)
Mafic rock, which has a diabasic texture. S of Boane town (0430808/7113337).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 169
Fig. 8.30. Alkalies vs. SiO2 diagram (Le Bas et al. 1986) for the volcanic rocks of the
Map Explanation, Volume 1 area. .............................................................................. 170
Fig. 8.31. AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar 1971) for the volcanic rocks of the Map
Explanation, Volume 1 area. The fields of calc-alkaline and tholeiitic rocks are
shown by line. ............................................................................................................. 171

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Fig. 9.1. Simplified geological map showing extent of Phanerozoic basins in

Mozambique. The ‘rift-phase’ is represented by Karoo rifts such as the Maniamba
basin in the north and the Middle and Lower Zambezi rifts near Tete (in brown).
Continuity of the W-E trending Zambezi rift is interrupted by the allochtonous
Tete Suite and a NW-SE directed ‘basement horst’ underlain by gneisses and
migmatites of the Báruè Complex. Volcanic rocks of the regional Karoo Large
Volcanic Province (KLIP) are in purple. They include the Lebombo and Sabi
Monoclines. The ‘drift/rift phase’ is represented by Early Cretaceous and younger
rocks of Rovuma and Mozambique basins (adapted after ENH/ECL)....................... 173
Fig. 9.2. Generalised stratigraphy of the Mozambique Basin. The red line shows the
transgression-regression cycles, resulting from the interplay between episodic
eustatic sea level fluctuations, basin subsidence and continental rise. This interplay
results in a number of unconformities and periods of non-deposition or erosion
within the stratigraphic column at one location and sedimentation in another
location. Uplift and erosion are particularly evident in the western, continental part
of the Mozambique Basin and correspond to the Mid-Cretaceous, Santonian-early
Campanian, late Maastrichtian-Ypresian, Bartonian-Aquitanian and late Miocene
hiatuses. Facies changes are generally from W to E and vary from terrestrial to
paralic to shallow marine to full marine. Litho-stratigraphic classification (Section
5.1) implies that some mappable units are strongly diachronous (e.g., Sena
Formation*) or contemporaneous with other units (e.g., Sena and Domo
Formations*). .............................................................................................................. 174
Fig. 9.3. Location of onshore deep hydrocarbon wells and simplified stratigraphy (in part)
in southern Mozambique (source: Sasol).................................................................... 175
Fig. 9.4. Rift structures within the floor of the Mozambique Basin. Rocks of the Karoo
Supergroup have been divided in the Late Karoo (~ 180 Ma; Early Jurassic)
volcanics of the Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines (purple) and older
sediments and volcanics (brown). Early Jurassic rift structures (green) include the
Palmeira and Xai-Xai Grabens. After ENH data. ...................................................... 178
Fig. 9.5. High-angle cross-bedding in coarse-grained sandstone of the Monte Mazambulo
Formation*. Southeast of Monte Nhamalongo (0603484/ 8157829). Scale bar is 15
cm................................................................................................................................ 180
Fig. 9.6. Typical pebble debris coverage of Sena Formation* in southern part of Volume 2
area. Surface pebble accumulations may form by colluvial concentration.
(0603614/ 7801479).................................................................................................... 182
Fig. 9.7. (A) River bed outctop of polymictic conglomerate of the Sena Formation*, (B)
Detailed photo of conglomerate with well-rounded clasts in a calcrete matrix. Rio
Vumaúze (0463051/7680567), (C) Intraformational conglomerate horizon in
sandstone of the Sena Formation* in Rio Búzi (0568177/ 7756506), (D) Massive,
coarse-clastic sandstone with small reduction spots. The Sena Formation* in Rio
Save (0447656/7642641). Scale bar is 10 cm............................................................. 184
Fig. 9.8 Fossiliferous calcarenites of the Grudja Formation*. West of the Estaquinha
village (0607804/ 7790007). Scale bar is 10 cm......................................................... 186
Fig. 9.9. Almost horizontal sandstone beds of the Incomanini Formation*. Between them
occur narrow calcareous layers. 12 km North of Sabie village (0428467/ 7207368). 187

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Fig. 9.10. Congolomerates of the Incomanini Formation*. (A) Close-up photo of

conglomerate layer, which comprises granitoid boulders and shells.
(0428467/7207368), (B) Microphotograph of conglomeratic sandstone, which
comprises granite clast (middle to lower part of photo). 12 km North of Sabie
village. (0428467/ 7207368). Number plate is ~ 8 cm, width of the microphoto is
20 mm. ........................................................................................................................ 187
Fig. 9.11. Calcareous sandstone of the 'Undifferentiated Cretaceous' unit. East of the
Sabie village (0429980/ 7200707). ............................................................................. 188
Fig. 9.12. Featureless landscape one kilometer E of the Limpopo river, SW of the village
of Mapai. ..................................................................................................................... 189
Fig. 9.13. E-W trending ~100 km long stratigraphic section across the Paleocene Mapai
Formation and overlying sedimentary formations situating north of the Massingir
town. Note that the position of detailed mapped section called ‘Profile of
Massingir’ (see Appendix 5) is marked in the section................................................ 191
Fig. 9.14. Outcrop of the Basal Limestone Member of the Mapai Formation* at the South
African border, north of the Gaza Camp (0345392/ 7458524)................................... 193
Fig. 9.15. Part of 15 m high section of polymictic conglomerate with calcareous matrix.
The Lower Sandstone Member of the Mapai Formation*. Rio Singuédzi (0389798/
7389888). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 193
Fig. 9.16. Sandy carbonate rock of the Middle Limestone Member of the Mapai
Formation*. North of the Massingir village. (0391108/ 7385791). Scale bar is 10
cm................................................................................................................................ 194
Fig. 9.17. (A) Typical metre-scale alternation of greyish-green and reddish ferruginous
sandstone, pebbly sandstone and sandy silt with local bioturbation. The Mapai
Formation* near the Limpopo river (0395863/ 7474034). (B) Details of previous
photograph. Reducing fluids along fractures and joints have caused colour
differences. Traces of tri-valent iron (ferri) produce reddish colours; bi-valent iron
(ferro) produces grey-greenish colours. Scale bar is 10 cm........................................ 195
Fig. 9.18. Fine-grained silty sandstone of the Mapai Formation*. Note angularity of
clastic grains, 0.01 to 0.2 mm in size. Thin section, plane light. (0413742/
7359226). .................................................................................................................... 195
Fig. 9.19. Micro-conglomerate composed of sub-rounded to angular pebbles of vein
quartz or feldspar. The matrix is largely composed of fine-grained carbonate with
grain sizes of 0.1 to 0.2 mm. (A) Plane light, (B) Crossed nicols. The Mapai
Formation*. N of the Massingir village (0414022/ 7355193). ................................... 196
Fig. 9.20. Conglomeratic sandstone of the Upper Sandstone Member of the Mapai
Formation*. Note the segregated veins of carbonate-rich material. (0461734/
7363364). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 197
Fig. 9.21. Coarse-grained conglomerate above the Mapai Formation. The highest hill of
the Massingir town (0414109/7355542). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................... 197
Fig. 9.22. Channel-like deposit (brown upper part of the cliff), composed of
conglomerates and sandstones, crosscuts sedimentary units of the Mapai
Formation*. The Massingir village............................................................................. 198
Fig. 9. 23. Conglomerate layer in ferrigenous sandstone. The Magude Member of the
Mangulane Formation*. Railway bridge in the Magude village
(0465250/7231797). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 199
Fig. 9.24. Weathering surface of light coloured sandy limestone. The outcrop is located 5
km north of the abandoned Magude limestone quarry (0440473/7198122). Scale
bar is 10 cm................................................................................................................. 199

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Fig. 9.25. Silty limestone of the Tembe Formation*. Outcrop with almost horizontal
bedding at the bank of a small river, 15 km south of the Boane town. (0433282/
7104414). .................................................................................................................... 200
Fig. 9.26. Fossiliferous sandstone of the Tembe Formation*. (A) Close up photo of
silicified sandstone, (B) Microphoto of the same rock. NE of the Porto Henrique
village (0439272/ 7091052). Scale bar is 10 cm and width of microphoto is 4 mm. . 200
Fig. 9.27. (A) Weathered of grey-yellowish, silty marlstones of Maputo Formation*,
containing horizons with abundant macrofossils like ammonites, nautiloids and
mega-bivalves. These deposits have been supposedly deposited as suspension
deposits in medium to deep marine waters, well below the level of wave action.
The white streaks are due to mobilisation and redeposition of carbonate. It is
possible that the upper part of the deposit is a proximal turbidite or mass flow
(without granoclassification). Some rounded rhyolitic clasts 1 – 3 cm in diameter
are found here. The ‘mud balls’ that can be seen everywhere in the photograph can
be compared with slump balls. Note the absence of bedding and the hazardous
distribution of slump balls in the upper part of the outcrop, (B) Concretion
completely composed of skeletal fragments, including ammonites of which some
belong to acanthoceratids, manifesting an Albian or Turonian age. 10 km south of
the Boane town (0433676/ 7104975). Scale bar is 10 cm. ......................................... 203
Fig. 9.28. Microtexture of fine-grained sandstone of the Maputo Formation*, located
about 5 km west of the Catuane village (0424739/7034224). Width of microphoto
is 4 mm........................................................................................................................ 203
Fig. 9.29. Fossiliferous conglomeratic sandstone of the Maputo Formation*. 5 km NE of
the Catuane village (0431408/7032884). GPS is 14 cm long..................................... 204
Fig. 9.30. Railway bridge outcrop just S of Boane. Ferruginous siltstone showing
slumping and loadcasting within a metre-thick zone bounded by an upper and
lower slide-plain (see arrows). Gravity transport was towards the north. Mottling
stains in upper part of profile (blue arrow) are due to recent rootlet-induced
reduction and weathering. View to NW. .................................................................... 205
Fig. 9.31. Ferruginous siltstone of the Boane Formation*, where fold-like structures (note
ghost horizontal bedding in background) are result of water flows through the
porous rock, just below upper slide plain (see Fig. 9.30). Compass is 12 cm long... 206
Fig. 9.32. Sedimentary rocks, which are supposed to have about the same age as the
Boane Formation*. (A) Siltstone, which forms a small hill 6 km SW of the Boane
town (0429810/ 7113429), (B) Silty limestone, which resembles a siltstone. SE of
the Changalane village (0426412/ 7085565). Scale bar is 8 cm................................. 207
Fig. 9.33. Examples of fossils from nummulitic grainstone in the Salamanga quarry. (A)
Giant gastropod shell fragments, (B Ammonite, (C) Cm-size, coated calcrete and
speleotheme fragments (karst-induced solution-collapse), re-sedimented within
coarse nummulitic grainstone. Also note abundant (recent) solution phenomena.
The Salamanga quarry (0466231/ 7076279). Match box is 5 cm, pencil is 12 cm. ... 208
Fig. 9.34. Salamanga quarry. Large-scale, low-angle cross bedding to west (A), to east
(B) and upper, seemingly unbedded unit of Nummulitic limestone (C). ................... 208
Fig. 9.35. Salamanga quarry. Unit (A) not exposed; unit (B) is crossbedded and overlain
by coarse nummulitic unit (C) and finer variable bedded unit (D). ........................... 209

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Fig. 9.36. The Salamanga quarry. (A-B) Irregular, lateral accretionary bedding in the
upper nummulitic unit may represent migration of small tidal inlets. View towards
south (images do not overlap), (C) Sharp unconformably contact between Eocene
bioclastic limestone of the Salamanga Formation* and (D) lagoonal, silty deposits
of Miocene or Pliocene age (Ponte Vermelha Formation*?). Hammer is 65 cm
long. ............................................................................................................................ 210
Fig. 9.37. Red sand(stones) of the Salamanga Formation*. (A) Loose sand on top of a hill,
15 km SW of the Salamanga quarry. (0456444/7068943), (B) Bedded fine-grained
sandstone, 18 km east of the Catuane village (0443757/ 7036847). GPS is 14 cm
long. ............................................................................................................................ 211
Fig. 9.38. (A) Outcrop of grayish nummulitic limestone of the Cheringoma Formation*,
(B) A sample taken from the same outcrop. (575195/ 7748883). Scale bar is 8 cm. . 212
Fig. 9.39. (A) Fine-grained, micritic Urrongas limestone with tubes resulting from the
roots of Thalassina sea grass, indicating palaeo-depths of 5 to 10 m., (B)
Limestone showing intense recrystallisation and dissolution resulting in hard
pisolithic texture. These syn-sedimentary features are over-printed by recent
karstic solution pits. Such complicated textures easily become classified as a
separate, new lithotype. CMC limestone quarry......................................................... 213
Fig. 9.40. Limestones of the CMC quarry. (A) Karst features in Jofane Limestone,
solution cavities filled with chocolate-brown clay residues. Karst in limestone of
Jofane Formation*, (B) The photograph shows red weathering colours (from
insoluble clays) and solution-collapse features. The fragments – like a jigsaw
puzzle – still fit together, (C) Very coarse, poorly sorted, bioclastic grainstone of
the Urrongas Member, manifesting a shallow, high-energy, wave (surf?)
dominated environment. ............................................................................................. 214
Fig. 9.41. Limestone of the Urrongas Member of the Jofane Formation*, exposed in a
small lime pit by the road to the Mabote village (0633053/ 7557368). Scale bar is
10 cm........................................................................................................................... 215
Fig. 9.42. General view of well-exposed calcarenites of the Cabe Member (Jofane
Formation*) in the left bank of the Save river. Photo taken from the southern bank
of the river (0633903/ 7642482). ................................................................................ 216
Fig. 9.43. (A) Cliffs at ‘Ponto dos tres Marianes’. Height is ~ 18 m. Top of the section is
composed of reddish Pleistocene Internal Dunes (upper arrow), the Internal Dunes
(second arrow) is an intermediate slightly lighter coloured sandy siltstone deposit
with ‘bad-land’ erosion (see figure to the right). The lowermost sequence (below
third arrow) is yellowish-creamy coloured and shows sub-horizontal layering, (B)
‘Bad land’ erosion in reduction spots due to rhizolites............................................... 217
Fig. 9.44. Detrital deposit with rounded quartzose pebbles on the top of the Mazamba
Formation* (0615310/ 7785675). Scale bar is 10 cm................................................. 218
Fig. 9.45. Matrix supported ‘pebbly mudstone’-type conglomerate of the Mazamba
Formation*. Red colour of clayey matrix manifests intense lateritisation.
(0635472/ 7788834). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................................................... 219
Fig. 9.46. Slightly reddish aeolian sand, which covers a flat landscape of the size of 3000
km2 on the SW side of the Limpopo river, north of the Massingir village (0383545/
7431609). .................................................................................................................... 221
Fig. 9.47. General overview of fluvial terrace in southern bank of Save river, along road
from Jofane to Zinave villages. The fluvial terrace is some three meters thick
(0691828/ 7669903).................................................................................................... 221

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Fig. 9.48. (A) Eluvial floodplain mud deposit with characteristic sparse vegetation and
flat morphology (0677399/7340985), (B) Example of a swamp kept in an eluvial
floodplain mud deposit (0638744/7311259). Depression may be due to formation
of solution-collapse cavity in carbonate deposit underneath, (C) Same location as
B with detail of the same exposure, showing shrinkage cracks in mud layer, (D)
Eluvial floodplain mud deposit. Salt crust has formed due to capillary action
(0694917/ 7685665).................................................................................................... 222
Fig. 9.49. ‘Beach Rock’ at Vilanculos beach. (A) Weathered versus fresh appearance of
sand framework completely cemented by calcite, (B) Remnant of aeolian high-
angle cross-bedding (arrow) and abundant, cm-scale bioturbation. ........................... 224
Fig. 9.50. Coastal Sandstone bar (near surf) and recent beach sands (lower part of
picture). Judging from colour, the younger beach sand in this location is largely
derived from erosion of older coastal sandstone. Ligogo Sol beach (0746194/
7319085). .................................................................................................................... 224
Fig. 9.51. (A) Outcrop of Coastal Sandstones trending N15°W, occurring at the Nova
Sofala beach. (0686116/ 7772051), (B) Detail of same outcrop (0686116/
7772051), (C) Outcrop of Coastal Sandstones ‘Beach Rocks’ trending
approximately N-S/5-7°E, occurring at the Vilankulos beach (0739866/ 7567345).
(D) In the right photo a detail of the outcrop is shown (0739866/ 7567345). ........... 225
Fig. 9.52. (A) Outcrop of weathered coastal subhorizontal sandstones beds, trending
approximately N-S. (0739962/ 7565232), (B) The photograph shows the lower
part of the consolidated dune, above the coastal sandstones outcrop. (0739962/
7565232). .................................................................................................................... 226
Fig. 9.53. (A) Small outcrop of thin layer of lacustrine limestones resting on top of
internal dune sands (040693333/7310776), (B) Small, disaggregated outcrops of
lacustrine limestones (0620848/7521956). Scale bar is 10 cm................................... 226
Fig. 9.54. (A) Eluvial flood plain clayey sand deposit, showing flat landscape and silica
sand cover and open shrub vegetation (0738016/7419685), (B) Same, note the
dense vegetation characteristic for this type of terrains (0616123/7536859), (C)
The eluvial floodplain clayey sand deposits are very permeable and host relative
dense vegetation.......................................................................................................... 227
Fig. 9.55. General view of a typical alluvial plain in southern Mozambique. ...................... 228
Fig. 9.56. Alternating beds of clays and sands generally found under the alluvial deposits. 229
Fig. 9.57. Cultivated alluvial plain west of town of Magude in southern Mozambique
(0484419/ 7228400).................................................................................................... 229
Fig. 9.58. Example of alluvial deposits occurring in a rift-type graben structure (SDS
2233). .......................................................................................................................... 230
Fig. 9.59. Entrance to sand quarry showing fine- to medium-grained red sands of Internal
Dune Formation*. Surface is fixed by typical vegetation. (0502248/ 7228509)........ 230
Fig. 9.60. Intra-dunes lagoon with salty water lake. Internal longitudinal dunes with
roughly N-S and NE-SW orientation occur in almost all areas discussed in this
Map Explanation east of meridian 34° E, with no interruption until parallel 23° S,
from where the dunes extend towards west and south, occurring practically in all
the remaining areas covered by this Map Explanation. .............................................. 231
Fig. 9.61 Cliffs of Pleistocene Internal Dunes at ‘Ponto dos tres Marianes’ opposite city
of Maputo. View towards the east. The beach itself contains remnants of ‘Beach
Rock’........................................................................................................................... 231
Fig. 9.62. General view of Recent Coastal Dunes and Beach Sands. (0746194/ 7319085) . 232
Fig. 9.63. Small coastal dunes occurring north of parallel 21° S. (0727664/7825264). ...... 232

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Fig. 9.64. (A) Recent Coastal Dunes. Due to vegetation these dunes are largely
consolidated (0746194/7319085), (B) Examples of well-vegetated coastal dunes in
the southern Mozambique coastal region, south of 24° S. .......................................... 233
Fig. 9.65. View of littoral beach sands at Morrungulo beach with white silica sands
(0755003/ 7428627).................................................................................................... 233
Fig. 9.66. (A) Heavy minerals concentrations – by winnowing – in coastal beach
(0683205/ 7261634), (B) Heavy minerals concentrations in beach sands of the
Morrungulo beach area. (0755003/ 7428627). Scale bar is 10 cm. ............................ 234
Fig. 9.67. Gravel mantle in chocolate-brown, lateritic matrix on the top of a hill. NE of
the Sabie village (0439948/ 7213505). GPS is 14 cm long. ....................................... 234
Fig. 10.1. Rift structures affecting the floor of the Mozambique Basin during the upper
part of the Early Cretaceous. Development of a conjugate set of rift structures with
N-S and WSW-ENE trends separated by Horst blocks or domes. Highs: A=Pande-
Temane High, B=Nhachengue-Domo High, C=Zandamela High, D=Southern
Uplift, E=Balane High and F=Xai-Xai Horst. Grabens: G=Palmeira Graben,
H=Natal Graben, I=Limpopo Graben, J=Mazenga (Funhalouro) Graben system,
K=Inhambane Graben and L=Chissenge Graben. Left: Initial stage. Right: Mature
stage. Adapted from ENH data, Maputo 2005. .......................................................... 239
Fig. 10.2. Left: Location of seismic profile in offshore Xai-Xai Graben. Right: Enlarged
picture of Xai-Xai Graben showing splaying in multiple sub-basins of higher
Order. Based on ENH data.......................................................................................... 240
Fig. 10.3. SW-NE profile over the Xai-Xai Graben. Outside Grabens: Thinned (or
condensed) parallel Cretaceous successions. Grabens down-faulted to –1500 m.
Multi-stage faults > 1st post-volcanics, > 2nd re-activation base Upper Cretaceous:
rotation + tilting > 3rd stage: Graben sag + post-Eocene border faults (slightly
adapted from ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000).................................................................... 241
Fig. 10.4. Burial diagram of a well in the offshore part of the Xai-Xai Graben (after ECL
Ltd. and ENH, 2000)................................................................................................... 243
Fig. 10.5. Hypothetical passive continental margin with synthetic and antithetic listric
faults. Together these faults cause the development of a monocline with
progressive deepening and tilting to the east. The onshore part of the basin has
hardly any accomodation space to host hydrocarbon deposits. Active zone, with
structural traps, is present in the near ooshore part of the basin (after Maerten and
Maerten, 2006). .......................................................................................................... 244
Fig. 11.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs and Thomas (2004). Key: ANS =
Arabian-Nubian Shield; EAAO = East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M =
Madagascar; Da = Damaran; Z = Zambezi Belt. ........................................................ 249
Fig. 11.2. Location of on- and offshore wells for hydrocarbon exploration (after Rusk,
Bertagne and Associates and TGS-NOPEC). ............................................................. 252
Fig. 11.3. West-East sketch over the southernmost part of Mozambique (~ 80 km), to
illustrate that late tilting and uplift of the African continent resulted in multiple
stages of erosion, sedimentation and re-sedimentation. The vertical stratigraphic
order contains multiple hiatuses.................................................................................. 254

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Fig. 11.4. Possible analogue of Eocene carbonate ramp depicting shelf-edge reefal build-
ups that protect an inner, back-barrier shelf with deposition of extensive carbonate
grainstone or oolithic shoals (e.g., Cheringoma and Jofane limestones). In more
quiet, low-energy parts of the lagoon carbonate mud or micrite may be deposited.
The seaward side of the shelf-edge gives way to sub-marine canyons and feeder
channels (known from drill holes in the Zambezi Delta depression) for turbidite
deposits beyond the continental break (adapted and simplified from
www.dst.unito.it/bacheca). ......................................................................................... 257
Fig. 11.5. Palaeogene-Neogene period in Mozambique. Episodes of incision in the
western reaches of the Basin....................................................................................... 258
Fig. 11.6. Exposures of ferruginous silt- and sandstones of the Paleocene Maputo
Formation* near the Boane railway bridge. The deposit shows loadcast and
diagenetic concretionary features and secondary mottling due to reduction by plant
roots. Miocene conglomerates, showing channelling (arrow), overlie the deposit.
Parts of the sand-sized matrix consist of sand showing clear quartz grains.
Rounded boulders are of volcanic origin, i.e., rhyolitic or basaltic in composition.
The high degree of rounding of the boulders may indicate considerable transport or
reworking. Pebbles and boulders are not imbricated, but display an overall fining
upward......................................................................................................................... 260
Fig. 11.7. Field aspects of ENE-WSW running Pleistocene mega-dune ridges in Xai-Xai
Province. These ridges are easily discernable from relief-shaded SRTM images.
Arrows indicate position and direction of view of photographs. Right-upper: road
intersecting the mega-dune ridges. Right-below: Large lagoons near Inharrime in-
between the Pleistocene dune ridges (green arrow).................................................... 262
Fig. 11.8. Panoramic view towards the east over the Rio Incomati valley at Marracuene.
In foreground are weathered and partly eroded Pleistocene dunes. The Incomati
River presumably follows the outlines of the Palmeira Graben. ................................ 262
Fig. 11.9. Coastal Sandstone or Beach Rock beds, with average thickness of 50 cm,
overlain by recent aeolian dunes in back ground........................................................ 263
Fig. 12.1. Large sampling pit for pilot testing, Chibuto HMS deposit (‘Corridor Sands’).... 266
Fig. 12.2. Subhorisontal heavy mineral layers (black) in dune sand in Xai-Xai (SDS 2533,
573724/ 7223328). ...................................................................................................... 267
Fig. 12.3. Diane diatomite quarry in Manhiça (SDS 2532, (463968/ 7193482).................... 269
Fig. 12.4. Diane quarry, exploiting a 1 metre thick diatomite layer (in the middle of
picture) Manhiça (SDS 2532, 463968/ 7193482). ...................................................... 270
Fig. 12.5. Diatomite can be observed in anthills on otherwise flat landscape covered by
black soil around Lagoa Ramo. .................................................................................. 270
Fig. 12.6. Solbrita quarry in porphyritic nepheline syenite (SDS 2632, 431316/ 7150467).. 271
Fig. 12.7. Massingir quarry in rhyolite. Large blocks are excavated for protection of
irrigation dam (SDS 2332, 431316/ 7150467). .......................................................... 272
Fig. 12.8. Artisanal aggregate quarry in limestone in Mamba-dine village, close to
Massinga (SDS 2335; 730479/ 7426499). .................................................................. 272
Fig. 12.9. Limestone for aggregates quarried close to Chacane village (SDS 2435;
688814/7318825). ....................................................................................................... 273
Fig. 12.10. Flow structure in rhyolite, old dimension stone quarry known by name
Estevel......................................................................................................................... 273
Fig. 12.11. Gravel pits close to Massingir dam in the Limpopo River valley. ...................... 274
Fig. 12.12. Gravel pits close to Massingir dam in the Limpopo River valley. ...................... 274
Fig. 12.13. Artisanal, small-scale brick kiln in Magode, Inkomati River valley (SDS 2532,
453157/ 7218915) ....................................................................................................... 275

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Fig. 12.14. The Salamanga limestone quarry (SDS 2632, 466180/ 7076273)....................... 276
Fig. 12.15. Ongoing production of limestone for klinker at Salamanga quarry, October
2005 (SDS 2632, 466180/ 7076273). ......................................................................... 276
Fig. 12.16. Old Mangulane limestone quarry, bush vegetation has taken over (SDS 2532,
440864/ 7197628). ...................................................................................................... 277
Fig. 12.17. Sandy limestone exposed in the Mangulane quarry (SDS 2532, 440864/
7197628). .................................................................................................................... 277
Fig. 12.18. Coal bearing siltstone layers outcropping along the dry river channel of
M’Pote Pote in Espungabera. The hammer is 60 cm long. ........................................ 278
Fig. 12.19. Coal seams in siltstone in M’Pote Pote streambed. The handle of the hammer
is 60 cm long. ............................................................................................................. 278
Fig. 12.20. Gas in Mozambique. The figure shows major gas fields, exploration blocks
and pipe line to South Africa. (adapted from ENH). .................................................. 279
Fig. 12.21. Location of the gas fields of Pande and Temane (red) and Inhassoro (green) in
the east of Temane field (source: ENH). .................................................................... 280
Fig. 12.22. Hydrocarbons in Mozambique. Principal licence areas for exploration and
production in southern and central Mozambique (source: EAPC 2005, Jebco). ....... 281
Fig. 12.23. Hydrocarbons in Mozambique. Map shows (in yellow) Mozambique Channel,
a frontier area for hydrocarbon exploration (Rusk, Bertagne and Associates and
TGS-NOPEC, 2005). .................................................................................................. 282
Fig. 12.24. Overview of onshore and offshore seismic surveys in the Mozambique Basin
(source: Mamad, 2005). .............................................................................................. 283

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

The mining policy of the Government of Mozambique focuses on the promotion of private
investments to develop the mining sector, based on a favourable geological environment and
mineral potential of the country. As part of this policy, the Ministry of Mineral Resources and
Energy (Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, MIREM), through the National Directorate of
Geology (Direcção Nacional de Geologia, DNG), fosters the development of the national geo-
scientific infrastructure in support of mining investments promotion and the sustainable social
and economic development of the country. The availability of basic geological information is
an important parameter to promote investments as well as an essential tool for planning of
construction of infrastructure and for natural disasters mitigation.
Mozambique has made great efforts in developing the basic geo-scientific
infrastructure of the country. Geological mapping has been carried out since colonial times
and extensive geophysical, geochemical, and geological surveys have been carried out since
independence. The archives of the DNG contain an impressive wealth of geo-scientific
information. However, most of this information is now outdated in reference to the
technology used and the geological concepts supporting mineral exploration. Moreover, the
geological mapping carried out in the decade before independence (1975) and during the
period of civil strife was limited by the difficulties to carry out fieldwork. Therefore, it is of
utmost importance to complete and modernise the national geo-scientific infrastructure. The
Government of Mozambique has therefore implemented the Mineral Resources
Management Capacity Building Project (MRMP) as a part of a major international
programme to achieve this end.
The main objective of the mapping programme is to revise previous mapping in
certain areas and to upgrade the quality of geological maps in others, to providing a consistent
coverage in terms of quality throughout the Mozambican territory. The geological mapping
must be based on modern litho-stratigraphic principles and therefore the objective of this
programme should also be to resolve stratigraphic problems, provide good geochronological
control data and resolve structural problems.

1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK

Holmes (1918) published the first contribution on the general geology of Mozambique. Other
pioneer studies include Anthoine and Dubois (1925) and Andrade and de Freire (1929).
Geological investigations continued during Portuguese colonial rule (Longyear Company,
1955a,b; Freitas, 1957, 1959), culminating with a monograph on the geology of Mozambique
by Afonso (1976). After independence in 1975 the DNG has launched various geo-scientific
programmes in collaboration with foreign and international organisations, including the
BRGM (France), Bulgargeomin (Bulgaria), Aquater S.p.A. (Italy), Hunting Geology and
Geophysics Ltd (UK) and UNDP. These programmes were mainly in the fields of regional
geochemistry and airborne geophysics.

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Between 1981 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd initiated a new phase
of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project, covering the Tete province and
parts of Manica, Sofala and Zambézia provinces, under the aegis of the Mozambican
Government. The project was successful in its main objectives of setting the geological
context for known mineral deposits in a large areas of basement rocks, establishing an
inventory of mineral occurrences and in defining priorities for future follow-up work.
The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time (1980 – 1984) the
northern part of Mozambique resulting in novel ideas comprising the existence of
allochthonous nappes and Klippen in the Mozambican Belt. It further resulted in the
publication of a new geological map of Mozambique – scale 1:1 000 000 – that also showed
new insights into the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al. 1986, 1987; Pinna and Marteau,
1987). An essential difference with former studies was the general acceptance of geologic-
tectonic rejuvenation of almost all rock sequences. The main part of the crystalline basement,
including the (ultra-)mafic intrusions, i.e., the Atchiza, Nhantreze and Tete Suites shifted from
the Neoarchaean/ Palaeoproterozoic to the Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic.
The crystalline basement was subdivided, in accordance with the BRGM map, into
three periods:
• Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic units along the Zimbabwean border, composed of
greenstone belts and a granite-gneiss terrains.
• Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic (Irumide and Mozambican Tectonic Cycles)
units that are subdivided into two litho-units:
o Orogenic units that were formed at the end of the Precambrian B and the
beginning of the Precambrian A (sensu BRGM map, 1987), which were
believed to correspond with a projected elongation of the Irumide Belt of
Zambia and Congo (1300 Ma) and subjected to Mozambican tectogenesis
(1100 – 850 Ma). The Mozambique Belt was assigned to these units and
indicated on account of ages of the magmatic sequences (charnockites,
enderbites, anorthosites at 1070 – 900 Ma, and migmatites and granitoids at
1100 – 900 Ma).
o Supracrustal sequences – granulites and (blasto-)mylonites at 1000±150 Ma –
that include allochthonous as well as autochthonous complexes.
• Late Neoproterozoic units (Pan-African Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 450 Ma, as well as
the Katangan Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 600 Ma), marked by intensive tectonism,
followed by Pan-African intrusions (500±100 – 410 Ma).

The BRGM map also presented the most important source for the stratigraphic sub-
division of the rock units that underlie the territory of Mozambique. The ‘Provisional
Stratigraphic Scheme of Mozambique’ (Lächelt et al. 1997) and the ‘Stratigraphic Correlation
Scheme’ compiled on behalf of the SADC countries (Hartzer, 1998) mainly follow the
exposition of the 1987 BRGM map. A review of the mineral resources of Mozambique is
contained in Afonso and Marques (1993) and Afonso et al. (1998). All existing information
on the geology of Mozambique has been recently compiled and reviewed in an impressive
monograph by Lächelt (2004).

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Critical in understanding poly-metamorphic units and geodynamic development of the

Mozambique basement are correct radiometric age determinations. Prior to the Hunting
(1984) and BRGM studies these were overwhelmingly K-Ar and Rb-Sr whole rock ages.
These gave mixed or, at best, cooling ages. Newer geochronological methods (SHRIMP, U-
Pb zircon, Sm-Nd and Ar-Ar) have been developed since and produce far more reliable
results.
The present Project (2002 – 2006) builds on the older results, in particular the Hunting
(1984) surveys (see also Barr et al. 1986; Barr and Brown, 1988) in parts of the area covered
by the present Map Explanation. For the remaining portions information has been drawn from
the archives of DNG and the organisation’s geologists. More so than in previous studies, the
present Project endeavours to apply correct litho-stratigraphic nomenclature, using formation
names as the primordial litho-stratigraphic unit. Strictly speaking, this requires the selection
of a ‘type-locality’ with an official topographic name for each formation. This task falls
outside the mandate of the Project. Consequently, most formation names have to be
considered as informal and provisional2.
The upgraded geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium during the Project
have benefited optimally from new GIS-based image processing technology, new airborne
data and new geochronological age determinations.

2
In agreement with the Client ‘Formation*’ will be used to indicate an informal use.

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CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Modern digital mapping methods have been used, based on the interactive interpretation of
merged satellite imagery and airborne geophysical data (magnetic and radiometric surveys),
aerial photographs, existing maps and limited field verification to resolve critical problems.
The revised and upgraded maps produced by the GTK Consortium are not static, printed maps
that have to last for 15 to 20 years, but dynamic products that can be up-dated any time new
data become available and adapted to requirements of the end-user (thematic maps).
Project implementation methodology included execution of a group of tasks relevant
to the mapping, as well as a programme of training for DNG staff. Preparation of this new
generation of upgraded geological maps has been subdivided into four main phases of which
the flow sheet is outlined in Fig. 2.1:
• Preparation phase: This included collection and quality assessment of all available
relevant data and documentation; acquisition of equipment and material;
organisation of logistics (transport, setting up field camps, mobilisation of field
teams, etc.).
• Compilation and synthesis of the existing geological information: Based on
existing geological maps (if available), satellite imagery, air-borne geophysical
data and aerial photographs, a first draft of up-dated geological maps and legends
has been prepared. Based on these, field verification, mapping and sampling
programmes have been planned and executed.
• Mapping phase: Field traverses were selected in function of accessibility and
focusing on problem areas, i.e., areas where the geology based on interpretation of
satellite imagery and airborne data deviates from the interpretation as presented in
the existing geological maps. Field verification also comprised sampling of rock
specimen for future reference. Part of the samples has been selected for
petrographic, litho-geochemical or geochronological studies.
• Preparation of the final products: Preparation of digital map products and
databases including final map legends and map explanations.

2.2. EXISTING DATA

This mainly included geological maps on different scales, aerial photographs, satellite
imagery (Landsat-7 ETM) and airborne geophysical data available in the archives of the
DNG. Part of the geophysical data (Fugro 2003) was gathered during the Project period under
a parallel project. The GTK Consortium has merged the existing and newly acquired airborne
geophysical data. Use was made of digital elevation data from the shuttle radar topographic
mission (SRTM) and ASTER VNIR scenes.

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Flow sheet of geological mapping

Data Gathering and

Satellite images and
Geolocical data
aerial photographs
Preparation
Phase I:

Base data Processing of the

Geophysical data satellite images and
DEM
aerial photographs
DML 1st version

Interpretation of satellite images

and aerial photographs
Geological data
Geological Review and Compilation of Map Data

interpretation
Compiled
Compilation of geological
geological maps
field maps
Geophysical data
processing

Field survey
Phase II:

(geological mapping)

Databases
- Field geological db for
observations
- Result of analyses Laboratory studies
- Description of lithology (Petrographic, geochemical and
- Mineral Occurrence db geochronological studies)
- Lithostratical classification
db Preliminary
Products and
Geological and mineral Reports
occurrences data - draft geological
processing maps
Technical reports
(Notes to geological maps)
Verification and Final Digital Products

Preparation of the geological and Digital geological

photograph databases and ArcInfo
maps and
coverages
Production of the databases on
Phase III:

Geological maps and CDROM

observation database
Preparation of the Final Legend

Final geological
DML - Final version map printouts

Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project.

GPS track logs collected by the Consortium during Project implementation

demonstrated that the topographic base of the existing geological maps was generally below
modern requirements. They showed non-systematic offsets in the order of 200 to 300 metres.

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2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS

Within the scope of the Project the following activities have been carried out:
• Compilation and scanning of existing analogue map products (topographic and
geological) into a seamless digital database. The quality of the existing geological
maps was variable (Fig. 2.2). Maps were available as printed copies or only as blue
prints. Other parts of the territory of Mozambique were only covered by a photo-
geological interpretation or had remained unmapped.
• Re-interpretation and compilation of the map legends in terms of the new litho-
stratigraphic framework of Mozambique.
• Preparation of a new set of up-graded geological maps, based mainly on an
interactive interpretation of composite imagery based on merged remote sensing
and airborne geophysical datasets and comparing with existing maps.

Fig. 2.2. Availability and quality of existing map products (scale 1:250 000) LOT 3 area (this Map
Explanation) and LOT 3 Extension area.

2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps

The 1:1 000 000 scale geological map of Mozambique compiled by BRGM (1987) and the 1:
250 000-scale Hunting (1984) map sheets have been digitised and the polygons were coded
correlatively as far as possible. The BRGM map was the more recent of the two and
represented more developed concepts vis-à-vis regional correlation of litho-stratigraphic units
and therefore contributed more to the preliminary legend of the map upgrades (first draft).
These relative similar versions (Hunting, 1984 and BRGM, 1987) of the geology of the

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LOT 3 area were given common colours for comparison and to use them separately at
different occasions.
Digital provisional geological maps (first draft), based on the existing Hunting (1984)
map sheets and the geological interpretation of enhanced satellite imagery and airborne
geophysics were prepared of the whole LOT 3 area. Line codes used in the provisional
geological maps followed the line coding of the published geological maps, including
observed, inferred and probable lithological contacts, reverse, normal and strike-slip faults,
foliation trends and unconformities. Dykes were digitised as polylines and were therefore not
included in the Arc-node topology. Polygons were initially coded according to the legend of
the Hunting (1984) geological maps. Additional coding was applied to geological features
inferred from the interpretation of airborne geophysical and remote sensing data sets.
Most linear geological features (~ 95%) in the Hunting (1984) maps were encoded as
inferred features, suggesting that the fieldwork conducted by the Hunting project provided
only a few possibilities to trace lithological contacts along strike during geological field
mapping. Structural elements, like foliation and bedding elements were also extracted from
the Hunting (1984) geological maps. The line elements were digitised to recompile the
structural information in tabular format (strike and dip at every point). The line segments were
digitised using the right hand rule so that the dip orientation was taken into account.

2.3.2. Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery comprises Landsat TM 7 and ASTER images. Landsat images cover the
whole project area by 22 images (Fig. 2.3). The ASTER image coverage is also rather
extensive (Fig. 2.4).

Landsat 7 ETM data

Satellite images (Landsat-7 ETM) had been collected and registered by CENACARTA,
Maputo, in UTM Zone 36S projection, Clarke 1866, Tete Datum, using existing topographic
maps as reference data. The images have been selected from different years and seasons in
order to obtain scenes with no or minimal cloud coverage. Consequently, colour differences
between different scenes could not be avoided. The scenes covering LOT 3 (this Map
Explanation) were geo-referenced and reformatted into mosaics corresponding with the 1:250
000 scale topographic map sheets. The layout of the Landsat TM scenes and the mosaics,
corresponding with the 1:250 000 topographic map sheets, is shown in Fig. 2.3.

ASTER data
A major criterion in the selection of ASTER images was that the cloudiness of the image had
to be less than 10 % of the image area. Collected Aster scenes were processed and used to
support mapping and navigation in the field. Colour composites of the 15-meter resolution
VNIR bands were prepared and registered on UTM Zone 36S projection, MOZNET datum.
All 60 x 60 km-scenes were prepared in GeoTIFF format in order to be used for field
navigation and traverse planning for field verification. The layout of the ASTER VNIR scenes
and the mosaics, corresponding with the 1:250 000 topographic map sheets, is shown in Fig.
2.4.

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Fig. 2.3. Layout of LANDSAT-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000 topographic and
geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT3 and LOT2/3 Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1
and 3, respectively).

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Fig. 2.4. Layout of ASTER VNIR scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000 topographic and
geological Square Degree Sheets over the LOT3 and LOT2/3 Extension Areas (Map Explanations, Volumes 1
and 3, respectively).

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2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics

Geophysical data covering the area of this Map Explanation comprise of four data sets (Fig.
2.5): aeromagnetic data of southern Mozambique, digitised by Getech, airborne geophysical
grids of Hunting (1983) and airborne geophysical grids of Fugro (2003). Gravity data,
compiled by Getech, is available but not further used in this mapping project.

Fig. 2.5. Index map of southern and central Mozambique showing survey blocks covered by air-borne and
marine geophysics.

2.4. DATA PROCESSING

In order to prepare the first draft of upgraded geological maps, prior to field verification, the
following tasks have been carried out:
• Geometric registration of satellite imagery.
• Comparative analysis between image data and published geological maps.
• Digital enhancement of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes.

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• Digital enhancement of ASTER VNIR scenes.

• Digital enhancement of airborne geophysical grids.
• Digital enhancement of SRTM data.
• Integrated enhancement (image fusion) of gamma-ray spectrometry data and relief
shaded SRTM digital elevation data.
• Digital image interpretation of compiled and processed data sets.
o Interpretation of lithological units.
o Interpretation of geological structures.
• Preparation of a field traverse map with suggestion of fieldwork follow-ups.

Brief explanatory descriptions of each of the above activities are presented in the
following paragraphs.

2.4.1. Geometric Registration of Satellite Imagery

The LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes covering the LOT 3 project area (this Map Explanation) were
geometrically registered using the UTM projection of Zone 36, south with the MOZNET
(WGS84) datum using the same procedure as outlined in the data compilation report of the
LOT 2 area (GTK Consortium, 2006b).
First the LANDSAT ETM scenes were registered to their original UTM projection and
datum based on the Clarke ellipsoid. The parameters of the Tete datum were used that apply
to the successive latitude ranges of the LOT 3 area. The scenes were, after datum registration,
re-sampled to UTM projection, Zone 36 South, WGS84 (MOZNET datum). The required
datum transformation parameters were retrieved from the database on datum transformation
released by the European Petroleum Survey Group, EPSG Geodesy parameters data set
version 6.3. The Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters recommended for the project area are
presented in the Table 2.1. The residuals for this transformation are generally less than 4
meters.

Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters from Tete datum (20 – 24°S) to MOZNET datum (assuming
MOZNET is equivalent to WGS84) valid for provinces of Gaza, Inhambane and southern parts of Sofala and
Manica, i.e., between approximately 24° and 20° S Tete, EPSG 2003).
Parameter Value Dim.
1 Shift dX -138.527 Meters
2 Shift dY -91.999 Meters
3 Shift dZ -114.591 Meters
4 Rotation about X -0.14 " (arc seconds)
5 Rotation about Y -3.363 " (arc seconds)
6 Rotation about Z 2.217 " (arc seconds)
7 Scale 11.748 Parts per million

The re-registration of the Landsat scenes will greatly facilitate the registration of GPS
stations collected during fieldwork without the need to apply datum transformations
afterwards and at the same time to use the most recent datum assigned to the territory of
Mozambique. A visual comparison between roads on the ETM scenes and GPS track logs
collected over the entire latitude range of the LOT 3 area, yielded non-systematic
discrepancies to a maximum of two pixels (~ 60 metres).

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For the image maps, the band combination B7, 3, 1 in RGB was chosen, because these
provide optimal spectral information for geological interpretation. The compilation of the
mosaic was done in several steps, from small to large areas, to keep the colour balance in
hand and to avoid boundary effects. The various blocks of Landsat scenes that were merged
during the first step are shown in Fig. 2.6. Sometimes histogram matching and/or feathering
in the overlaps was needed. Finally, four blocks were combined into one image, as shown in
Fig. 2.7. The mosaic has a spatial resolution of 30 metres and is 3Gb in size. The geometry
has been compared with the GPS field measurements, where tracks were logged. The track
logs fit within one pixel to the corresponding roads on the mosaic (Fig. 2.10).

Fig. 2.6. Merged blocks of LANDSAT 7 ETM scenes. Initial blocks of LANDSAT scenes (bands 7, 3 and 1)
with similar radiometric responses.

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The geometric registration procedure used for the VNIR ASTER scenes was different
from the one applied to the LANDSAT scenes, because they are by standard registered in
UTM projection and WGS84 datum. This standard geometric registration is, however, only
accurate up to 200 metres. Comparative analysis with the GPS track logs showed indeed
systematic discrepancies up to 120 metres. The ASTER image data were registered by
interactively applying shifts to each individual 60 x 60 km scene in x and y directions,
reducing estimated planimetric discrepancies on the basis of the GPS track logs to a
maximum of two pixels (i.e., 30 meters).

Fig. 2.7. LANDSAT 7 ETM mosaic (LOT3). Final mosaic generated by merging the LANDSAT scene blocks
shown in Fig. 2.6. Differences in radiometric responses were levelled using histogram matching and
feathering functions. Red = band 7, Green = band 3 and Blue = band 1.

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2.4.2. Topographic Base Maps

Scanned digital copies of the existing geological maps, projected on existing topographic base
maps, 1:250 000 scale, have been prepared. Although these maps were very useful for
controlling the geological interpretation of the remote sensing and geophysical datasets, their
geometric quality generally appeared to be poor. When superposed on the geometrically
registered satellite images, non-systematic discrepancies of up to 400 metres and even more
became readily apparent (Fig. 2.8). As a result of this poor geometric registration, it was
decided to use these maps for reference purposes only. Unlike the procedure used in the LOT
2 area (Map Explanations 2 and 4; GTK Consortium 2006b, 2006d), where a certain
proportion of digitised maps from Hunting were re-used, all units of the image interpretation
of the LOT 3 area have been digitised anew on screen and new simplified topographic base
maps have been prepared.

Fig. 2.8. Example showing overlays of digitised lithological contacts on LANDSAT ETM colour composite
images to illustrate registration problems of the digitised 1: 250 000 scale geological maps with respect the
LANDSAT ETM colour composite images. Note the variation in direction and magnitude of the shifts. The
superimposed grid is north oriented and has a spacing of 1 km.

The existing topographic maps have been improved by integration with Landsat
imagery and GPS control points and track logs. The latter include ~ 200 GPS points, collected
from distinct topographic features like junctions of bridges and rivers. New road data have
been collected by GPS tracking. Hydrological features have been digitised mainly from
Landsat images. Details of the methodology are described below.

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Datum transformation
Since the available 1:250 000 topographic maps of Mozambique use UTM Tete datum in
stead of Moznet datum, the geodetic reference system could not be readily used for preparing
base maps for plotting geology. Consequently, the UTM grid coordinates have been
transformed from the Tete datum to the Moznet datum. This is implemented as a three-step
process:
• (1) UTM (Tete datum, zone 36/37, Clarke 1866 ellipsoid) → 3D geocentric.
• (2) 3D geocentric (Tete datum) → 3D geocentric (WGS84).
• (3) D geocentric → UTM 36/37 (WGS84).

Step 1 and 3 are purely mathematical. In step 2 the standard 7-parameter Helmert
transformation (also known as Bursa-Wulf formula) is used. The values of Geodetic
Parameters released by European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) are used. Following the
sign convention of ‘Coordinate Frame rotation’ the values are shown in Fig. 2.9.

Parameter General South of 24° 20° – 24° 16° – 20° North of 16°

dx [m] -115.064 -82.875 -138.527 -73.472 219.315

dy [m] -87.390 -57.097 -91.999 -51.660 168.975
dx [m] -101.716 -156.768 -114.591 -112.482 -166.145

x rot ["] 0.058 2.158 0.140 -0.953 -0.198

y rot ["] -4.001 -1.524 -3.363 -4.600 -5.926
z rot ["] 2.062 0.982 2.217 2.368 2.356

scale [ppm] 9.366 -0.359 11.748 0.586 -57.104

Fig. 2.9. Parameters for Datum transformation.

For the area covered by this Map Explanation the values from the column 20°-24°
have been used. This way the coordinates in Moznet, UTM zone 36/37 have been computed
for 9 grid points of each involved map sheet. Using these values and the GPS track logs the
topographic map sheets have been rectified to the Moznet coordinate system, using UTM
zone 36 west of the meridian 36°W. Results are satisfactory as shown in Fig. 2.10.

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Fig. 2.10. GPS track logs collected by the GTK Consortium superimposed on LANDSAT TM mosaic to
verify accuracy of geometric registration.

Manual digitising
Using the rectified topographic map sheets as background in ArcMap, a number of shape
files, including point names (e.g., hill tops), roads and paths, railroad, power line and towns
and villages, have been created by manual digitising. In some cases, the manual digital results
have been adjusted using Landsat imagery.
It further appeared that the hydrography had changed significantly since the old
topographic maps were made in the 1970’s and before. The hydrographic map themes were
therefore based mainly on satellite images. The rivers were predominantly digitised on top of
the satellite images while picking up the names from the topographic maps. The other three

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hydrographic themes were made semi-automatically from the satellite images using the
method described below:
1) Only band 4 of the Landsat imagery was used because it shows significant
discrimination between water covered surfaces and dry surfaces.
2) The images have been reclassified into 3 classes (land, water and no data) after an
empirically found threshold value (varying between 44 and 55).
3) By using the raster-to-feature conversion in ArcMap a polygon theme (per image) was
made.
4) The features were generalised and polygons with an area of less than 0.5 km2 were
deleted.
5) Clouds and other errors were removed.
6) By selecting the sea-polygon the islands theme and a coastline could be produced.
7) The new coastline was inserted into the older MZ_poly theme containing the complete
Mozambique outline in small scale.
8) The residual polygons were a mixture of lakes, parts of rivers and wetlands, which is
still to be discriminated.

SRTM digital elevation data

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (STRM) elevation data covering LOT 2 have been
collected and processed. SRTM data covering Africa are available in the public domain from
the NASA SRTM ftp site ftp://edcsgs9.cr.usgs.gov/pub/data/ srtm/Africa since 1st of April
2004. The grid size of the data set is 90 metres. It is a generalisation from the full resolution
30 metres data set.
SRTM DEM’s are less resolved than ASTER DEM’s but ten times better than DTED0
or GTOPO30, which have previously been the best public elevation data sets covering
Mozambique. Many applications can be processed with this data and the GTK Consortium
has transformed the DEM covering the project areas into an easily usable form. The data set
will be completely processed and the null value areas (areas without elevation information)
will be extrapolated. This data set has been found to be very useful for the project and it will
be used for the creation of elevation contours (Fig. 2.11) and structural interpretation.
SRTM data form a good source of elevation contours for the base maps at 1:250 000
scale. The spatial accuracy is usually better than 15 meters. A pilot study was performed on
map sheet 2032 in order to produce contours with 50 meters interval.

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Fig. 2.11. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032).

2.4.3. Digital Enhancement of LANDSAT-7 TM Scenes

Several enhanced products were derived from the LANDSAT-7 scenes to support geological
interpretation. Enhancement methods include: linear and interactive contrast stretching of
single bands and colour composite images and principal component analysis. In selecting the
band triplets for generating colour composite images from a total of twenty possible
combinations of the six 30-meter bands, the discrimination of rocks (or related soil cover) was
considered an important factor in selecting an optimal triplet for lithological units.
Another less important factor was the possibility to detect lithological variations
indirectly and present these broad-scale geobotanic relationships in natural vegetation
communities. The band combinations (Red = TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM1) and (Red =
TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM2) provided attractive colour composites, particularly for
Landsat scenes acquired over relatively dry areas or during dry seasons. Both band triplets
utilise strong and broad absorption features of carbonate and hydroxyl-bearing minerals
between about 2.2 – 2.4 micron, a range overlapping with the wavelength position of TM7.
In addition, these band combinations give information about the spectral slope
between 0.4 and 0.7 micron (the visible range comprising TM1, TM2 and TM3) that is
diagnostic to iron-oxide minerals (Goetz et al. 1983). Good exposures of carbonate and mica
rich rocks typically appear in shades of blue on such colour composites, whereas rocks with
red alteration, due to high contents of iron-oxides, appear in yellow to reddish tones. The use
of these diagnostic spectral properties of rocks and derived soil material is obviously
hampered in areas with a moderate to dense vegetation cover. In these areas, subtle geo-
botanic relationships between natural vegetation communities and their substrate may be

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employed instead, by using band combinations that include the prominent and steep slope
between the visible red and near infra-red range of the green vegetation spectrum. Hence, the
combination (Red = TM 4, Green = TM7 and Blue = TM3) was used as an additional
combination to maximise spectral discrimination of lithological units in areas with higher
green biomass densities. Examples of colour composite images generated from the band
combinations are shown in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images by E. Schetselaar).

Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to exploit another important diagnostic
image characteristic for discriminating lithologies. In short, PCA generates a new orthogonal
set of bands along the lines of maximum variance among the original bands (Curran, 1985).
This effectively minimizes redundant information, particularly because the original bands
tend to be highly correlated. The new bands, called principal components, are ordered
according to their percentage of variance. Thus the highest percentage of the total variance is
mapped on the first principal component, whereas the lowest percentage of the total variance,
often considered as noise is mapped on the last principal component. The first principal
component contains the information that is common among the multi-spectral bands, which is
usually strongly related to the scene illumination. As a result PC1 provides optimal
enhancement of relief features provided by the sun illumination of the scene, which may be
exploited for outlining lithological units on the basis of their variable geomorphologic
expression. PC1 images, for example, appeared to enhance the differences between granites
and mafic intrusives and the differences among felsic suites themselves, as well as the more

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subtle small-scale linear patterns reflecting differences in the degree of penetrative

foliation/bedding fabric in various plutonic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock units.

2.4.4. Digital Enhancement of ASTER VNIR Scenes

The ASTER VNIR scenes were enhanced and displayed as false colour composite images
(Red = band3, Green = band2 and Blue = band1). The stretching intervals of the three bands
where interactively adapted to background brightness variations. Although the visible-near
infrared (VNIR) spectral response of the ASTER scenes is highly sensitive to the vegetation
cover, their higher spatial resolution (15 m in comparison to the 30-m pixels for LANDSAT)
is their most important asset. Consequently, the scenes appeared most useful for tracing
boundaries that were difficult to identify on the LANDSAT ETM scenes. This applied
particularly to areas with vegetation burns and areas with complex contorted unit boundary
geometries. Figure 2.13 shows a typical example where the higher spatial resolution of the
ASTER VNIR scenes provided a clear advantage.

A B

Fig. 2.13. Landsat ETM sub-scene colour composite, bands 7, 3 and 1 (A) and ASTER VNIR colour composite
bands 3, 2 and 1 (B) to illustrate the advantages of the higher spatial resolution of the ASTER scenes in areas of
complex unit geometry (Quaternary units Qpi and Qps, 5 km grid).

2.4.5. Digital Enhancement of Airborne Geophysical Grids

The Hunting data (Hunting, 1983) were received as contour maps and as digital grids. The
grid data included total magnetic field, potassium, thorium, uranium channels and total count.
Although the grids were useful for a quick assessment on how to exploit the data in map
production and geological mapping, the effects of flight-based level shifts and micro-levelling
errors seriously hampered the Hunting airborne geophysical data. This restricted their use for
digital classification and other image processing applications. Hence, the line data from the

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Hunting geophysical surveys were recovered as ASCII line data from the GEODESA3
archives at ITC to investigate if these levelling errors could be reduced to produce better grids
for geological interpretation. The recovery and processing of the line data, proved to be
effective in:
• Reducing significant level shifts of the Th channel in the northern block of the
survey area
• Reducing the micro-levelling errors of the aero-magnetic data

The U channel, suffering from similar flight-based level shifts, could not be improved
since the shifts were ‘smeared out’ over adjacent flight lines, apparently induced by previous
attempts to correct level shifts by filtering the data.
The new preliminary airborne geophysical survey data (Fugro, 2003) were received
through DNG in September 2003. The data suffered from the following shortcomings:
• Incomplete overlap between older and new surveys.
• Absence of calibration details and values of Cosmic Stripping Ratios and Aircraft
background.
• Absence of height attenuation coefficients.
• No stripping ratios and their calibration details.
• No specific details on data correction and reliability (% errors) in areas of extreme
topography.
• Presence of a large number of negative values in all radiometric channels in areas
of flat topography (in database and grids).

The line data of K, eTh, eU, TC and the total magnetic field channels were registered
on the MOZNET datum and gridded on 200-meter cells using a minimum curvature gridding
algorithm. The gamma-ray spectrometry channels were enhanced and displayed as ternary
radioelement maps in RGB colour space using linear contrast enhancement with cut-off
percentages of 2%. In areas with very high or low gamma-ray response, stretching intervals
were interactively adjusted. Reduction to the pole, vertical derivative and residual magnetic
field grids were computed from the total magnetic field grid in order to further facilitate the
interpretation of regional geological units and structures. The total field and first vertical
magnetic derivative grids were enhanced in colour-shaded relief images, using an illumination
inclination angle and azimuth of respectively 25 and 300 degrees for the relief shading and a
rainbow hue spectrum.
Tests with the preliminary Fugro magnetic grid show that it can be successfully
merged with the old Hunting data without applying any regional correction other than IGRF
removal. Overlapping areas ‘blend‘ well to give continuity of short-wavelength features
across the boundary, although the difference in resolution of the two grids is apparent. The
latter is due to three factors: (a) lower flying height (100m versus 120m), (b) greater down-
line sampling (0.1s versus 1s) and (c) improved navigational accuracy (differential GPS
versus Doppler + visual). Regression analysis of the overlapping parts of the grids for the
gamma-ray spectrometry data cover almost the full dynamic range and provide reasonable, if

3
GEODESA (1996 – 2000) was the name for an Institutional Strengthening project, addressing 12 Geological
Survey organisations in eastern and southern Africa and the Mineral Coordination Unit of SADC (Lusaka) and
co-implemented by SEAMIC (Dar es Salaam), ITC and TNO-NITG (the Netherlands).

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not perfect, equations for back calibration of the older data. The calculated sensitivity
constants are not too far from what would be expected for the crystal volume and flying
height used in the older survey but they may be a little biased by the present number of
negative values in the new survey.
The difference between the expression of short-wavelength anomalies in the Hunting
(1983) and Fugro (2003) aeromagnetic survey data are illustrated in Fig. 2.14. In the 2003
area, short-wavelength anomalies are resolved from each other and appear sharp and
continuous in the image. In the older survey data, evidence of short-wavelength features is
apparent but individual anomalies and trends are not always clear.

Fig. 2.14. Comparison of the spatial resolution of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies from the 1983 (right)
and 2003 (left) airborne surveys. The white line marks the boundary between the two surveys.

2.4.6. Digital Enhancement of SRTM Data

The SRTM data were relief-shaded using an inclination and azimuthal angle of respectively
30 degrees and 250 (WSW) degrees. This relief-shaded representation was also enhanced
interactively during image interpretation through linear contrast stretching. The resultant
relief-shaded image representation of the SRTM data was particularly useful in tracing the
boundaries between Quaternary units (shallow circular and sausage-shaped depressions,
known as dambos, which expose an argillic unit (Qpi) underneath sandy deposits that
comprise unit Qps. Although the boundaries between these units could usually be traced on

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Landsat and ASTER imagery, the relief-shaded SRTM image was useful in verifying if
individuals of unit Qpi were not accidentally omitted.
Relief-shaded SRTM data also provided support in validating the position of the Qpi-
Qps boundaries by the 3D perception and relative depth of the depressions. This helped in
verifying if the boundaries corresponded closely to the lower break of slope, the
morphological feature assumed to be near the Qpi-Qps unit boundary.

2.4.7. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes

Previous studies have shown that integrated enhancement of remote sensing and airborne
geophysical data sets may yield significant geological information, not obvious in enhanced
products of the individual data sets (Harris et al. 1994). The integration of gamma-ray
spectrometry grids and satellite imagery of higher spatial resolution in image products, in
particular, has proven useful to enhance geological information. Such integrated
enhancements allow the interpretation of the geochemical information contained in the
gamma-ray spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological
contacts, faults and foliation trends (Wilford et al. 1997; Schetselaar, 2000).
The digital processing methods used to generate integrated enhancements are all based
on the principle of mapping co-registered grids/images on distinct perceptual attributes of
human colour vision using image algebraic operations. In practice, the geo-science data sets
are first co-registered on a common pixel/grid cell size, after which they are ‘fused’ in colour
composite images by the application of an algebraic algorithm to the pixels.
Composite enhanced image products of geophysical grids and Landsat TM scenes
were prepared to aid the extraction of complementary geological information. Grids of K, eTh
and eU were registered with Landsat-7 band 5 on 50-meter pixels and integrated using the
HDF transform (Chavez et al. 1991):
Red = (K + 3.TM5)/4
Green = (eTh + 3.TM5)/4
Blue = (eU +3.TM5)/4

The ternary/TM5 image data appear to be an ideal enhancement for geological

interpretation as it allows interpreting the geochemical information of the gamma-ray
spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological contacts,
foliation trends and various erosional landforms. In other occasions, merging of remote
sensing and airborne magnetic data produced powerful imagery for geological interpretation.
A subset of the composite image is shown in Fig. 2.15. Optimal image products for geological
interpretation can be summarised as follows:
• IHS colour composite images of gamma-ray spectrometry channels (K, eTh, eU)
and high-passed filtered Landsat TM band 7, co-registered on 30 metre pixels.
Chromatic (hue and saturation) contrasts provide lithological differentiation
(mostly of igneous rocks) whereas image texture allows differentiating various
sedimentary units. High spatial resolution intensity from Landsat provides, in
addition, structural details to differentiate foliated from non-foliated rocks.
• Landsat TM colour composites, bands 7, 3 and 1, provide high spatial resolution
and multi-spectral details to further confirm and better outline the geometry of units
inferred from the IHS composite images.

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• First vertical derivative of pole-reduced magnetic data, further enforces geological

significance of lithological differentiation and shows complementary structural
details (particularly dykes).
• ASTER VNIR colour composite images (15 metre spatial resolution) for detailed
interpretation of geological boundaries and structures and for tracing tracks/roads.

A B

Fig. 2.15. Image clips to illustrate the effects of merging relief-shaded SRTM data with gamma-ray
spectrometry channels. (A) Original ternary radioelement map, (B) ternary radioelement map ‘sharpened’ with
relief-shaded SRTM data, (50 km grid). Note that the integrated terrain rendition in the ternary radioelement
map facilitates the perception of 3-D relationships between geological units (Images by E. Schetselaar).

2.4.8. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets

The geological interpretation of the LOT3 area (this Map Explanation) was, similar to the
approach used for the LOT2 area (Map Explanations, Volumes 2 and 4; GTK Consortium
2006b, 2006d) based on an interactive analysis of the various map and image layers in a
digital (GIS) environment. This approach facilitated in assessing the complementary
geological information content of the geological maps and various enhanced images. The
extensive visualisation functions of the modern GIS environments allow one to dynamically
and interactively compare any set of image layers with any map overlay in any desirable
layout and at any scale.
The methodology broadly followed the approach used for the geological interpretation
of the LOT 2 area. There were, however, also some significant differences:
• All line work was digitised from scratch, as the re-use of existing line work from
digitised geological maps was hampered by geometric registration problems
(paragraph 2.1).
• Relief-shaded SRTM digital elevation data of 90 meters spatial resolution were
included in the interactive interpretation, both as a single source of information and
as a component of integrated enhancement with the gamma-ray spectrometry
channels (Fig. 2.11).
• ASTER scenes were employed occasionally to solve interpretation problems that
were difficult to resolve on the basis of LANDSAT ETM scenes alone.

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• Two interpretation products were delivered, one exclusively containing geological

features recognisable on the various image data sets and one integrated compilation
in which the image interpretation was augmented with units from the 1:250 000
scale geological maps.

2.4.9. Interpretation of Lithological Units

The first step towards outlining lithological units consisted of a systematic comparative
analysis between the digital geologic map compilation and the above described enhanced
image data. The main objectives of the interpretation were to:
• Identify discrepancies between the published geological maps and geological
features inferred from the enhanced image products deemed to be geologically
significant.
• Improve, whenever possible, the geometry of lithological unit boundaries.

The relationships between mapped lithological units and image characteristics, such as
tone, diagnostic hue and texture were established by overlaying the digital geological maps on
the image enhancements. The main diagnostic image characteristics on which geological units
and structures could be recognized from the LANDSAT scenes were summarised. The
gamma-ray spectrometry grids provided, in addition to the satellite imagery, complementary
discrimination potential, although the 250-m spatial resolution of this dataset has its
limitations. The good correlation between airborne radioelement concentrations and total
counts with most lithological units is clearly apparent when listing the mean and standard
deviations of these airborne measurements for all the image-interpreted lithological units.
Note for example the high total count values of the Karoo rhyolites and the relative high
thorium concentrations of the Sena Formation and river terraces (unit 0103, QT).
Occasionally, where gamma-ray spectrometry data complement the geological information
content of satellite imagery, it was helpful to first digitize boundaries on basis of contrasting
hues on the ternary radioelement image. Thereafter boundaries could be further refined on the
basis of ASTER and LANDSAT scenes.
Although the majority of units identified by image interpretation correspond to units of
the previously published 1:250 000 scale geological maps, the identification of some units
was impossible or doubtful. The following summarises the most significant problems
encountered during the geological interpretation phase (Fig.2.16 and 2.17):
• The lacustrine limestones sensu Hunting (1984) (0108, Qcl) could, in the majority
of cases, not be identified on any of the available image data. In some situations
recognition was doubtful. The image-inferred polygons correspond only poorly to
the outlines of their equivalents on the previously published maps.

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Fig. 2.16. Potassium-rich signature (red-pink hues) consistent with exposure of Sena Formation* to the west
on a fused image of relief-shaded SRTM and gamma-ray spectrometry channels suggest that a small domain of
the Sena Formation* (red arrow), not previously mapped, is exposed as an erosion window in the upper
valleys of one of the tributaries of the Save River. Also note the distinct contrasts between potassium and
thorium signatures within the Sena Formation*, suggesting internal variations in lithological composition. Grid
is north oriented and has a spacing of 10 km.

• Many elongated unit ‘slivers’ shown on the 1:250 000 scale previously published
geological maps correspond to steep river banks where Cretaceous and Tertiary
units are exposed underneath a Quaternary cover. These units are due to their
limited width of exposure difficult or impossible to detect in the remotely sensed
data, let alone their further litho-stratigraphic differentiation.
• In addition to the difficulty of recognising Cretaceous and Tertiary units of limited
width, the boundaries between the Jofane Formation* (unit TTm) and the internal
dunes (Qdi) or arenaceous flows (Qp1) are often ambiguous, probably due to deep
weathering or surface cover on the Jofane Formation*. The large unit underlying
the plateau east of Mabote asks for extensive field verification in order to better
establish its aerial extension.

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• The analysis of image signatures over mapped volcanic units at different levels in
the Karroo sequence in respectively (P1, P2) rhyolites and (B1, B2) basalts did not
yield diagnostic image criteria that would allow to further refine its main bimodal
differentiation into rhyolite and basalt.

Fig. 2.17. Tone and textural image characteristics on a Landsat ETM colour composite image (red= band 7,
green = band 3 and blue = band 1) suggest exposures of Sena Formation* (indicated by red arrows) in drainage
system, similar to the setting shown in Fig. 2.16. Grid is north oriented with a spacing of 5 km.

The above-mentioned problems provide rationale for the selection of targets for aerial
photograph interpretation. Problems 1 and 2 in particular may be resolved by interpretation of
aerial photographs, provided that such interpretations are carefully calibrated with field
observations that describe the litho-stratigraphic sequence of these units in detail.
Besides these problems, the interactive interpretation of merged and processed data
sets has obviously yielded opportunities to improve on the previously existing 1:1 000 000
and 1:250 000 scale map products covering the LOT3 area (this Map Explanation). The
following summarises, in our view, the most significant contribution for upgrading the
geological knowledgebase (Fig.2.18 and 2.19):
• An overall improvement of the geometric accuracy (e.g. position and shape) for
most of the previously mapped units in the interpreted area.

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• A further differentiation of the Sena Formation* (units 0304 and 0304B) based on
contrasting eTh signatures reflecting lithostratigraphic or lateral facies differences.
• Suggestions on the presence of units that went unnoticed before, such as isolated
exposures of Karroo volcanic rocks and elongated exposures of Cretaceous and
Tertiary sedimentary rocks at the lowest topographic levels in drainage channels
and valley floors, particularly in the upper Limpopo and upper Save drainage
systems.
• The addition of many Quaternary units over the entire LOT3 area.

Fig. 2.18. Image interpretation of ASTER VNIR scene at ~ 23°25S and 31°50 E. The interpretation shows
isolated outcrops of Umbelúzi rhyolite (Karoo) E of its main contact with the Cretaceous Grudja Formation*.
Note the consistency between hue and joint patterns between the large western polygon and the isolated
outcrops. Note also the isolated pockets of Quaternary cover (Qp1) covering the Grudja Formation* (K/Ksm).
Grid lines are north oriented and spaced 2 km apart.

2.4.10. Geological Image Interpretation of Structural Features

The interpretation of structural features was largely based on the relief-shaded SRTM and
Landsat ETM scenes. The surface interpretation was verified against lineaments apparent on
colour-relief shaded representation of the total and first vertical derivate magnetic fields. In
addition to the tectonic structures, confined in the LOT 3 area to brittle faults and lineaments,
also sedimentary and igneous structures were included in the interpretation. These features
include the axes of paleo-beach ridges, longitudinal dunes and the traces of igneous layering
in the Karoo volcanic complexes.

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Fig. 2.19. Relief-shaded SRTM data (90-m pixels) manifesting the intersecting NNW-SSE and N-S trending rift
structures. Dextral shearing along WNW-ESE and ENE-WSW faults offset the small-scale rift structures. These
strike-slip faults are also reflected in the drainage pattern. Inset shows detail with overlay of published 1:250
000-scale geological map (orange lines) and the image interpretation (yellow lines) of Quaternary units. Note
the shifts between the overlays and the differences in interpretation styles. The image interpretation positions
the boundary between the Quaternary units at the lower break of slope, effectively outlining the floor of the
depressions whereas the map compilation puts the boundaries closer to the upper break of slope. The round to
oval- to irregular-shaped depressions are believed to represent solution-collapse features in sub-outcropping
rock units.

The SRTM data was one of the most useful products to analyze and interpret the
tectonic structural elements and paleo-beach ridges along the east-trending coastline. The
igneous layering and dune axes on the other hand, were best enhanced on the satellite image
products. Fig.2.20 and Fig. 2.21 show examples of the structural interpretation as overlays on
relief-shaded SRTM data.

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Fig. 2.20. Structural interpretation of the south-eastern corner of Volume 1 area. Orange lines represent
palaeo-beach ridges and light brown dotted lines are dunes axes that overprint the former. Red lines indicate
tectonic faults that correspond to offsets of the beach ridges with an apparent displacement of 1 – 5 km. The
grid is north oriented with a spacing of 50 km.

Fig. 2.21. Structural interpretation of the area directly north of Maputo on relief-shaded SRTM data. Magenta
lines indicate the traces of igneous layering in Karoo volcanic complexes, red lines indicate inferred faults.
Green lines indicate lineaments. Also note the NNE-SSW directed rift feature in the eastern part of the image.
Light brown lines indicate depositional (dunes) and possibly denudation features of aeolian transport. The grid
is north oriented and has a spacing of 50 km.

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2.5. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING

Field verification and mapping of the LOT 3 and Extension areas took place by a team of field
geologists from the GTK Consortium, in close cooperation with geologists and technicians
from the DNG, during two consecutive field seasons (March – November 2004 and 2005).
Complementary revision was made in the field in July 2006. Field verification was done
along pre-selected itineraries in function of access and complexity of geology from various
service bases. More remote areas were surveyed from fly camps. Transport was generally by
4 x 4 traction vehicles, ATV’s, and foot traverses.
From the LOT 3 and Extension area, a total of 3709 GPS-controlled field observations
were entered into field forms and, subsequently, together with representative digital
photographs of the outcrops, entered as .pdf files into the DML. All field data was
subsequently transferred into the observation database. All observation points and attached
tectonic data have also been stored in a GIS database for preparing work sheets and final
maps.
Of the rock samples collected during field verification, 667 representative samples
have been archived, photographed digitally and stored at the DNG regional or head offices.
The rock sample photos have been organized in the Photo database and utilized in lithology
descriptions.

2.6. LABORATORY WORK

Laboratory work comprised (1) petrographic study of selected thin sections, (2)
geochronological study of selected rock samples and (3) lithogeochemical study of various
rock types. Also 40 samples were collected for micropalaeontology studies, and petrophysical
properties of ~ 850 rock samples from the area described in Volume 1 were measured by
GTK Consortium

2.6.1. Petrography

Out of the samples collected during the mapping work described in this Volume, 900 have
been archived in DNG in Maputo and in Manica. Of the samples 97 were selected for thin
sectioning and petrographic study. The selected samples were first sent to DNG in Maputo for
cutting and storage of a reference sample; the thin sections have been prepared at the CGS
laboratories in Pretoria, South Africa. Sample locations for thin section samples are shown in
Fig. 2.22.

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Fig. 2.22. Map sheet division and locations of field observations (●), thin sections (■), geochemical analysis
(■), and age determinations (■ ; 1.1 Ga Mashonaland dolerite in north and Pessene nepheline syenite in
south) in Volume 1 area. Background map with road network tracked by GTK Consortium on simplified
geology.

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2.6.2. Geochronology

Limited geochronological data from Mozambican rocks is contained in Sacchi et al. (1984),
Barr and Brown (1987), Bigioggero et al. (1990), Costa et al. (1992, 1994), Pinna et al.
(1993), Manhiça (1998), Evans et al. (1999), Jamal et al. (1999) and Manhiça et al. (2001).
Grantham et al. (2002) has collected these published geochronological data, together with
similar data from neighbouring areas. The GTK Consortium has dated a total of 36
representative rock samples. The results are contained in Mänttäri (2005a,b, 2006) and
reproduced for the area covered by this Map Explanation in App. 2. Sample locations are
shown in Fig. 2.22.
Three geochronological methods have been used by the Consortium: (1) convential
TIMS U-Pb dating, (2) SHRIMP U-Pb dating on zircons and (3) Sm-Nd mineral dating.
These methods are described in App. 2.
The probability density plot with histograms of all the dated magmatic ages is
presented in Fig. 2.23. Pan-African metamorphism at ca. 520 Ma was observed from many
samples. In sedimentary rocks Archaean zircons up to 3.1 Ga were observed.

7
Magmatic ages from 30 Mozambiquean rock samples

Relative probability
4
Number

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

Age / Ma

Fig. 2.23. Histogram showing magmatic age peaks as achieved from GTK Consortium datings.

2.6.3. Lithogeochemistry

A total of 35 geochemical analyses and 200 microprobe analyses have been made from this
Map Explanation area. Sample locations for geochemical analyses are shown in Fig. 2.22, and
the results of analyses are given in Table 1 and Table 2 of App. 3. The results of microbrobe
analyses are given in Table 1 of App. 4.

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2.7. GEO-INFRASTRUCTURE PRODUCTS

2.7.1. Geological Maps

A total of 20 geological map sheets – scale 1:250 000 – have been prepared. They may
correspond with an area of 1° x 1° (Square Degree Sheet, SDS or Degree Sheets, DS).
Occasionally, near the border with Zimbabwe, South Africa or Swaziland or near the coast,
several Square Degree Sheets may be combined in a single map sheet. In Table 2.2. the names
and numerical codes of the map sheets are given. The geological maps discussed in this Map
Explanation (Volume 1) cover the bulk of the LOT3 area south of 20° S. This area
corresponds with the southern half of the Manica and Sofala provinces and, further
southwards, the Gaza, Inhambane and Maputo provinces, together a surface of ~ 140 000 km².

2.7.2. Map Explanations

This Map Explanation (Volume 1) is part of a series of four Map Explanations prepared by
the GTK Consortium (GTK Consortium 2006a, b, c, and d). These Map Explanations aim to
describe all aspects of the geology, structural and tectonic settings, as well as mineral
resources and resource potential zones. The grouping of Map Sheets covered by a single Map
Explanation Volume is shown in Table 2.2. and in Fig.2.24.

Fig. 2.24. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets scale 1: 250 000. Degree sheets
2032/2033, 2034/2035, 2131/2132, 2133, 2134/2135, 2231, 2232, 2233, 2234/2235, 2331/2332, 2333,
2334/2335, 2431/2432, 2433, 2434/2435, 2531/2532, 2533/2534 and 2632 are discussed in Map Explanation -
Volume 1.

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Table 2.2. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 and LOT 3(+ Extension) area, showing Square Degree Sheet
number, Sheet Codes and Names.

LOT Map Square Degree Sheet

No Name 1:50 000 Sheets
Expl. Sheet Code
1 1430/1431 24/25 Inhamambo/Maluwera
2 1432 26 Chifunde
414, 415, 451,
3 4 1530/1531 35/36 Zumbo/Fíngoè-Mágoè 452, 453, 454,
489, 490
4 1532 37 Songo
5 1533/1534 38/39 Cazula/Zóbuè
6 2 1631/1632 47/48 Mecumbura/Chioco 627, 628, 656
7 1633 49 Tete 629, 657
8 1634 50 Tambara
9 1732/1733 57/58 Guro 683, 684
10 1734 59 Chemba
2 803, 804, 805,
11 1832/1833 65/66 Manica/Catandica 819, 820, 821,
822
12 1834 67 Gorongosa
835, 836, 837,
13 1932/1933 70/71 Rotanda/Chimoio
838
14 1934 72 Beira
15 1735 60 Mutarara-Morrumbala
16 1736 61 Quelimane
17 1737/1738/1739 62/63/64 Namacurra/Maganja/Pebane
18 2/3 3 1835 68 Inhaminga/Marromeu
19 Ext. 1836 69 Chinde
20 1935 73 Savane
21 2032/2033 74/75 Espungabera/Chibabava
22 2034/2035 76/77 Nova/Mambone
23 2131/2132 78/79 Massangena
24 2133 80 Chidoco
25 2134/2135 81/82 Save/Bazaruto
26 2231 83 Chicualacuala
27 2232 84 Machaila
28 2233 85 Chigubo
29 2234/2235 86/87 Mabote/Vilanculos
30 2331/2332 88/89 Rio Singuédzi/Massingir
31 3 1 90 Rio Changana
2333
32 2334/2335 91/92 Funhalouro/Inhambane
33 2431/2432 93/94 Chilembene
34 2433 95 Chókwè
35 2434/2435 96/97 Zavala/Inharrime
36 2531/2532 98/99 Maputo
37 2533/2534 100/101 Xai-Xai/Zavala
38 2632 102 Bela-Vista
Square Degree Sheet (SDS) numbers in bold are discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 1).

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2.7.3. Petrophysical Database

Petrophysical measurements, including magnetic susceptibility and density of about 850 rock
samples have been measured in the petrophysical field laboratory that was set up first in the
GTK Consortium Manica office and then Maputo office. The results are available as Excel
file and summary of results is shown in Fig. 2.25.

Fig. 2.25. Petrophysical characteristics of rock samples from Volume 1 area.

2.8. INVENTORY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Existing mineral deposit data, obtained from the Council for Geoscience (CGS), Pretoria,
South Africa, was incorporated into ArcGIS project format. The data, dealing with
approximately 90 mineral deposits, have been reformatted into ArcView shape file in order to
facilitate matching with other geo-referenced data when producing mineral maps.
The Consortium has compiled a new database of 109 mineral deposits and occurrences
located within the Volume 1 area, from analogue DNG reports and other sources. In doing so,
it was found out that the location of several mineral deposits and showings in different
databases was not coherently documented. GPS-controlled field checks were obviously
needed.
Inspection of mineral occurrences proved to be time consuming and often impossible.
This was due to the inaccuracy of the reported coordinates (~ one minute, meaning a
maximum error of ~ one km) in existing documents and, having been abandoned for over 40
years, a general lack of surface features of most workings. Occasionally, even greater
discrepancies, up to 2 – 3 km, were found when comparing indicated locations with GPS-

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verified locations. As a consequence 30 mineral deposits were selected and surveyed in detail
in this area, comprising an inventory of the mineral commodities and mode of occurrence,
sampling and digital photographs taken.
The database structure is shown in Fig. 2.26. An example of data capture, showing
different attributes, is presented in Figs. 2.27 and 2.28.

Fig. 2.26. Structure of the database used in LOT 2 and LOT 3 mineral occurrence inventory.

Fig. 2.27. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for identification.

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Fig. 2.28. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit information.

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CHAPTER 3

INFRASTRUCTURE

The area covered by this Map Explanation belongs to the Manica, Sofala, Gaza, Inhambane
and Maputo Provinces, the last one also having the capital, Maputo (until 1976 Lourenço
Marques) with its population of 1 073 900 (2004).
Apart from the highway EN4, which connects Maputo to Johannesburg via
Komatipoort/Ressano Garcia porder post, and the renovated highway EN 1 along the coast to
the north, paved roads include tarred roads to the Namaacha border post to Swaziland, old
road from Boane to Moamba, and a paved road connecting the Massingir dam via Chóckwè to
the coastal highway. Unpaved, almost all-season gravel roads connect most rural centres
spread over the Volume 1 area. In the north, a winding but well-kept road connects the
Espungabera village to Chimoio and to the EN1 in the east, while in a large district between
the Save and Limpopo rivers, only the villages of Machaila, Mabote, and Vila Eduardo
Mondlane at the Zimbabwean border are connected by a proper gravel road. South of the
Limpopo river, roads accessible to sedan cars connect also the Mapulanguene, Magude and
Sábiè villages to paved roads. Similarly, reasonable gravel roads lead to the Salamanga and
Catuane village at the South-African border south of Maputo. In addition, there is a multitude
of small village roads and tracks, many of them still unmapped, and mostly accessible only by
trucks or four-wheel drive terrain vehicles. Part of these tracks has been registered as GPS
track logs by the GTK Consortium. However, access is often completely lacking in the
densely vegetated, but sparsely populated area north of the Limpopo river, as well in some
rugged areas of the Lebombo mountain range. When planning remote fieldwork operations,
attention must be paid to availability of fuel. It is also the largest direct operational cost in
addition to human recourses.
A railway connects Maputo with the border posts at Ressano Garcia and Vila Eduardo
Mondlane, as well as to the limestone quarry in Salamanga. Currently the operation of the rail
line is the responsibility of Portos e Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique (CFM). The
company plans to rehabilitate the rail line in 2006 – 2007. All the major cities are accessible
by air with regular flights (e.g. Maputo, Inhambane, Vilankulo, Chimoio, Beira, Tete, Songo,
Quelimane, Nampula, Nacala, Pemba and Lichinga).
The natural harbour of Maputo, discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498, lies on the
estuary of Rio Espirito Santo. Being one of most important ports of southern Africa, it has
recently finished its upgrade, which will allow ships with drafts up to 10 m to enter into the
harbour.
A new pipeline carries natural gas from the Temane and Pande gas fields, located in
the Inhambane Province, to the border south of Ressano Garcia, and further to the South-
African gas pipe network system. Power generated by the Hidroelectrica Cahora Bassa is
transported through joint Mozambican and South African power line network to the largest
consumer, the Mozal aluminium smelter, near Maputo. All district capitals are to be
connected to the national power grid by 2010.

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In addition to the Maputo district, GSM telephone connections are mostly available in
bigger rural towns and villages along the national highways. However, despite substantial
progress made in the development of the telecommunications facilities in the country, there is
still wide disparity between rural and urban areas. For fieldwork in remote areas, satellite
phones are still necessary for safety and for exchange of information between field teams and
Head Office.

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CHAPTER 4

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY
The territory of Mozambique is divided into four physiographic zones or cycles (King, 1961).
Each zone or cycle has developed its own morphological plateau, separated by erosional
escarpments:
• Mountainous Zone or Gondwana Cycle (> 1200 m).
• Large Plateau Zone or African Cycle (500 – 1200 m).
• Intermediate Plateau Zone or Zumbo Cycle (200 – 500 m).
• Coastal Plain Zone or Congo Cycle (< 200m).

The Mountainous Zone was developed during the Gondwana Cycle that developed as
a consequence of the Permo-Carboniferous movements, the onset of the Karoo Event. It
essentially affected the crystalline basement and refers to plateaux located at altitudes
between 1500 and 1800 metres. It is distributed (outside the present degree sheets) along the
border with Zimbabwe (e.g., W of Catandica) and Malawi. This cycle is responsible for a
major phase of peneplanation of the African continent during an extensive erosional period
from the Upper Karoo till the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous.
The Large Plateau Zone developed during the African Cycle, an Early Cretaceous
erosional phase that heralded the onset of the East African Rift Event. It corresponds to an
erosion level at altitudes of 500 to 1200 metres. In Mozambique it can be divided into three
distinctive sub-cycles, i.e., the Carumacáfuè Sub-cycle with peneplains at altitudes of 600 to
800 metres (with the best example of a perfect meseta at Mount Carumacáfuè), the
Messandaluz Sub-cycle with plateaux between 500 and 1000 metres of altitude, and the
Songo Sub-cycle with plateau altitudes of 1000 to 1200 metres. In the area covered by this
Map Explanation (Volume 1) it comprises ‘higher ground’ around Espungabera (SDS 2032),
underlain by rocks of the Umkondo Supergroup and Gairezi Formation*, and small zones
along the border with South Africa, underlain by Karoo volcanics. The latter includes the
escarpment of the Candeia dos Libombos.
The Intermediate Plateau Zone developed during the Zumbo Cycle, a phase of Middle
Tertiary epeirogenesis. It consists of a transitional erosional stage between the Large Plateau
and the Coastal Plain Zones. The altitude is between 200 and 500 metres, and it is developed
along the Zambezi Valley and its larger tributaries. This cycle almost completely eroded the
Karoo terrains and the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite. In the area of Precambrian rocks,
including Matambo, Missawa-Mândiè, Guro-Macossa, Marínguè and Changara-Vanduzi,
inselbergs were formed (Fig. 4.1.). In the southwestern part of the area covered by this Map
Explanation (Volume 1), it comprises the small highs represented by the Libombos volcanic
range at the border that can reach 400 m of altitude. Physiographically, rhyolites show
positive relief due to differential erosion and tectonics and represent the late Karoo volcanic
series of Stormberg age. At Mount Ponduíne, close to Namaacha town, the rhyolites
exceptionally reach 800 m.

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Fig. 4.1. Inselberg south of the

town of Chimoio close to
Sussundenga at Zenabe. (SDS
1932/1933).

The erosional process ends with the Coastal Plain Zone developed during the Congo
Cycle, starting in Plio-Pleistocene times. Two important geomorphological units can be
considered within the area south of the Save River. These include the coastal plain in the east,
covering a major part of the region, and the ‘Low Veld’, between the coastal plains and the
‘High Veld’ mainly west of the international border with Zimbabwe and South Africa.
The coastal plain also includes sandy plateaux, which can reach 400 metres and
partially cover the volcanic series in the NW part of the area. Towards the east, extensive
sedimentary plains are present, reaching an altitude of 300 m in the west and decreasing
progressively in height towards the sea. Successively, these plains present sandy, clayey
sandy and dune zones and, finally, they present alluvial and littoral plains, with their typical
morphology.
Under the sandy units, mainly along the valleys of the larger rivers, Cretaceous and
Cainozoic sandstones, calcarenites and limestones occur. They rest with a small angular
unconformity on top of the volcanic late Karoo sequence and constitute the border of the
Mozambique basin in the south. Also below the wind blown sandy cover of variable
thickness, Cainozoic limestones occur, extending along a vast strip parallel to the coast from
Masinga town up to the Save River. They show an intensive brittle tectonism.
Finally, the general trend and disposition of the rivers in the area seem to be controlled
by the volcano-sedimentary monocline, in close relationship with Pleistocene eustatic sea
level fluctuations related to alternation of glacial and interglacial epochs. This suggestion is
supported by the NW-SE trend of major rivers, as well as by the orientation of rivers parallel
to the successive coastlines.

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4.2. CLIMATE
Climate in the area covered by this Map Explanation depends mainly on altitude. The higher
ground has a tropical climate, the lower ground forms semi-arid sub-zones:
• Rainy season from December to March.
• Dry season from April to November.

Vegetation is mainly conditioned by climate and soil type. Plateaux and valleys
underlain by Karoo and younger rocks are characterised by the following flora:
• High and intermediate forests in valleys formed by the more deeply incised rivers.
• Savannah-like dry parklands in compact and sandy terrains.
• Shrub and bush savannah with open forests and cultivated fields in terrains with a
clayey-sandy soil or in areas with coarse grained, clastic sediments.

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CHAPTER 5

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

5.1. PRINCIPLES
Legends in the geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium are based on a
stratigraphic code that follows the recommendations of the International Sub-commission on
Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of
the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Stratigraphic classification is the
systematic arrangement of the mappable rock bodies of the earth’s crust into units with
reference to any of the properties that rocks may possess. Lithostratigraphic classification is
based on lithostratigraphic units4 with each unit consisting dominantly of a certain rock type
or a combination of rock types.
The geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium will serve as examples for a
new generation of dynamic geological maps. This requires an update and standardisation of a
variety of legends employed in the past in existing geological maps, including the definition
of mappable lithostratigraphic units according to guidelines by the IUGS.
A geological legend comprises a short explanatory list of map symbols and the
sequence of rock units, the oldest at the bottom and the youngest at the top. The rock units
display a hierarchical relationship with sub-units grouped together into larger units based on
geological relationships in space and time. These relate to the geodynamic development of the
area. Commonly used terms for litho-stratigraphic rock units, in a hierarchical sequence (from
lower to higher rank) are: bed, member, formation, group, supergroup, complex and system.
The terms can be used in a formal and informal way. The use of a capital in, e.g., ‘Vúzi Tillite
Formation’ of the ‘Lower Karoo Group’ suggests that both rock units have been formally
defined, with a description of a ‘type-locality’ of every ‘Formation’ belonging to the ‘Group’.
‘Vúzi Tillite formation’, on the other hand, suggests a field name, an informally defined
lithologic unit5.
Mappable litho-stratigraphic units are grouped in two vertical rows. The left row
comprises rock units that have been deposited on top of each other. Their contacts may be
concordant, para-concordant (concordant, but with a time hiatus between successive lithologic
units) or discordant. Rock types comprise mainly (meta-) sediments, (meta-) volcanics
(including pyroclastics) or rocks that have been tectonically emplaced (e.g., ophiolites or their
metamorphic equivalents). Intrusive igneous rocks are grouped in the right row. These
comprise plutonic igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, etc.) and igneous rocks of subvolcanic
derivation (e.g., dolerite, diabase or intermediate to felsic dykes). The definitions of
lithostratigraphic units, with increasing rank, according to Bates and Jackson (1987) are
presented in Appendix 1.

4
Since the 1980’s ‘chrono-stratigraphical’ nomenclature (series, stages and substages) used in earlier literature
has been generally superseded by litho-stratigraphical nomenclature comprising supergroups, groups,
formations and members (Johnson et al. 1996).
5
At the request of the Client and Consulting Engineer informal use of the term ‘formation’ is indicated by an
asterix as in ‘Formation*’

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5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT

The early pioneers, who focused their work mainly in Karoo near Moatize, were followed in
the first half of the 20th Century by local and regional stratigraphic studies of the
carbonaceous Karoo sediments (Potonié, 1900; Gothan, 1912, 1914; Anthoine and Dubois,
1922, 1925; Gérard, 1924; Andrade, 1908, 1929; Dixey, 1929). Similar lithologies in the
Zumbo area (located further northwest, Volume 4) were surveyed by Freitas (1932, 1939) and
later by Bebiano (1934, 1936). The coal-bearing basins were further studied by Borges (1935,
1946), Teixeira (1943, 1946, 1947) and Gaspar (1948).
From the 1950’s till the 1980’s, various publications and technical reports were
elaborated based on fieldwork as part of a vast effort to improve the knowledge on the
geology and the economic value of the mineral resources of the Tete, Sofala and Manica
provinces (Volume 2). These works are contained in Teixeira (1950, 1951), Colin (1951),
Borges (1952), Longyear Company (1955), Real (1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1966),
Carvalho (1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1969, 1975, 1977), Nunes (1961), Santos (1961, 1962,
1974), Pinto (1964, 1970, 1973) Feys (1965), Feys and Fabre (1966), Sousa and Mériaux
(1971), Afonso (1975, 1976, 1984), Afonso et al. (1969, 1993, 1998), Sousa (1977, 1984),
Limex (1981), LKAB (1981, 1982) and Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited (1984).
The discovery of uranium mineralisation in the Mavudzi valley, northwest of Tete,
triggered initial interest in the Tete area (Luna and Freitas, 1953; Davidson and Bennet,
1960). The E. J. Longyear Company (1956) carried out the first systematic geological
investigations in this area (see also Lyall, 1955). Since then useful work has been carried out
in the province but with notable exceptions (Real, 1966; Vail, 1965; Vail and Pinto, 1966;
Coelho, 1969; Svirine, 1980), the results have remained unpublished.
Between 1980 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited initiated new
phase of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project under the aegis of the
Mozambican Government. The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time
(1980 – 1984) the northern part of Mozambique resulting in publication of a geological map –
scale 1:1 000 000 – that showed new insights in the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al.
1986, 1987; Pinna and Marteau, 1987). For Southern Mozambique the basics of the
stratigraphy were lain by Choffat (1887) and Freire de Andrade (1897, 1929), which were
then further developed by Dias Bettencourt (1947, 1952, 1953, 1958), Flores and Barbieri
(1959) and Barrocoso and Oberholtzer (1963, 1967).

5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and covered by undeformed sediments and
extrusives of Neoproterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and Cretaceous-Quaternary
age. Younger fold belts, deformed during the Hercynian and Alpine Orogenies, are only of
local extent. The first is of Middle Palaeozoic age and restricted in Africa to the Mauritides
and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest and the Cape Fold Belt in the south. Alpine
penetrative deformation (Cretaceous-Tertiary) is limited to the Kabylia-Rif-Betic orocline that
encloses the Alboràn Sea, the westernmost part of the Mediterranean.

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5.3.1. Archaean Cratons and Mobile Belts

These include in Africa the West African, Nile or East Sahara, Central African or Congo and
Southern African or Kalahari Cratons, the Malagasy Shield and interlocking Archaean mobile
belts such as the Limpopo Belt. The latter high-grade mobile belt amalgamates the Kaapvaal
and Zimbabwe Cratons resulting into the Southern African or Kalahari Craton for which
recently the term Azania Craton has been coined (McCourt et al. 2004). Large parts of
Archaean cratons have been reworked during younger orogenic cycles. Alternatively,
Archaean rocks also occur outside cratonic blocks in younger fold belts. Well-known
examples have been described in eastern Africa (Kenya, Tanzania) and the Bangweulu Block
in northern Zambia (Fig. 5.1).
In eastern and southern Africa the following tectono-structural-magmatic domains –
the building blocks – each related to major and specific geodynamic events – can be
distinguished (Table 5.1, mainly after Gabert, 1984; Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains.

Event/System Era Age (Ma)

Main Phase Neogene – Present 23 – 0
East African Rift System (EARS)
Initial Phase Cretaceous – Palaeogene 145 – 23
Karoo Event Late Carboniferous – Early Jurassic 318 – 180
Gondwanide Terrains
Post-Pan-African Platforms < 542
Pan-African Orogeny Neoproterozoic – Cambrian 750 – 490
Pan-African
Early Pan-African Basins Neoproterozoic 900 – 700
Kibaran Mesoproterozoic 1450 – 900
Late Phase ~ 1860
Ubendian/ Usagaran Palaeoproterozoic
Early Phase 2100 – 2025
Cratons (granite-greenstone terrains) and Mobile Belts Archaean 3800 – 2500

Archaean cratons represent stable remnants of the Earth’s earliest continental

lithosphere. Seismic investigations confirm that the structure of the crust and subcrustal upper
mantle of these cratons differ significantly from that of most post-Archaean terrains. High-
velocity mantle roots extent to at least 200 km, locally up to 250 – 300 km, beneath cratonic
terrains. Xenolith studies indicate that cratons have experienced a dynamic and protracted
history of tectono-thermal activity. Cratonisation occurred not as a discrete event, but in
stages, with final stabilisation postdating crustal formation. Archaean cratons are generally
composed of (from old to young) granulite-gneiss belts, granite-greenstone associations,
‘younger granites’ and late-Archaean basins, mobile belts and dykes and layered intrusions.

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1
11
11
1
20
20
20
20
20
20
A
A
A
A
? IV
? I

B
B
B
B
B
B 2
22
22
2

C
C
C
C
C
C D
D
D
D
D
D K
K
K
K
Archean-Palaeo-
Archean-Palaeo-
proterozoic
proterozoic
3
333
3
II ? 555

6
66
66
6 G
G
G
G
G
G
Craton
Craton 18
18
18
18
18
18 E
E
E
E
E
E 7
77
77
7 8
88
88
8
9
99
99
9
4
44
44
4
Archean on
Archean on craton
craton
F
F
F 19
19
19
19
19
19
Archean intracratonic
Archean intracratonic basins
basins F
F
F
Paleoproterozoic on
Paleoproterozoic on craton
craton 10
10
10
10
10
10
?
Paleoproterozoic
Paleoproterozoic intracratonic
intracratonic basins
basins III H
H
H
J
JJ
JJ
J
Eburnian orogenic
Eburnian orogenic belt
belt
11
11
11
11
11
11 L
L
L
L
L
L
H
H
H

?
V
Archean in
Archean in younger
younger belts
belts 17
17
17
17
17
17 IIIIII 15
15
15
15
15
Paleoproterozoic in
Paleoproterozoic in younger
younger
belts
belts M
M
M
M
M
M
16
16
16
16
16
16 12
12
12
12
12
12
Gneiss of
Gneiss of unknown
unknown age
age 13 14
13
13
13
13
13 14
14
14
14
but probably
but probably >1800
>1800 Ma
Ma

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cratonic Blocks
I = West African Craton
II = Central African Craton
III = Southern African Craton
IV = Nile or East Sahara Craton
V = Malagasy Shield
Palaeoproterozoic Terranes
Outside Cratons
16 = Richtersveld terrane
17 = Rehoboth Arc
18 = Kimezian
19 = Nyasa province
20 = Hoggar-Air massifs
Archaean Intracratonic Basins
M = Witwatersrand and Ventersdorp basins
Archaean Terranes in Cratons
A = Reguibat Shield G = Tanzania Craton
B = Man Shield H = Zimbabwe Craton
C = Chaillu – Gabon Block I = Kaapvaal Craton
D = Zaire Block J = Malagasy Shield
E = Kasai Block K = Uganda and West Nile Complex
F = Angola Block L = Limpopo Belt (also 2000 Ma)
Palaeoproterozoic Terranes in Cratons
1 = Birrimian: Reguibat Shield 7 = Ubendian belt
2 = Birrimian: Leo Shield 8 = Usagaran belt
3 = Gabon belt: Francevillian 9 = Bangweulu Block
4 = Angolan Birrimian 10 = Magondi belt
5 = Ruwenzori belt 11 = Okwa gneiss
6 = Rusizian gneiss 12 = Kheiss belt
Palaeoproterozoic Intracratonic Basins
13 = Griqualand basin
14 = Transvaal basin
15 = Waterberg-Soutpansberg basins

Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

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5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic Fold Belts

These include the Usagaran-Ubendian Fold Belt along the western and southern border of the
Tanzanian Craton but also further southwards in Niassa Province (Mozambique), northeastern
Zambia and Malawi. An early and a late orogenic phase are generally distinguished. It is
argued that the early phase resulted in the formation of the Usagaran fold belt during north-
directed collision and accretion during the Eburnian around ~ 2100 – 2025 Ma (Daly et al.
1985; Daly, 1988) with granulite-facies metamorphic conditions. Zircon ages of 2084±8 Ma,
corresponding with a phase of granitic magmatism, have been reported (Lenoir et al. 1994;
Boven et al. 1999).
In the Ubendian Belt this early phase of regional deformation and metamorphism was
followed by a Late Palaeoproterozoic phase of exhumation and extensive dextral shearing
along major, steep NW-SE directed shear zones. This resulted in widespread penetrative
deformation and development of a NW-SE fabric, transposition of the older E-W fabric and
retrogradation under amphibolite-facies P-T conditions. Timing of this event is constrained by
the emplacement age of late-kynematic granitoids dated at 1847±37 Ma and 1864±32 Ma
(both WR Rb/Sr and zircon U/Pb ages). An upper limit for the Ubendian shear event can be
inferred from the age of the Kate shallow-level granite at ~ 1825 Ma (Schandelmeier, 1983).
The latter is associated with volcanics that unconformably overly Ubendian gneisses. Rb/Sr
data on the Kate granite further suggest that the main boundary fault between the Bangweulu
Block and the Ubendian shear belt was reactivated 100 Ma after its emplacement (at 1724±31
Ma; Lenoir et al. 1993). Whether this age has regional significance is, however, uncertain. Ar-
Ar stepwise heating analyses of different barrosite separates from mafic tectonite has yielded
a weighted average cooling age of 1848±6 Ma for the argon fractions released at intermediate
temperatures. This corroborates the above data and confirms the age of 1950–1850 Ma for the
Late Palaeoproterozoic Ubendian tectogenesis (Boven et al. 1999).

5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic Fold Belts

In southern and central Africa this comprises the Kibaran and Irumide Fold Belts. On a global
scale these fold belts can be correlated with the ‘Grenvillian Orogeny’ culminating in the
Rodinia Supercontinent around 1000 Ma. The Kibaran presently forms a curvilinear fold belt
striking from Namibia via Zambia, Angola, eastern DRC, Burundi, Rwanda and northwest
Tanzania into southern Uganda over a distance 1500 km. In Zambia the belt is exposed
extensively and bifurcates into two separate fold belts that enclose the Bangweulu Block, with
the Irumides in the southeast and the Kibaran sensu stricto in the northwest. The Belt is
intersected by the Lufilian Arc of Neoproterozoic Pan-African age. Here, rocks of the Kibaran
Fold Belt are exposed in a number of windows unconformably overlain by rocks of the
Katangan System. Metamorphism in the Kibaran Belt generally reached greenschist facies,
peaking around 1300 Ma (1278±58 Ma), with post-tectonic magmatism that according to
Klerkx et al. (1984) continued up to 850 Ma.
Overlying strata, belonging to the Pan-African, Karoo and Kalahari Systems, largely
obscure the southern part of the Kibaran Belt. Small windows of Kibaran metasediments and
granitoids emerge, however, in the Damaran Belt of Namibia, Angola (Carvalho et al. 1987),
Botswana and Zimbabwe. The UNESCO-sponsored IGCP 418 undertook to trace the Kibaran
Belt into SW Africa (Botswana, Namibia) based on regional geophysical and new

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geochronological data (Key, 1997). The Kibaran is now recognised in the northern part of
Zimbabwe as Irumide overprinting of older rocks. Radiometric dates from the Chewore
Inliers (quoted in Goscombe et al. 1997) confirm the presence of reworked Middle
Proterozoic rocks in northern Zimbabwe. While the northern Kibaran is an intra-cratonic fold
belt, zircon ages of 1390 Ma testify the presence of juvenile Middle Proterozoic oceanic crust
in the southern part of the belt (Johnson and Oliver, 1997). The end of the Middle Proterozoic
was characterised by a major phase of basic magmatism elsewhere in Zimbabwe, that
produced extensive flood basalts and major dolerite dike swarms. Munyanyiwa (1997) has
suggested that this phase of basaltic magmatism heralded the break-up of Rodinia. The
recently completed airborne magnetic survey of northwest Botswana has evidenced the
presence of Middle Proterozoic Kibaran rocks that are infolded with younger Neoproterozoic
rocks, with the same NE-SW strike, belonging to the Damaran Belt. Schwartz et al. (1995)
reported the presence of volcanic rocks with an age of 1106 Ma in Kibaran inliers in the
Damaran Belt.

Meso-proterozoic
Meso-proterozoic
(Kibaran
(Kibaran Orogeny)
Orogeny) 11

33
Kibaran
Kibaran (deformed)
(deformed)
Kibaran
Kibaran platform
platform sediments
sediments
10
10
Kibaran
Kibaran in
in younger
younger belts
belts
99 12
12
Kibaran
Kibaran orogenic
orogenic zone
zone 22 11
11

Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic cratons
cratons 88 44

Gneiss
Gneiss of
of unknown
unknown age
age
but
but probably
probably 1000-1800
1000-1800 Ma
Ma 55
66 77

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Mesoproterozoic Terrains on Mesoproterozoic Active Continental Mesoproterozoic Collisional
Cratons Margins Orogens
1 = Kibaran Belt (failed rift) 5 = Sinclair Province 9 = Choma-Kaloma block
2 = Kunene Anorthosite Complex 6 = Namaqua Belt 10 = Irumide Belt
3 = Muva Group (platform) 7 = Natal Belt 11 = Zambezi Belt
4 = Umkondo Group (platform) 8 = Abbabis Gneiss 12 = Lurio Belt
Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

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5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African Fold Belts

The Mozambique Belt can be considered as the ‘type-locality’ of the Pan-African Orogeny
and was first named by Holmes (1951) who recognised a structural discontinuity between the
Archaean Tanzanian Craton and younger gneisses to the east. Relatively recently, the term
‘East African Orogen’ (EAO) has been introduced to describe the Pan-African orogenic belt
of eastern Africa (Stern, 1994). It is one of the earth’s greatest collision zones that can be
followed over a distance of ~ 6000 km from Antarctica in the south to the Arabian Peninsula
in the north and has ~ 350 Ma of evolution (e.g., Stern, 1994, 2002; Jacobs et al. 1998;
Kröner et al. 2000a,b).

dd
55

ee
66
aa 11

bb oo
77 ff
cc kk

Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
88
(Pan-African
(Pan-African Orogeny)
Orogeny) 22 44
Pan-African
Pan-African (deformed)
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African (deformed)
(deformed)
(deformed)
(deformed) gg qq pp
Older
Older gneiss
Older
Older
Older gneiss
gneiss reactivated
gneiss
gneiss reactivated
reactivated in
reactivated
reactivated in
in
in
in
Pan-African
Pan-African belts
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African belts
belts
belts
belts
belts
33
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African orogenic
Pan-African
Pan-African
Pan-African orogenic
orogenic
orogenic zone
orogenic
orogenic zone
zone
zone
zone
zone m
m
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic
Archean-Paleoproterozoic nn
cratons
cratons
cratons
cratons
cratons 99
hh
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian basins
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian basins
basins
basins
ll
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian basins
(undeformed platform
(undeformed
(undeformed
(undeformed
(undeformed platform &
platform
platform
platform && molasse)
&
& molasse)
molasse)
molasse)
molasse)
Approximate
Approximate extent
Approximate extent
extent of
extent of
of Neoproterozoic
of Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
10
10
Approximate
Approximate
Approximate extent
extent of
of Neoproterozoic
Neoproterozoic
intracratonic
intracratonic
intracratonic basins
intracratonic
intracratonic
intracratonic basins
basins
basins (foreland
basins
basins (foreland
(foreland
(foreland &
(foreland
(foreland &
&
& sag)
&
& sag)
sag)
sag) ii
sag)
sag) ii
Intracratonic
Intracratonic fracture
Intracratonic
Intracratonic
Intracratonic
Intracratonic fracture
fracture
fracture
fracture
Ophiolite
Ophiolite decorated
Ophiolite decorated
decorated suture
suture
suture
jj

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Neoproterozoic Collisional Orogens
a = Mauritanites g = West Congo belt m = Lufillian Arc
b = Bessarides h = Kaoko belt n = Zambezi Belt
c = Rokolites i = Gariep belt o = East African: Nubian shield
d = Anti Atlas j = Saldahnia belt p = East African: Mozambique belt
e = Trans-Saharan: Pharusian belt k = Oubangide belt q = Ubendian belt
f = Trans-Saharan: Dahomeyan belt l = Damara belt
Neoproterozoic Failed Rifts Neoproterozoic Platforms-Foreland-Molasse Basins
1 = Gourma Trough 5 = Anti-Atlas 9 = Owambo basin
2 = Sangha Rift 6 = Taoudeni basin 10 = Nama basin
3 = Kundelungu basin 7 = Volta Basin
4 = Bukoban 8 = Congo basin*
Sub-basins in the Congo basin include: NW: Sembe Ouesso basin;
NNE: Bangui-Lindian basins; SE: Bushimay basin; SW: West Congo basin
Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 500 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

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The EAO is traditionally divided into a northern zone of juvenile Neoproterozoic crust
and a southern zone mainly comprising reworked older rocks. This is confirmed by modern
Sm-Nd model age studies. The tight clustering of Nd model ages in the northern zone
manifest an overwhelming presence of new Neoproterozoic crust extracted from depleted
mantle. Unlike the abundance of juvenile crust in the north, the southern part of the EAO is
composed of remobilised older rocks. Model Nd ages of rock samples of the Archaean
Tanzanian Craton cluster tightly around 2.83±0.08 Ga (Stern, 2002). A Nd and Sr transect
across Mozambique Belt rocks immediately east of the Tanzania Craton shows that the Belt is
composed of reworked Archaean crust that show TDM ages of ~ 2.5 Ga (in the west) and
granulites with a TDM ages of 1.0 – 1.4 Ga (in the east) (Maboko, 2000; Stern, 2002). These
ages supersede typical Pan-African K-Ar or Rb-Sr cooling ages of ~ 650 to 490 Ma known
for a long time (Cahen and Snelling, 1966). Biotite cooling ages show a pronounced age
gradient and manifest diachronous cooling across the Belt with the western parts cooling
below ~ 300° C up to ~ 150 Ma earlier than the eastern parts. The oldest biotite ages of
618±14 Ma from the western margin provide the best minimum estimate for the age of the
pervasive amphibolite grade metamorphism. The EAO marks the disappearance of a major
oceanic basin – the Mozambique Ocean – and the collision between East and West Gondwana
(Roger et al. 1995). It is assumed that this regional metamorphic and deformational event
occurred prior to ~ 650 Ma (Maboko, 2000).
The Zambezi Belt of central southern Africa forms another Pan-African fold belt. It
constitutes the eastern segment of a transcontinental Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi (DLZ)
orogenic belt (~ 850 – 450 Ma). This transcontinental system separates the Congo Craton
from the Kalahari Craton (Shackleton, 1996).
The Pan-African Orogeny is also present in West Africa, surrounding the West Africa
Craton, as (clockwise, starting in the north) Anti-Atlas, Hoggar and the Dahomey Belt.
Further southwards the orogeny continues into South America as the Brasilian Orogeny and
in Africa as the West Congo and Gariep Belts. Most recently the Pan-African Orogeny has
also been recognised in large parts of southern Europe as the Cadomian. Pan-African
continental collision resulted in the formation of the Pangea Supercontinent.

5.3.5. Neoproterozoic – Cambrian Platform Sediments

Large parts of the sedimentary material deposited in the Pan-African ‘geosyncline’ have
remained undeformed They include the upper part of the Bukoban System in northwest
Tanzania, the Kundulungu in Shaba, the Plateau Series overlying the Bangwuelu Block in
northern Zambia and the Buschimay, Bilatian and Lindian in the eastern D.R. of Congo.
Molasse-type sediments of the Bukoban (Burundi, northwest Tanzania) include diamictites,
sandstones, siltstones, shales and conglomerates with subordinate dolomitic limestones,
rhyolites and basaltic lavas. In Burundi these rocks are grouped together as the Malagarasian
(Waleffe, 1965). Volcanics of the latter have been dated and yield rather consistent results
(Deblond et al. 2001): 813±21 Ma and 810±25 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after Cahen and
Snelling, 1974) and 822±30 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after Briden et al. 1971).
Late- to post-Pan-African platform foreland deposits overly Pan-African and older
basement with a marked unconformity – the Tassilian discordance with an age of ~ 570 Ma –
in North and West Africa. Coeval deposition took place in the Cape Fold Belt ‘geosyncline’.
The event is not present in Mozambican territory.

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5.3.6. Post-Pan-African Cambrian – Carboniferous Platform Sediments

Cambrian-Carboniferous basins of the North and South African Gondwana margin (570 – 290
Ma) are exposed in northern and western Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria and Libya)
and the Cape Fold Belt (Fig. 5.4). Cambrian-Carboniferous foreland basins comprise the
Taoudeni, Bove and Volta basins (Fig. 5.4). The Mauritides and Cape Fold Belt manifest
Hercynian deformation.

SAHARA
SAHARA
SAHARA FLEXURE
FLEXURE
FLEXURE (Hercynian
(Hercynian
(Hercynian basin
basin
basin margin)
margin)
margin)

33 55 77
88
11 22 44
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES
MAURITINITES 66
99 11
11
aa

0
10
10

0
bb
cc

Gondwanide
Gondwanide events
events
(570-180
(570-180 Ma)
Ma)
A
A
290-180 Ma
290-180 Ma (Karoo)
(Karoo) rift-sag-
rift-sag-
forland
forland deposits
deposits (S
(S Africa)
Africa) and
and
FF H
H
N-African
N-African platform
platform deposits
deposits D
D
570-290
570-290 Ma
Ma platform-foreland
platform-foreland
deposits
deposits
II
Tassilian
Tassilian discordance
discordance (~570
(~570 Ma)
Ma)
Karoo
Karoo faulting
faulting
0

B
B EE
Hercinian
Hercinian deformation
deformation front
front
G
G

Pre-Cambrian basement
Pre-Cambrian basement C
C

0
Post-180
Post-180 Ma
Ma cover
cover sediments
sediments
CAPE
CAPE FOLD
CAPE FOLD
CAPE
CAPE FOLD
FOLD BELT
FOLD BELT
BELT
BELT
BELT
12
12
0

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cambrian-Carboniferous Basins of the North and South African Gondwana Margin (570 – 290 Ma)
1 = Tindouf basin 5 = Oed Mya basin 9 = Murzuq basin
2 = Reggane basin 6 = Illizi basin 10 = Kufrah basin
3 = Bechar basin 7 = Ghadames basin 11 = Western Desert
4 = Ahnet basin 8 = Hamra basin 12 = Cape Sequence
Base of sequence is formed by the Tassilian discordance (~570 Ma)
Top of sequence is formed by the Hercynian unconformity (~290 Ma)
Cambrian-Carboniferous Foreland Basins (570 – 290 Ma)
A = Taoudeni B = Bove C = Volta basin
Permian-Triassic Rift-Sag Basins (Karoo: 290 – 180 Ma)
A = Congo basin D = Mid and Lower Zambezi rift G = Lebombo rift
B = Kalahari basin E = Luangwa rift H = East Africa rift
C = Karoo basin F = Tuli-Sabi-Soutpansberg rift I = Malagasy basin

Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (~ 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002)

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5.3.7. Late Carboniferous – Early Jurassic Sediments and Volcanics of the Karoo

Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic (290 to 180 Ma) continental sediments and subordinate
flood basalts and rhyolites testify the break-up of Gondwana and the opening of the south
Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The term ‘Karoo’ was first used to describe a depositional
sequence from the Great Karoo Basin in South Africa, where it encompasses strata of Late
Carboniferous to Early Jurassic age (SACS, 1980) (Table 5.2). Time equivalent depositional
sequences, exhibiting similar sequential trends, occur widespread in southern Africa (Figs. 5.4
and 5.5). They reflect important tectonic and climatic events, posterior to the Pan-African
Orogeny, during the time that Pangea had obtained its maximum size. During this period,
while accretion was still going on in some places, major rift structures started to propagate,
eventually ending in the break-up of Gondwana (Veevers and Powell, 1994; Wopfner and
Casshyap, 1997; Wopfner, 1999, 2002).
From a geodynamic point of view three types of Karoo basins can be distinguished: (1)
large foredeep/sag basins, (2) passive margin basins and (3) intracratonic rifts (Figs. 5.4 and
5.5).

Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo

rocks (outcrop and subsurface) in
southern Africa (adapted from
Verniers et al. 1989).

Foredeep/sag basins include, apart from the Great Karoo Basin, the Kalahari, Barotse
and Congo basins. Passive margin basins are particularly developed along the Indian Ocean
coastline. Intracratonic rift basins appear controlled by crustal weakness zones that were
rejuvenated during the Late Palaeozoic Gondwanide Orogeny (e.g., Cape Fold Belt) and
ensuing continental break-up. In the east of Southern Africa, Karoo sediments were originally
deposited in broad down-warps. As the deposition continued, rifting of such down-warps
produced graben-type structures, in which deposition of a great thickness of Karoo sediments

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took place. When comparing Karoo sedimentary successions, similar underlying processes
and sequence of events are reflected in individual basin fills. Each lithological sequence
normally commences with (fluvio-)glaciogene rock types. This is followed by an interval in
which red colours are absent and coal seams are commonly present. The higher strata exhibit
reddish and greenish mudrocks manifesting a change to oxidising sub-aerial conditions. Next,
aeolian sandstones often cap the older succession and reflect increasing aridity. Finally,
basaltic lavas complete the succession. Although the above general trends can be observed in
most Karoo sequences in southern Africa, rift development appears largely controlled by local
tectonic factors and, consequently, Karoo sequences may differ along strike in individual rift
basins and between different rift basins. Both basement geomorphology and syndepositional
tectonic movements have obviously controlled deposition of Karoo lithologies. The present
extent of many deposits are due to postdeposition crustal uplift and fault activities, causing
substantial out-basin erosion.
Whereas the Karoo Supergroup in the Great Karoo Basin has been divided into five
Groups6 (Table 5.2), a division into Lower and Upper Karoo Groups (e.g., Engelbronner,
1996) is employed for most rift fills and also in this Map Explanation. The boundary between
these Groups corresponds approximately with the Permian-Triassic boundary.
From an economic perspective the Karoo Supergroup is unique in that it hosts all the
coal deposits in southern Africa. The combined reserves are estimated at ~ 67 000 Mt, nearly
10% of the world total (World Energy Council, 1992).

Table 5.2. Lithostratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al. 1996)

Group Age Lithology

Drakenberg Early Jurassic (200 – 180 Extensive flood basalts dated at ~ 180 Ma (Aldiss et al. 1984;
Basalts Ma) Allsopp et al. 1984; Fitch and Miller, 1984; Hooper et al. 1993).
Subordinate acid lavas.
Stormberg Late Triassic – Early The lower part comprises grey mudstones and sandstones with
Group Jurassic (215 – 200 Ma) local coal seams. Where not removed by erosion, largely aeolian
sandstones cap this sedimentary succession. Thickness ~ 2000
m.
Beaufort ~ Late Permian – Middle Mainly lighter-coloured mudrocks (including greenish, reddish
Group Triassic (270 – 215 Ma and purple varieties), sandstones and occasional conglomerates,
for most part representing overbank fluvial deposits that
accumulated sub-aerially under oxidising (semi-arid and arid)
conditions. Characterised by vertebrate fossils rather than plant
remains. Thickness up to ~ 5000 m.
Ecca Group Early Permian – Late Dark-coloured shales with interspersed siltstones and sandstones
Permian (280 – 270 Ma) (coarse-grained and pebbly in places) and occasional coal seams,
deposited sub-aqueously under reducing, generally moist
conditions in marine, lacustrine, deltaic and fluvial
environments. Up to 3000 m in thickness.
Dwyka Group Late Carboniferous – An up to 800 m thick sequence reflecting a glacial or glacial-
Early Permian (290 – related origin (diamictites, conglomerate, fluvio-glacial pebbly
280 Ma) sandstone, rhytmites and mudrock with dropstones).

The upper part, e.g. the Beaufort Group, has been subdivided into a number of
biozones based on vertebrate assemblages. Subdivision of the lower Karoo is based on plant
fossils, including spores and pollen. Recently, some success is being achieved in dating thin

6
The Dwyka Formation (see Table 6.3) has been upgraded to Group (Johnson et al. 1996)

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volcanic ash (K-bentonite) layers. A summary description (from young to old) follows
below:

5.3.8. Cretaceous – Recent Sediments and Volcanics of the East Africa Rift System

Renewed continental extension lead to crustal uplift, faulting and the development of the great
East Africa Rift System (EARS). An eastern branch can be followed from south of Lake
Niassa (Lake Malawi) into the Afar Triangle (Ethiopia) and further into the Red Sea, a young
ocean. The Western Rift of the East African Rift System branches off the Eastern Rift north of
Lake Niassa (Lake Malawi) and describes an arc-like structure of 1500 km of length till the
Albert Lake in northern Uganda. It obviously follows older crustal weakness zones in the
Ubendian and Kibaran fold belts.

kk

A
A

II

bb IIII cc III
III hh
gg
dd ff
ee ii
aa
V
V
jj
Crateceous-Tertiary
Crateceous-Tertiary
(Break-up
(Break-up of
of Gondwana)
Gondwana) IV
IV

B
B C
C
Jurassic
Jurassic volcanics
volcanics (pre-rift
(pre-rift B
B
hot
hot spot
spot activity)
activity)
Crataceous
Crataceous failed
failed rift
rift and
and
continental
continental margin
margin deposits
deposits
Crataceous-Tertiary sag
Crataceous-Tertiary sag basins
basins
ll
Crateceous faulting
Crateceous faulting

Pre-180 Ma
Pre-180 Ma basement
basement
Quaternary cover
Quaternary cover sediments
sediments

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cretaceous Failed rifts

a = Benue trough
b = Gao basin
c = Tenere basin
d = Bongor basin
Cretaceous Rifts Developed into Passive Margins of the African Craton
A = North Atlantic Margin
(~200 Ma)
I = Taoudeni basin
II = Iullemeden basin
e = Doba-Doseo basin i = Melut basin
f = Muglad basin j = Anza basin
g = White Nile rift k = Sirt basin
h = Blue Nile rift l = Lower Zambezi basin
B = South Atlantic Margin C = Indian Transform Margin
(~135 and 115 Ma) (~165 Ma)
Cretaceous-Tertiary Sag Basins
III = Chad basin V = Ogaden basin
IV = Congo basin

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Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002)

Rift Valley faulting started during Cretaceous time but greatly accelerated during late
Cainozoic time. Rifting started with regional uplift between 120 and 75 Ma. In East Africa
this caused uplift along the Western and Eastern Rift and subsidence in the central part with
the formation of Lake Nyanza, the bigger predecessor of Lake Victoria. These differential
vertical movements caused a new phase of erosion and deposition with the desiccation of old
peneplains and the formation of a new drainage system.
Incipient development of the East African Rift System coincides with the
emplacement of a family of carbonatites and associated rocks in East Africa that is called the
Chilwa Alkaline Province after the ‘type-locality’ on Chilwa Island in Lake Chilwa7 in
southeastern Malawi.

5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES: WILSON OR SUPERCONTINENT

CYCLES AND SUPERPLUMES
5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles

The evolution of Africa’s chrono-magmatic-tectonic provinces – the ‘building blocks’ – all

related to major geodynamic events, can be viewed in terms of Supercontinent or Wilson
Cycles. In its simplest form, a Wilson Cycle involves formation of a Supercontinent from
smaller continental blocks, followed by fragmentation and then by re-assembly of a new
Supercontinent. Most computer models of Wilson Cycles suggest that continental break-up
and fragmentation is caused by shielding of the mantle by a large plate that carries the
Supercontinent which, in turn, results in mantle upwelling beneath the plate during a period of
200 – 500 Ma (Gurniss, 1988; Lowman and Jarvis, 1999; Condie, 2002). Mantle plumes,
developing in a mantle upwelling (Courtillot et al. 1999; Golonka and Bocharova, 2000), in
combination with pre-existing weakness zones of crustal or lithospheric dimension define the
actual sites of fragmentation. Supercontinents formed at 2.7 Ga, 1.9 Ga, 1.2 – 1.0 Ga
(Rodinia), 650 – 550 Ma (Gondwana) and 450 – 250 Ma (Pangea) (Condie, 1998, 2000, 2001).
The youngest orogenic peak at 100 – 50 Ma, as expressed by the Alpine-Cordilleran fold belts,
can be considered as the first step in the formation of a future Supercontinent.
Although periods of fragmentation (at one location) and collision (at another location)
may overlap, it is justifiable to translate the above Cycles into periods of crustal extension and
compression, each characterised by specific geodynamic processes. The coeval development
of the extensive East African Rift System (EARS) and the continuous compressive movement
of the Indian Craton below Asia may serve as a modern analogue.
Mantle upwelling results in mantle plumes and crustal extension. The emplacement of
small volumes of ultra-potassic magmatic rocks (carbonatite, kimberlite and associated
alkaline or ultra-potassic igneous rocks) heralds incipient rifting. Mantle plumes generate
beneath the lithosphere, measure typically 2000 km in diameter and have temperatures raised
200° C above normal (White and McKenzie, 1989). Mantle upwelling causes an adiabatic rise
7
Lake Chilwa in Malawi is named Lago Chirua in Mozambique.

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of mantle rock, partial melting and the formation of large volumes of magma of basaltic
composition. These magmas may be emplaced at or near the base of the continental crust
(‘basaltic underplating’) and/or, extrude to the Earth’s surface, ~ coeval with continental
break-up, as continental flood basalts (CFBs). The Deccan of India, the Paraná of South
America and the Karoo of southern Africa are well-known examples. Basaltic underplating
generally causes partial melting of the lower crust and the generation of melts of granitoid
composition. Together they may form bi-modal igneous suites, characterised by interbeds of
rhyolite or tuff in the sedimentary pile (see below) in combination with sills or dykes of
basaltic composition. Plutonic equivalents include pre- to early-kinematic granites and
granodiorites and layered (ultra-)mafic suites. The granitoids have generally a peraluminous
S-type geochemical signature. Differentiation of basaltic magma may result in A-type alkali
granites as described, for example, by Tack et al. (1994), in association with late-kinematic
(ultra-)mafic layered bodies, in the northern Kibaran of Burundi and northwest Tanzania.
Crustal extension leads to rifting by listric faulting. The net result will be crustal
thinning and the formation of depositional basins that will be filled with sediments including
evaporites, terrigenous sediments and igneous material at or near the surface. The latter is co-
magmatic with pre- to syn-kinematic basalts and granitoids at depth. Rifting and crustal
thinning may cease without formation of oceanic crust: an aborted or failed rift. Continued
rifting will eventually result in continental break-up with passive margins and the formation
of a young oceanic basin. Passive margin basins are often characterised by shallow marine
environments and the deposition of carbonates. Carbonates have rather restrictive
occurrences, constituting only ~ 2% of the rocks of the Earth’s crust (Wyllie, 1971).
Consequently, carbonates, or their metamorphic equivalents, are useful in defining palaeo-
continental margins.
Ophiolites and eclogites, or their metamorphic equivalents, are also useful indicators
of continental margins. Ophiolites are fragments of hot oceanic crust obducted onto – instead
of subducted below – the continental margin. They are often intermingled with sedimentary
rocks, forming so-called ‘mélanges’. Retrograde metamorphism, hydration and metasomatism
may result in the genesis of whiteschists, characterised by, e.g., talc-kyanite assemblages.
Eclogites in metamorphic belts originate from deeply buried (~ > 10 kb; Newton, 1986) ocean
floor basalt in subduction settings, exhumed during subsequent plate margin collisional
orogenic cycles. Their preservation is ascribed to rapid exhumation as mantled relics,
preventing complete re-equilibration. Eclogite fragments may also be carried to the surface as
xenoliths by deep intracratonic volcanic vents. The distribution of supracrustal rocks,
including carbonates, ophiolites and eclogites in Mozambique has been summarised by
Grantham et al. (2003) and is based on data by Vrana et al. (1975), Andreoli and Hart (1985),
Mosley (1993), Groenewald (1995), Möller et al. (1995) and Dirks (1997).
Posterior reassembly of continental fragments, ultimately resulting in the formation of
the next Supercontinent, will generate compressional forces. Compressional forces affecting
failed rifts may give rise to back-thrusting of the listric fault blocks and folding and
metamorphism of the basinal sedimentary pile: an intracratonic fold belt. Crustal thickening
may cause anatexis of the lower crust. Consumption of oceanic basins and subduction of wet
oceanic crust will result in the creation of island or Andean-type continental magmatic arcs
and eventually in collision and amalgamation of lithospheric fragments. Passive margin
sediments will be tectonised and metamorphosed in the process.

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Igneous rocks in magmatic arcs typically have calc-alkaline signatures. They include
volcanic piles dominated by andesites and dacites with subordinate basalts and rhyolites or as
their plutonic equivalents in the form of tonalities, trondjhemites and granodiorites (TTG
suites) with relatively low 87Sr/86Sr ratios. High heat flow generally associated with magmatic
arcs cause HT/LP metamorphic conditions manifested by mineral assemblages characteristic
of upper amphibolite to granulite facies, generally accompanied by extensive migmatisation.
The most recent Supercontinent assemblies pertinent to southern and eastern Africa
include Rodinia and Gondwana/Pangea. Rodinia assembled largely between ~1200 and 1000
Ma during the Grenvillian Orogeny (Hoffman, 1991; Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al.
1997, Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001; Condie, 2002a), represented regionally by
the Kibaran, Irumide and Namaqua-Natal fold belts. Rodinia rifting commenced around 1000
Ma and included extension in eastern and southern Africa as manifested by, for example, the
Richtersveld igneous suite, South Africa (Frimmel et al. 2001) and, within western
Mozambique, by the emplacement of 850 – 870 Ma bi-modal igneous rocks contained in the
Masoso and Guro Suites (Vinyu et al. 1999; GTK Consortium, 2006b) and the Rushinga
Basal Intrusive Suite dated at 805±11 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999).
Although most fragmentation took place between 900 and 700 Ma, the opening of the
Iapetus Ocean began around ~ 600 Ma with the separation of Baltica-Laurentia-Amazonia.
Gondwana assembled chiefly between 600 and 500 Ma (Condie, 2002a) although earlier (850
– 750 Ma) collisions have been reported in the Arabian-Nubian Shield (Hanson et al. 1994;
Stein and Goldstein, 1996). The assembly of Gondwana thus followed immediately the break-
up of Rodinia with some overlap in timing between 700 and 600 Ma. Baltica-Laurentia-
Siberia briefly collided with Gondwana to form the short-lived Supercontinent Pannotia
between 580 and 540 Ma (Dalziel, 1997).
Pangea began to form about 450 Ma with the collision of the Pre-Cordillera-Rio de la
Plata, Amazonia-Laurentia and Laurentia-Baltica collisions and amalgamations (Li and
Powell, 2001). Further growth was caused by collision between Baltica and Siberia as
manifested by the Ural Orogeny (Scotese and McKerrow, 1990). Breakup of Pangea started
around 160 Ma with the development of the Indian and South Atlantic oceanic basins and, on
the African continent, numerous post- Karoo troughs.

5.4.2. Superplumes

Based on the distribution of ages in continental crust, Condie (1998, 2000) proposed episodic
growth of continents with each maximum in continental growth manifesting a superplume
event. Superplumes are supposedly triggered by catastrophic slab avalanching at the 660 km
mantle discontinuity (Maruyama, 1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, many mantle plumes
are generated that bombard the base of the lithosphere in a short period of time (≤ 50 Ma).
When plotted in time, superplumes represented by culminations in juvenile crust
production, can be correlated with the formation of Supercontinents. Only two major
superplume events can be established in the Precambrian at 2.7 and 1.9 Ga, respectively.
Phanerozoic superplumes include a small peak in crustal growth in the Late Cretaceous at ~
110 Ma and a Late Palaeozoic peak at ~ 300 Ma. The Grenvillian Orogeny and the formation
of Rodinia cannot be correlated with a superplume event. Rogers (1996) has suggested that
during the 1.9 supercontinent/ superplume event (in Africa to be correlated with the Ubendian
Orogeny, Fig. 5.1) actually two Supercontinents formed. Lack of a Grenvillian superplume

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event may be due to either subsequent failure of the two Supercontinents to break-up or to
inadequate lithospheric shielding of two instead of a single Supercontinent for the production
of mantle upwellings large enough to break the continental lithosphere (Lowman and Jarvis,
1996). Condie (2001) suggests that during the Supercontinent break-up at 1.6 – 1.4 Ga only a
small proportion of the Supercontinent (or Supercontinents) was fragmented. The resulting
increase in subduction rates was not sufficient to initiate slab collapse at the 660 km seismic
discontinuity, which would normally lead to a superplume event (Larson, 1991; Maruyama,
1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, worldwide Grenvillian juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9 Ma) is
limited to only 7 to 13%. Of this, only a minor proportion was created in Africa with
estimates ranging from 0.9 to 1.6% and located in the Namaqua-Natal orogen in southern
Africa, the Lurio Belt in Mozambique, NE Tanzania and Burundi/NW Tanzania (Condie,
2001; see also Fig. 5.2).

5.5. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA

5.5.1. Phanerozoic Cover

The Phanerozoic cover comprises sedimentary strata and associated igneous rocks belonging
to the East Africa Rift and Karoo Supergroups, deposited during the East Africa Rift and
Karoo Events, respectively.
Traditionally, the age of sedimentary rocks belonging to the East Africa Rift
Supergroup is based on marine and fresh water fossils and palynology. Geochronological data
are available from alkaline volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group, yielding an Early-Middle
Cretaceous (K-Ar) age of 131±10 Ma (Gough et al. 1964; Flores, 1964; Vail, 1963, 1964,
1965) within the succession.
The Karoo Supergroup in the Main Karoo Basin in South Africa ranges in age from
Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic. Dating and litho-stratigraphic classification of
sedimentary units is mainly based on non-marine vertebrate and plant fossils. For example,
the Beaufort Group in the Main Karoo basin in South Africa has been successfully subdivided
into eight fossil assemblage zones. A palynological biozonation has proved feasible for the
Permian strata in some Karoo basins. Basalts and acid lavas of the Drakensberg Group that
top the Karoo Supergroup yield K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of ~ 180 Ma. A similar age for this late
Karoo igneous event has been found in e.g. Antarctica and elsewhere.
Rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup in Mozambique are also dated by their
fossil content, or by analogy with Karoo successions in neighbouring countries. Recently,
septarian carbonate concretions in siltstones incorporated into the Beaufort Group (K5 and
K6) of the Metangula rift (Niassa Province) have been dated using the ‘U-Pb on carbonates’
method. Preliminary results (pers. comm. R.A. Smith) manifest that:
• The ‘U-Pb on carbonate method’ yields an isochron Late Permian age (258±10
Ma) that falls within the Mid Permian to Mid Triassic time brackets (275 – 225
Ma) for the Beaufort Group, based on palaeontology and palaeobotany.
• The Ecca-Beaufort boundary in the Metangula Rift is diachronous.

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5.5.2. Crystalline Basement

Kennedy (1964) introduced the term Pan-African Orogeny. He preferred, however, the term
‘Pan-African thermo-tectonic episode’ manifesting the fact that evidence for this orogeny was
initially mainly derived from conventional whole rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar geochronology
yielding ages of about ~ 650 to 490 Ma for presumably older rocks (Cahen and Snelling,
1966). As can be expected in polyphase terrains, the above data display large to excessive
error margins, reflecting either incomplete resetting of the isotopic system, material losses
through circulation of metamorphic fluids or diffusion. Modern geochronological methods
such as Ar/Ar, conventional U-Pb, U-Pb SHRIMP, Sm-Nd and Nd model ages (TDM) have
greatly improved the reliability and accuracy of rock metamorphic and igneous emplacement
ages.
Grantham et al. (2003) has summarised geochronological data in eastern Africa.
Metamorphic ages and Nd model (TDM) ages are relatively scarce in Mozambique. TDM
ages of < 1.5 Ga in the Tete area and northern Mozambique and 1.5 to >2.0 Ga in central
Mozambique near the Zimbabwe Craton confirm that the metamorphic ages, ranging from
450 to 750 Ma, reflect indeed overprinting of older rocks. Igneous crystallisation temperatures
can be divided into four groups: (1) 1100 – 1400 Ma, (2) 900 – 1100 Ma, (3) 700 – 900 Ma and
(4) 450 – 700 Ma. It is postulated that the first group (1100 – 1400 Ma) corresponds with
post-Ubendian break-up including the formation of oceanic crust (e.g. Cherowe Inliers;
Zimbabwe); the second group (900 – 1100 Ma) with the Kibaran/Grenvillian Orogeny and the
formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent, the third group (700 – 900 Ma) with post-Rodinia
break-up and the formation of oceanic basins including the Mozambique Ocean and, finally,
the fourth group (450 – 700 Ma) with the Pan-African collision and the formation of Pangea
(for details see Chapter 8).
Different tectonic regimes at different locations at the same time complicate, however,
this regional picture. For example, an ~ 800 Ma igneous event in the Zambezi Belt is
interpreted as extensional by Dirks et al. (1998). U-Pb zircon and baddeleyite ages of between
804 and 776 Ma from Tanzania and Madagascar are related to a 450 km long continental
magmatic arc at the time of, or slightly preceding the break-up of Rodinia.
Meert (2002) recognises three broad age groups related to tectonic phases. These
include (1) the initial oceanic arc/ophiolite genesis in the East African Orogeny (EAO)
between ~ 710 and 800 Ma. This was followed by (2) the EAO between ~ 690 and 580 Ma in
a N-S belt stretching from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique and (3) the
Kuunga Orogeny from ~ 580 to 460 Ma in ~ E-W and N-S zones along the northern and
eastern margins of the Kalahari Craton.
The Consortium has carried out two age determinations within the area covered by this
Map Explanation. The locations of the dated samples are shown in Fig. 2.22 (Chapter 2), and
the results are summarized in Appendix 2 of this Map Explanation.

5.6. CRYSTALLINE TERRANES AND PHANEROZOIC COVER

Lithostratigraphic units that underlie the territory of Mozambique can be conveniently divided
between a crystalline basement of Archaean-Cambrian age and Phanerozoic cover.
The crystalline basement comprises a heterogeneous assemblage metamorphosed
supracrustal paragneisses, granulites and migmatites, orthogneisses and igneous intrusive

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rocks. From a geodynamic point of view it is generally accepted that the crystalline basement
of Mozambique is composed of three different terranes8 that have been collided and
amalgamated during subsequent orogenic phases. Provisionally, these terranes are called the
East Gondwana, West Gondwana and South Gondwana terranes. Prior to amalgamation, each
terrane was characterised by an individual and specific geodynamic development. The
geodynamic evolution and boundaries – the sutures – of these terranes are discussed in the
Chapter 11 on geodynamic development in Volumes 2 and 4 (GTK Consortium, 2006b,d) and
will not be repeated here. The small portion of basement rocks exposed in the area (SDS
2032/2033) under discussion in this Map Explanation (Volume 1) belongs to the South
Gondwana terrane.
The Phanerozoic cover mainly comprises lithologies deposited during the Karoo and
East African Rift Events. They will be assembled into the East African Rift and Karoo
Supergroups, respectively.

8
The term ‘terrane’ is used to indicate a tectonic unit of variable size, i.e., a lithospheric plate, a plate fragment
or sliver or a tectonic mass such as a ‘nappe’. ‘Terrain’, on the other hand, is a generic term, broadly similar
to ‘area’.

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CHAPTER 6

SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – KALAHARI CRATON

6.1. INTRODUCTION
The crystalline basement of the South Gondwana terrane is conveniently divided into the
Archaean Kalahari Craton and younger fold belts of Proterozoic to Cambrian age. The
Kalahari Craton (~ 1.5 million km²) comprises the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons, together
with the intervening Limpopo mobile belt. The Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons and the
Limpopo Belt are not exposed in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) but
assumed to be present as a stable basement below sediments and volcanics belonging to the
Umkondo Group in the Espungabera/Chibabava Map Sheet (SDS 2032/2033).
The Zimbabwe Craton underlies most of Zimbabwe as well as parts of northeastern
Botswana and western Mozambique (Fig. 6.1). The craton is largely composed of so-called
granite-greenstone terrains comprising mainly granite-gneiss-migmatite complexes of
tonalitic to trondhjemitic to granitic (TTG) composition and subordinate (~20 % of the
surface area) greenstone belts. The greenstone belts of the Zimbabwe Craton are in 26
individual linear or arcuate infolded belts, up to several tens of km long, of which two extend
into Mozambique (i.e., the Mutare-Manica and Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belts,
respectively).

Table 6.1. Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002).

Central Zimbabwe N and E Zimbabwe, Mozambique

Great Dyke (2575 Ma)
~2.6 Ga Chilimanzi ~ 2.64 Ga Mavonde Complex
Suite M’Beza/Vengo
Shamvaian Supergroup
Manica

Formation*
Group
Granite-Green-stone

~ 2.65 Ga Wedza ~ 2.70 Ga Upper Bulawayan Macequece Formation

Suite Supergroup
~ 2.7 Ga Chingezi 2.9 – 2.8 Ga Belingwean-Lower
Suite Bulawayan ~ 3.0 Ga Migmatic Gneiss Terrain
Terrain

Supergroup
Sebakwean Pfungwe Suite Mudzi Suite
~ 3.5 Ga > 2.95 Ga
Supergroup
Basement Complex (> 3.5 Ga)

The oldest rocks of the Zimbabwe Craton are TTG gneisses have been dated between
3.55 and 3.35 Ga (e.g., Horstwood et al. 1999). Infolded are remnants of greenstones that are
collectively grouped into the Sebakwean Group. Subsequent accretion added greenstones of
the Belingwean/Lower Bulawayan (~ 2.9 to 2.8 Ga), the Upper Bulawayan (~ 2.7 and ~ 2.64
Ga) and the metasedimentary Shamvaian (~ 2.6 Ga) Supergroups (Wilson et al. 1995). Each
sequence was accompanied by the emplacement of TTG suite granitoids assembled in the
Chingezi (∼2.9 to 2.8 Ga), Sesombi (∼2.7 Ga), Wedza (∼2.65 Ga) and Chilimanzi (∼2.6 Ga)
Suites, respectively (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996). A simplified lithostratigraphy of
the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002) is shown in Table 6.1.
The presence of Archaean rocks in small round to oval-shaped windows below
Proterozoic units close to the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border has been known for some time.

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Mapping by the GTK Consortium indicates the predominance of Archaean rocks in

Mozambique as a N-S trending, 20 to 50 km wide belt along the international border (Map
Explanation, Volume 2; GTK Consortium 2006b).

Fig. 6.1. Simplified map of the Zimbabwe Craton showing the major litho-tectonic units (after Hofmann et al.
2002). Key: 1 = Mutare-Manica greenstone belt; 2 = Makaha greenstone belt; 3 = Bindura-Shamva greenstone
belt. The northern Archaean gneiss terrain comprises the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT).

For a long time geologists have speculated on the sub-surface northern and eastern
extension of the Zimbabwe Craton. There is strong evidence that the Archaean lithosphere
extends sub-surface up to the Cahora Bassa Lake (i.e., the Sanangoè Shear Zone) in the north
and – at least – the western margin of the Lupata trough in the east, possibly even including
the Lupata trough itself. This hypothesis is strongly supported by the distribution of Karoo
volcanics in, e.g., the Lebombo, Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines and near Canxixe. Basaltic
underplating apparently concentrated at or near the break of the lithospheric upper mantle,
i.e., from thick Archaean upper mantle to younger upper mantle of normal thickness. This
means that all Proterozoic metamorphic units of the South Gondwana Terrane – with the
exception of the undeformed/non-metamorphic Umkondo Group – have been thrusted on top
of the northern and eastern margins of the Zimbabwe Craton.

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6.2. UMKONDO GROUP

6.2.1. Introduction

The Umkondo Group forms a volcano-sedimentary succession, exposed in an area measuring

170 km N-S by 100 km E-W, which rests unconformably on the lithologies of the Limpopo
Belt and the Zimbabwe Craton. Lithologies of the Group are exposed along the eastern border
of Zimbabwe and extend into Mozambique. Stocklmayer (1981) distinguished two different
facies, i.e., the autochthonous Inyanga facies in Zimbabwe and the Gairezi facies in
Mozambique, thus suggesting a coeval deposition of both successions. In Zimbabwe, the
Inyanga facies is described as a flat-lying to weakly tilted, non-deformed, mostly
unmetamorphosed succession of up to 800 m in thickness composed of basal arkoses,
stromatolitic limestone, chert, mudrock and ortho-sandstone (Button, 1977; Stocklmayer,
1981; Mukwakwami, 2001). Thicknesses of more than 3000 m are suggested for the western
part of the succession (Allsopp et al. 1989). In the Save valley, Zimbabwe, amygdaloidal
lavas appear in the uppermost part of the preserved part of the succession. These contain
quartzitic intercalations, suggesting that these lavas are virtually part of the Umkondo Group
(Swift, 1962).
In Mozambique, the legend of the 1:250 000 Hunting (1984) maps describes the
Umkondo Group as a succession (from bottom to top) of (1) basal argillites (mudrock) and
limestone, (2) ortho-sandstones with mappable ‘quartzitic’ levels, (3) upper argillites and (4)
agglomerates and andesitic lavas. Deposition seems to have taken place in fluvial to shallow-
water (lacustrine?) environments. Button (1977), however, attributes deposition of this
sequence to shallow marine, supratidal sabkha, braided fan delta and meandering river
floodplain environments.
Field verification by GTK Consortium has given rise to a re-arrangement of the
different lithologies in the area: the flat-lying to weakly tilted, non- or slightly metamorphic
units have been incorporated into the Umkondo succession. The deformed, thrusted and
metamorphosed lithologies have been incorporated into the Gairezi Group. The Umkondo
Group sensu Hunting (1984) has been divided into the Dacata Formation* with, depending on
the most prominent clastic lithology, five different members, and the Espungabera
Formation*, comprising the volcanic rocks that top the succession (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2. Simplified stratigraphic order in the Umkondo Group.

Espungabera Formation* (P2Uev)

Upper Quartzite Member (P2Udqz)

Mesoproterozoic
era Dacata Chert Member (P2Udch)
Formation* Siltstone Member (P2Uds)
Graphite Schist Member (P2Udsc)

Lower Quartzite Member (P2Udlq)

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6.2.2. Lithology

In the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) the Umkondo Group comprises a
well-preserved succession of weakly metamorphic metasediments, including quartzites,
siltstones, phyllites, sericite and graphite-bearing phyllites and calcareous cherts, all
tentatively assigned to the Dacata Formation*. These terrestrial to lagoonal to shallow-marine
deposits are conformably overlain by a pile of basaltic to andesitic lava flows of the
Espungabera Formation*, which probably belong to a large, continental flood basalt province
(Munyanyiwa, 1999).
In the Espungabera region (SDS 2032/2033) the well-preserved, sub-horizontal to
gently S- or SW-dipping deposits of the Umkondo succession form a prominent highland area
along the Zimbabwean border. Similar rocks exposed east of the Goi-Goi village show a
progressive degree of metamorphism and deformation, with a N-S trending strike and steeply
east dipping foliation.
Karoo sediments cover the lavas of the Umkondo Group in the south, while the eastern
contact with Karoo basalts and Gairezi quartzites is of a tectonic nature. The Umkondo Group
in the northern part of the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1), composed
mainly of argillitic metasediments, is extensively intruded by (post-) Umkondo dolerite sills
(Section 6.3).

Dacata Formation*
The psammitic and pelitic metasediments of the Dacata Formation* are well exposed in the
deep valley and upper reaches of the Búzi River. The new service road for the power line
south of Goi-Goi village also offers an excellent traverse across various lithologies of the
Dacata Formation*. On aerogeophysical maps, metasediments of the Formation* display a
relatively strong radiometric signature.

Lower Quartzite Member (P2UDlq)

Light greenish grey, finely banded orthoquartzite represents the lowermost metasedimentary
unit of the Umkondo Group in the Espungabera region (Fig. 6.2). It forms a prominent cliff
near the Búzi River bridge along the Dacata-Espungabera road, where it is exposed in a small
window beneath red siltstones of the overlying Siltstone Member. The same horizon of fine-
grained, pure quartzite is exposed in an arcuate belt from the Zimbabwean border to the
power line south of Goi-Goi village in the east, where quartzites grade upwards into sericite
schists and phyllites of the Siltstone Member.
In the type section along the Búzi River, sub-horizontal or gently westwards dipping
quartzites display a distinct plane-parallel lamination and conspicuous tangential or angular
cross-bedding (Fig. 6.3A). Some bedding surfaces demonstrate symmetrical ripple marks, and
small lenses of intraformational conglomerate with subrounded quartzite clasts occur in the
lower part of the succession (Fig. 6.3B). Local bright green interbeds probably contain
significant quantities of fuchsite and suggests that the material has been partly derived from
ultramafic rocks of greenstone belts of the Zimbabwe Craton.

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Fig. 6.2. Sub-horizontal ortho-

quartzite (cliff) of the Lower
Quartzite Member. Rio Búzi
bridge (0485021/7738331).

A B

Fig. 6.3. (A) Tangential cross-bedding in laminated orthoquartzite of the Lower Quartzite Member, (B)
Intraformational, monomict conglomerate horizon with subrounded quartzite clasts. The Lower Quartzite
Member. Rio Búzi bridge (0485021/ 7738331). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Graphite Schist Member (P2UDsc)

In the area north of the Dacata and Goi-Goi villages, Umkondo metasediments are mostly
composed of fine-grained, graphite-bearing sericite schists and slates. Because of the
abundance of thick, post-Umkondo dolerite sills, the extent and thickness of this Member is
difficult to establish, but exposures of sericite schists and slates have randomly been found in
the region between the Zimbabwe border and the Serra Sitatonga ridge. The rocks are closely
associated with chert and siltstone rocks of overlying Members and represent the lagoonal to
shallow-marine facies of the Umkondo sedimentary basin.
A several metres thick layer of graphite-bearing sericite schist is exposed in ditches
and road cuts near the Dacata village. Probably the same graphite schist horizon can be
observed in a quarry for road construction material, located ~ 2.5 km SW of the village (Fig.
6.4A). Small outcrops of graphite schist have also been found in the surroundings of the Goi-
Goi village, where the sericite schist is associated with black, lustrous cherts of the
Calcareous Chert Member.

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Immediately northwest of Dacata village, dark bluish grey to black, fine-grained

graphite-rich sericite schist is strongly staining, implying a rather high graphite content within
the rock (Fig. 6.4B). Judging from rusty weathering surfaces and cubic cavities, disseminated
pyrite grains have been weathered out. Graphite contents generally diminish towards the NE
with the rock turning into graphite-poor, grey argillitic slate. The graphitic sediments were
originally deposited in a restricted basin.

A B

Fig. 6.4. (A) Graphite-rich sericite schist in quarry for road construction material. Southwest of the Dacata
village (0498165/7750932), (B) Detailed photograph of sulphide-bearing graphite schist of the Graphite Schist
Member. Northwest of the Dacata village (049684/ 7764535). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Calcareous Chert Member (P2UDch)

A sub-horizontal layer of calcareous chert, with interbedded, strongly weathered limestone
bands is exposed south of Dacata village, along the Dacata-Espungabera road (Fig. 6.5A).
Similar regularly banded, calcareous chert has been widely observed in association with, and
probably conformably overlying, the schists and slates of the Graphite Schist Member.
Calcareous chert, south of Dacata village, occurs as light grey, cryptocrystalline, thinly
bedded (3 – 15 cm) and laminated (mm-scale) rock. Dark brown and variously corroded,
calcareous interbeds are found in places. Elsewhere, relicts of calcareous beds that escaped
silification occur as ovoid or sausage-shaped concretions (Fig. 6.5B).
A peculiar, pitch-black variety of chert is locally exposed in the vicinity of Goi-Goi
village and Lucite River. The rock may represent a chilled margin facies of a ‘baked’ chert
next to a thick intrusive dolerite dyke or sill. Bedding of the rock is still well preserved,
however (Fig. 6.5C).

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A B

Fig. 6.5. (A) Bedded and laminated chert with

strongly weathered calcareous interbeds in the
Calcareous Chert Member of the Dacata Formation*.
SW of the Dacata village (0498848/7752004), (B)
Detailed photograph of chert with calcareous
interbeds. Note calcareous concretion in top of
photograph, (C) Black chert with distinct bedding.
The Calcareous Chert Member in the Lucite river
(0512582/7778174). Scale bar is 10/15 cm.

Siltstone Member (P2UDs)

A thick succession of sub-horizontal to gently SE-dipping siltstones, slates and sericite schists
of the Siltstone Member cover the Lower Quartzite Member in a broad valley east of the
Espungabera town (Fig. 6.6).
In areas north of Dacata village there occur slightly brownish slates (Fig. 6.7), which
are observed at different altitudes between large dolerite-gabbro bodies. Microtexturally the
slates comprise subangular to slightly rounded quartz and feldspar clasts, which size is about
0.01 – 0.01 mm. Matrix is composed of phengitic mica with some chlorite, usually 0.01 –
0.05 mm in size. Hematitic opaque occurs as very small aggregatic grains. Some obviously
fragmented silty and hematitic layers are also observed. The slates are often weathered, fragile
and weak; large outcrops are rare.
The most conspicuous variety of the Member is siltstone, which is well exposed in
quarries on both sides of Búzi River bridge (Fig. 6.8B). The deep magenta-coloured rock has
greenish grey, sericite-bearing interbeds and grades progressively into laminated sericite
quartzite of the Lower Quartzite Member. Greenish grey, strongly foliated phyllite horizons
are exposed along the power line service road NE of Serra Mepessalussa where phyllite also
grades upwards into sericite quartzites and orthoquartzites of the Upper Quartzite Member.
Phyllitic varieties of these fine-grained, argillitic metasediments have been found
within the Umkondo sequence along the power line service road, south of the Goi-Goi village
(Fig. 6.8A). Generally, the grain size of the Dacata Group pelitic rocks increases towards the
N-S trending Serra Sitatonga mountain ridge.

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Fig. 6.6. South-east dipping siltstone

beds of the Siltstone Member. Rio
Buzi (487929/ 7732447).

Fig. 6.7. Sub-horizontal, weathered

reddish brown slate of the Siltstone
Member at slope of a hill. 4 km NE
of Dacata village.
(0509929/7758344). Scale bar 10
cm.

Fig. 6.8. (A) Phyllite slabs of the Siltstone Member. Outcrop near power line service road (0510603/7747273),
(B) Detailed photograph of magenta-coloured siltstone with dark, greenish-coloured interbeds. Siltstone
Member. Quarry near the Búzi River bridge (0483259/7739622). Scale bar is 15 cm.

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Upper Quartzite Member (P2UDqz)

Light pinkish or yellowish grey, fine-grained quartzite represents the uppermost stratigraphic
unit in the succession of the Dacata Formation*. Although mostly exposed in the steep valleys
around Espungabera village, similar quartzite forms prominent ridges N and S of Serra
Mepessalussa. A pronounced U-Th anomaly along the Zimbabwean border, west of Monte
Maciurimbe, suggests the presence of the same quartzite horizon beneath andesitic lavas of
the Espungabera Formation*. The estimated maximum thickness of the gently SW to SE-
dipping quartzite horizon in the Espungabera area is 150 – 200 m.
The fabric and composition of the quartzite varies from a pure, laminated
orthoquartzite with large scale cross-bedding to foliated sericitic quartzite, and a massive
sugary variety, which is locally exposed near the upper contact of the Member (Fig. 6.9). A
variously thick brownish weathering zone is rather common, implying a small amount of iron
within the matrix of the rock.
However, there are also some quartz rocks characterized by relative coarse grain size,
e.g. 10 km NE of the Dacata village, at roadside. They may represent a few meters wide
quartz dykes intruded into slates, because these quartz rocks comprise small geodes with
euhedral quartz crystals.

Fig. 6.9. Gently south dipping

orthoquartzite of the Upper
Quartzite Member. N of the
Espungabera village (475587/
7741590). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Espungabera Formation* (P2UEv)

In Zimbabwe, Umkondo lavas are minor in comparison to post- or late-Umkondo dolerites in
sills (Section 6.3). These lava flows reach a maximum thickness of up to 200 m (Allsopp et
al. 1989). In Mozambique, basaltic to andesitic lavas of the Espungabera Formation*
constitute the uppermost lithological unit of the volcano-sedimentary succession of the
Umkondo Group in the area covered by this Map Explanation. Based on observations from
the exposed contacts, these lavas rest conformably on orthoquartzites of the Dacata
Formation* (Fig. 6.10). Extending from Espungabera village about 50 km SW, a
homogeneous pile of gently SE-dipping lava flows form a coherent, 25 km wide high plateau
along the Zimbabwean border. A major fault zone with spectacular fault breccias separates

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lavas of the Espungabera Formation* from basaltic flows of the Upper Karoo Rio Nhavúdezi
Formation* (Fig. 6.11D).

Fig. 6.10. Exfoliation features

in andesitic lava flow of the
Espungabera Formation*,
lying directly on top of light
brown orthoquartzite of the
Dacata Formation*. Rio
Chinhica (0484883/7722769)

A separate, fault-bounded outcrop area occurs NE of Chiuraiue village, where

sandstones of the Moatize Formation cover Espungabera lavas*. On airborne geophysical
maps the area covered by andesitic lava flows of the Espungabera Formation* are
distinguished as a low intensity anomaly. On satellite imagery, however, this terrain has a
distinctive, high relief pattern caused by deep, fault-controlled valleys.
Majority of metavolcanic rocks of the Espungabera Formation* are greenish brown,
fine-grained basaltic to andesitic lavas. Save rare tuff exposures west of Muzezigi River, no
pyroclastic or metasedimentary interflow deposits have been observed. Based on the
amygdaloidal flow contacts, the thickness of individual lava flows is generally in the order of
several metres. An exceptionally thick and massive flow, with a thickness over 50 m, has
been found along the steep northern slope of Monte Chiurainue (Fig. 6.11A). Opal, epidote
and pumpellyite are the most common filling minerals in round or irregular amygdules (Fig.
6.11B and 6.11C). Generally, the size of amygdules is less than five centimetres, but random
megavesicles up to 50 cm in diameter have been found in the upper part of thick lava flows
SE of Espungabera village.
In the basal zone of the Formation*, andesitic lava locally grades into strongly
silicified, yellowish green epidote-sericite rock with plenty of small, quartz-filled amygdules.
A number of medium-grained, massive micro-gabbroic sills, generally some tens of
metres in thickness, intrude concordantly into quartzites of the Dacata Formation* in many
locations. Texturally and mineralogically these sills correspond to the post-Umkondo
dolerites described in Section 6.3.

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A B

Fig. 6.11. Lava textures of the Espungabera Formation*. (A) Regular cooling jointing in a thick andesitic lava
flow. N slope of Mte Chiurainue (0479893/7724664)), (B) Large quartz-filled amygdules in the upper part of
andesitic lava flow (0465184/7725699), (C) Irregular quartz and epidote-filled amygdules in upper part of lava
flow. Espungabera Formation* SE of Espungabera village (0482461/ 7733614), (D) Fault breccia between the
Espungabera Formation* and the Rio Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*. SE of the Macuo village
(0461458/7700601). Scale bar is 10/15 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm.

6.2.3. Geochemistry

The Espungabera Formation* lavas analysed by GTK Consortium have SiO2-contents

between 48.3 and 56.8 %. (Table 1, App. 3). The TiO2 content varies from 0.89 to 3.15 %,
P2O5 between 0.11 and 0.47% and Zr between 140 and 510 ppm. It should be noted that one
analysed sample comprising the highest Ti, P and Zr concentration is rather olivine-rich, and
may in fact be a dolerite in origin. The chemical data of Espungabera lavas is also plotted in
alkalies vs. SiO2 diagram (LeBas et al, 1986) and in AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar 1971)
(see Chapter 8, Figs. 8.30 and 8.31).
Accordingly most of the lavas belong to the low P-Ti (LPT) type, which is usually
formed by crustal contamination of mafic magma (Peate and Hawkesworth, 1996). The low
Mg values (29 – 36) are typical of flood basalts and the analysed lavas also have low Ni, Cr,
Cu and Co contents. According to Wilson (1989) the above low values of mafic lava flows
indicate that the parental magma may not be derived directly from a peridotitic mantle source,
but experienced differentiation through crystal fractionation at depth and crustal
contamination. Zr/Y versus Zr and Nbx2 versus Zr/4 plot, according to Pearce and Norry

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(1979) and Meschede (1986), within the fields of ‘Within-Plate-Basalts’ and ‘Within-Plate-
Tholeites-and-Volcanic-Arc-Basalts’.

6.2.4. Age

The age of the Umkondo Group is problematic (Munyanyiwa, 1999). In the past, both a
Palaeo- and a Mesoproterozoic age have been attributed to the Umkondo Group.
Correlation of the Umkondo sequence with the ~ 1130 Ma Ahlmannryggen Group of
East Antarctica would suggest a Mesoproterozoic age. The Ahlmannryggen Group of the
Ritscherflya Supergroup of West Dronning Maud Land overlies the Archaean Grunehogna
Craton (Groenewald et al. 1995; Moyes et al. 1995). The latter is believed to be a part of the
Kalahari Craton and, consequently, the Umkondo and Ahlmannryggen sequences occur in the
same stratigraphic position. Dolerite of the Umkondo Igneous Province – Mashonaland
dolerite and gabbro (P2ML) – may be likewise correlated with the Borgmassivet sills (up to
400 m thick). While still wet, the Borgmassivet sills invaded the Ahlmannryggen sediments.
Consequently, sills and sediments are considered to be broadly coeval.
Recently, Master (2006) has described a similar situation from a road cut in the
Chimanimani Mountains of eastern Zimbabwe. The contact zone of the sill (dated at ~ 1100
Ma) is heavily contaminated, shows soft sediment deformation, including ductile folds, as
well as phreato-magmatic or peperitic brecciation. Hence, deposition of the Umkondo
sequence is also ~ coeval with or slightly prior to intrusion of the Umkondo dolerite sills
dated at 1100 Ma (Munyanyiwa, 1997; Thomas, 1998).
The remarkable similarities in the style of intrusion into wet sediments of the
Umkondo and Ahlmannryggen sequences as well as similarities in geochemistry, age and
palaeo-magnetism (Moye et al. 1995; Hanson et al, 1998; Jones et al. 2003) support the
palaeo-continental reconstruction showing that the Grunehogna Block was attached to the
Kalahari Craton prior to the Rodinia assembly and the Pan-African Orogeny (Groenewald et
al. 1995).

6.3. MASHONALAND SUITE (P2ML)

6.3.1. Introduction

The volcano-sedimentary strata of the Umkondo Group and greenstones of the Archaean
Manica Group (granite-greenstone terrain, Zimbabwe Craton; GTK Consortium, 2006b) have
been intruded by numerous and extensive NNW-SSE directed dolerite dykes and sub-
horizontal sills up to several hundreds of metres thick. They can be distinguished from the
lavas of the Umkondo sequence by their grain size, by baked contacts and by the absence of
amygdales in the latter dykes and sills (Allsopp et al. 1989). These mafic intrusive bodies
are collectively referred to as the Umkondo Dolerites (‘Post-Umkondo’ dolerites sensu
Hunting, 1984) or Umkondo Lavas of the Umkondo Igneous Province (Munyanyiwa,
1999) and assembled here as Mashonaland dolerite and gabbro, which form the
Mashonaland Suite. The dolerite sills thus extend from the Archaean basement into the
rocks of the Umkondo Group and some sills have been emplaced along the basal
unconformity. Minor basalt flows (and mafic lapilli tuffs) that are interlayered with Umkondo

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sediments are geochemically identical to the dolerite sills and dykes and provide indications
of broadly syn-sedimentary igneous activity (see Master, 2006, below).

6.3.2. Lithology

In Zimbabwe thick sills of dolerite intrude the Umkondo succession as sheets that locally
coalesce and transgress bedding in the Umkondo sequence. The bulk of the dolerite sills have
invaded calcareous and argillaceous units of the lower part of the Umkondo sequence. Fewer
and narrower sills have been emplaced into quartzite of the upper part of the succession. Six
individual sheets, each between 70 and 200 m in thickness, have been mapped (Swift, 1962;
Watson, 1969). Chilled margins are exposed in places. Elsewhere, chaotic intermingling of
dolerite and country rock reflects steam explosions in sediments still rich in pore water.
Dykes and sills of the Mashonaland or Umkondo dolerites are fine to medium grained,
dark grey to greenish grey isotropic rocks. Compositionally they are dolerite, micro-gabbro or
norite with common ophitic or sub-ophitic textures. Feldspar-phyric types are also
widespread. Felsic and mafic minerals occur in roughly equal amounts. Common primary
igneous minerals include calcic plagioclase, clinopyroxene, minor quartz, biotite and ilmenite.
Orthopyroxene is generally absent or rare but may locally amount to 20% (Stocklmayer,
1978; 1980). Munyanyiwa (1999) attributes chlorite, actinolite, albite and calcite to
greenschist metamorphic overprinting. Alternatively, these may be products of
autometamorphism, i.e., products of reaction with pore water in the host rock. Variably thick
dark brown weathering surface is common for these gabbros.
In the Espungabera region (SDS 2032/2033), limited by the upper reaches of the Búzi
River, the Serra Sitatonga mountain range and the Zimbabwe border, most of undulating hills
are apparently underlain by sub-horizontal dolerite sills (Figs. 6.12A and 6.12B). On airborne
geophysical maps the Umkondo dolerites have a moderate radiometric signature and low
magnetic susceptibility.

A B

Fig. 6.12. (A) Massive sub-horizontal Mashonaland dolerite sill. North of the Goi-Goi village (0510730/
7759986), (B) Detailed photograph of Mashonaland dolerite sill, sampled for age determination. NE of the
Mte Macuiana (0491577/7758265). Scale bar is 12 cm.

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6.3.3. Geochemistry

The Mashonaland Suite dolerites are compositionally basaltic andesites using classification of
LeBas et al. (1986) (see Chapter 8, Fig. 8.30). The dolerites are characterized by low Ti-, P-
and Zr-contents (TiO2 <1%, P2O5 ≤0.1%, Zr <120 ppm). Fe# ranges ~0.5 – 0.7. Chemical
analyses of 5 Mashonaland dolerite samples are shown in Table 1 of App.3. Broadly, the
rocks are sub-alkaline quartz-tholeiites, which fairly well correspond to the Umkondo
dolerites analysed in the Chipinge district, eastern Zimbabwe (Munyanyiwa, 1999).
Microprobe analyses of main minerals in the dolerite-gabbros are shown in Table 1 of
App. 4. For example, clinopyroxenes are augites with MgO/FeO >1.5 and Al2O3 -content
between 1.7 and 1.8 %.
Chemical whole rock data of the Mashonaland diabases and those from the mafic
rocks of the Manica area in north suggest two sub-types of dykes. One group of dolerites are
basalts with high titanium (2.0 – 3.5 %, TiO2), phosphorus (0.2 – 0.9 %, P2O5) and Fe# (~0.65
– 0.85) and a second group of dolerites (Mashonaland) that classify as basaltic andesites.
Chemical classification diagrams (Fig. 6.13) confirm the above. Although all rocks practically
plot in the field of tholeiites (Fig. 6.13c), other chemical classification diagrams clearly
demonstrate the presence of two populations (especially Fig. 6.13d), corresponding with two
sub-types of doleritic rock.
Chemical characteristics, large surface extent and consistent palaeo-magnetic signature
suggest that the Umkondo mafic suite defines a continental flood basalt province – the
Umkondo Igneous Province – resulting from the impact of a mantle plume on the eastern
margin of the Zimbabwe Craton (Hanson et al. 1998, 2004; Wingate, 2001; Mukwakwami,
2001). The fluvial to shallow-water depositional environment of the Umkondo sediments
supports the continental nature of the igneous activity.

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Fig. 6.13. Chemical classification diagrams of metavolcanic rocks from the Mashonaland dolerite-gabbro (the
Umkondo Igneous Province) and Manica greenstone belt. Classification in diagram (A) by Winchester and
Floyd (1977), diagram (B) by Le Bas et al. (1986), diagram (C) by Irvine and Baragar (1971) and diagram (E)
by Jensen (1976).

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6.3.4. Age

Dating of post-Umkondo dolerites yields conflicting results, which has a direct impact on the
age of the Umkondo Supergroup. A Mesoproterozoic age is indicated by the following data:
• Published WR Rb-Sr errorchron yield ages of 1078±143 Ma for 47 samples of
dolerite and three samples of mafic lavas. Biotite separates yield a Rb-Sr age of
1075±25 Ma. Based on the above data, Allsopp et al. (1989) concluded, a
depositional age of the Umkondo succession of ~ 1100 Ma.
• Combining palaeo-magnetic and geochronological data, widespread igneous
activity in the sub-continent is suggested at ~ 1200 to 1100 Ma.
• The direction of magnetisation of the Umkondo lavas is not significantly different
from the post-Umkondo dolerites. As the former are concordant with the Umkondo
sediments, it is suggested that the post-Umkondo dolerites are ~ coeval with the
Umkondo sedimentary sequence.
• SHRIMP analyses of baddeleyite from a coarse-grained gabbro near the upper
contact of a thick Umkondo sill in the Nyanga area9 that yielded a mean Pb/Pb age
of 1098±10 Ma (Wingate, 2001). Zircon data from the same sample were relatively
discordant and gave a Pb/Pb age of 1103±32 Ma. The best estimate of the age of
crystallisation of the sill, based on combined baddeleyite and zircon data, is 1099±9
Ma. A reinterpretation by the same author of discordant U/Pb data, obtained
previously on zircons from a similar dolerite sill in the Chimanimani area10, gave a
recalculated age of 1107 ± 6 Ma.
• The above age is confirmed by Sm-Nd results by the GTK Consortium. Sample
Mos-32 taken from a dolerite sill, located about six km NE of Monte Macuiana
(13888-04; location 0491577/ 7758265), gives a Sm-Nd whole rock age of
1102±52 Ma. Sm-Nd analyses reveal relatively high REE levels in plagioclase. The
initial ratio (ε) is –7.3, suggesting major involvement of older LREE-enriched
material in the genesis of this rock.
• Manhiça et al. (2001) report mafic dykes in both the Kalahari Craton and
Mozambique Belt lithologies. The grade of metamorphism in these dykes increases
from west to east. While plagioclase is partly saussuritised and pyroxene partly
replaced by chlorite and actinolite, igneous textures are still preserved in the west.
Towards the Craton margin, the mafic dykes still have a relict porphyritic igneous
texture but contain a metamorphic assemblage of garnet+hornblende+plagioclase
+clinopyroxene, typical of upper amphibolite facies mafic rocks. Mafic dykes
within migmatic gneisses of Chimoio Group (Volume 2, Section 7.7.2; GTK
Consortium 2006b) show strong deformation along their margins and contain a
single generation of N-S directed lenses of leucosomes of Pan-African age. No
older deformation structures are present. This would suggest emplacement of mafic
dykes after the first period of migmatisation of the metasedimentary country rocks,
prior to the N-S fabric-forming event and, consequently, a Mesoproterozoic age.

9
Or Inyanga, 90 km north of the town of Mutare. Note that this is far outside the Umkondo Group type area.
With its 2593 m, Nyangani Mountain, the highest peak in the Nyanga area, is also the highest point of
Zimbabwe.
10
The Chimanimani Mountains form a N-S hill range along the Mozambique border, just north of the 20°S
parallel.

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A Palaeoproterozoic age for the Umkondo sedimentary sequence and dolerites is

suggested by:
• Older geochronological K-Ar data of 1785±80 Ma (Vail and Dodson, 1969; Cahen
et al. 1984).
• A Palaeoproterozoic age is also indicated by recent Sm-Nd geochronology by the
GTK Consortium of a post-Umkondo gabbro/dolerite sample (Mos-25/ 25416-04)
from a quarry north of Manica (location: 0481495/ 7908113). Although Sm-Nd
systematics did not yield a decent isochron (MSWD=17), the age of 1783±51 Ma
derived from the analyses on whole rock and pyroxene may be considered as the
best estimate for the magmatic crystallisation of this rock specimen.
• Correlation between the undeformed Umkondo Group and the strongly deformed
and metamorphosed rocks of the Gairezi Formation* (including the lower grade
Fronteira Formation*) has been suggested in many older publications (e.g.,
Hunting, 1984). The latter has a minimum age of ~ 2.0 Ga.

By accepting the presence of two generations of mafic dykes (see ‘Geochemistry’

above), the incompatibility of these ages for the Umkondo succession and post-Umkondo
dolerite and gabbro can be solved.

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CHAPTER 7

SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS

7.1. INTRODUCTION
The Kalahari Craton is surrounded by mobile belts of Proterozoic-Cambrian age. Of these, the
fold belts along the northern and eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton extend into
Mozambique.
The northern margin is marked by the E-W trending polyphase Zambezi Belt, part of
the regional Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara (ZLD) Belt. This orogenic belt contains a mixture of
thrust masses or ‘nappes’ that include Archaean (> 2.5 Ga), Mesoproterozoic/Kibaran (~ 1.0 –
1.4 Ga) and Neoproterozoic/Pan-African (0.8 – 0.5 Ga) components (Dirks et al. 2003).
Further details are presented in Map Explanation, Volume 2 (GTK Consortium, 2006b).
The eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton is part of the N-S trending Mozambique
Belt. The southern part is considered to have formed by collisional accretion of mostly
juvenile crust onto the eastern (and southern) margins of the Kalahari Craton during the
amalgamation of the Rodinia Supercontinent at ~ 1000 – 1100 Ma (Jacobs et al. 1993;
Grantham et al. 1997, Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001). Subsequent fragmentation
(~ 1000 – 850 Ma) and reassembly of fragments resulted in the amalgamation of the East,
West and South Gondwana Terranes (Section 5.5) and Pan-African overprinting of
Grenvillian and older lithologies roughly between 0.60 and 0.45 Ga (de Wit et al. 2001;
Manhiça et al. 2001).
Proterozoic rocks along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton include (from
west to east):
• Umkondo Group – Undeformed to weakly deformed sediments, resting
unconformably on the Zimbabwe Craton and already discussed in Chapter 6.
• Gairezi Formation* - The Gairezi Formation* is composed of strongly deformed
metasediments, infolded with Archaean gneisses and, for the most part, resting
unconformably on them in a narrow belt along the Zimbabwean border.
• Báruè Complex – The bulk of Proterozoic rocks along the eastern margin of the
Zimbabwe Craton, south of the Zambezi River to the Búzi River, is attributed to
the Báruè Complex. Typical lithologies comprise quartzose, feldspathic and
micaceous gneisses and migmatites with minor intercalations of quartzite, marble
and mafic rocks in places. The sedimentary protoliths of these lithologies
correspond most likely to monotonous turbidite sequences deposited in a passive
margin setting. In the past, the complex has been divided into different sub-units.
Based on new information, including geochronological data, the Báruè Complex is
divided into:
o Chimoio Group – Quartzo-feldspathic and micaceous gneisses and migmatites
and siliciclastic metasediments.
o Macossa Group – Comprises substantial quantities of amphibole-bearing
gneisses, hornblendite, calc-silicate rock and marble. The lithologies of these
three groups of metasediments have been invaded by a number of granitoids
suites and mafic dykes with Mesoproterozoic ages around 1100 Ma. Granitoids

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of Pan-African age are rare and restricted to the northernmost part of the Báruè
Complex.

Rocks belonging to Proterozoic fold belt within the area covered by this Map
Explanation (Volume 1) include the Gairezi Formation* and lithologies of the Macossa and
Chimoio Groups of the Báruè Complex. These are considered to represent remnants of thin-
skinned fold-thrust belts tectonically overlying the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton
(Chapter 11).

7.2. GAIREZI FORMATION* (P1Z)

7.2.1. Introduction

Rocks traditionally attributed to the Gairezi and Fronteira Groups (sensu Hunting, 1984)
straddle the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique (in Manica Province). In Zimbabwe
they are mainly exposed along the Rio Gairezi (between 17°30'S and 18°15'S) and in the
Chimanimani Mountains (between 19°40'S and 20°00'S). Early workers (references in
Hunting, 1984) had already noticed strong differences between the Gairezi rocks in the above
units and the strata belonging to the Umkondo Group (Chapter 6). The latter consist of flat-
lying and weakly or non-deformed sediments that rest unconformably on the Zimbabwe
Craton. Further eastward they recognised very contrasting strata, which they named at the
time: Fronteira System and Gairezi Series, consisting of strongly deformed and
recrystallised metasediments, infolded with Proterozoic and Archaean gneisses and, in major
part, resting unconformably on them in the east.
During the 1960’s, workers from Leeds University (references in Hunting, 1984)
challenged this view. Based on the fact that some stratigraphic elements were common to both
successions, they argued that the ‘Gairezi Series’ was the stratigraphic equivalent of the lower
part of the Umkondo System. Bulk lithological differences were explained by facies changes
between both units. This point of view was formalised at the First Congress of the South
African Geological Society. It was decided that both sequences would be grouped under the
name Umkondo System. Using the terms Rhodesian or Inhanga facies for the western
exposures and Mozambique, Fronteira or Gairezi facies for the eastern exposures, both
facies could be distinguished. The Mozambique Geological Survey gave some support for this
subdivision by their adoption of the term ‘Umkondo System’ for all of the rocks, and the
grouping of the western and eastern exposures as Umkondo Formation and Fronteira
Formation, respectively. One finds an indirect reference to the ‘facies changes’ model in
Barton et al. (1991), who comment on interpreted stratigraphic similarities between the
Rushinga Metamorphic Complex and the deformed ‘Umkondo Group sequences in the
Gairezi region’.
Lithologies of the Gairezi Formation* can be easily distinguished from the underlying
Archaean granitoids and lithologies of the Báruè Complex, both on aerial photographs
(Hunting, 1984) and Landsat images. They form mountainous highlands with long ridges
standing out clearly from the plateau. Hunting (1984) attributed the rocks that form the
Gairezi-Báruè Highlands in northern Manica Province to the Gairezi Group11. The

11
For a short history of the stratigraphic nomenclature, see paragraph 3.2.4.

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lithologies forming the Serra Sitatonga and Chimanimani Mountains in the south, they are
included in the Fronteira Group.
Inspection of Landsat and radiometric imagery manifests that the lithologies belonging
to the Gairezi and Fronteira Groups (sensu Hunting, 1984) are erosional remnants of the same
metasedimentary sequence. Consequently, one lithostratigraphic name should be applied to
both and it is suggested to take both groups together as Gairezi Formation*. In the area
covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) rocks of the Gairezi Formation* are exposed in
Map Sheet Espungabera/Chibabava (SDS 2032/2033), in a N-S directed fold belt, directly
east of the Umkondo Group. Its southern continuation is controlled by a NE-SW directed fault
that locally coincides with the Buzi River.

7.2.2. Lithology

The Gairezi Formation* consists predominantly of white orthoquartzite and psammitic to

pelitic schist. Quartzites predominate in the Chimanimani Mountains and Serra Sitatonga, but
become thinner northwards. They are white, sugary, granular recrystallised rocks, composed
of quartz with minor zircon, magnetite and sericite. Rare sedimentary structures include cross-
bedding and conglomeratic lenses. Ferruginous cherty quartzite with hematite and minor
magnetite occur at several localities north of Bandula. Although the schists are poorly
exposed when compared to the quartzites, they constitute the predominant lithology. They
form only minor exposures in the southern outcrop area (ex-Fronteira Group sensu Hunting,
1984), where they are composed predominantly of quartz, muscovite and chlorite with minor
magnetite, zircon and tourmaline. Porphyroblasts of staurolite and garnet occur at some
localities and chloritoid has been observed rarely in the southern Chimanimani Mountains.
Pelitic and semi-pelitic muscovite-, biotite- and chlorite schists predominate towards the north
with the widespread occurrence of staurolite and garnet and more limited distribution of
kyanite and sillimanite.
In the Gairezi highlands of Zimbabwe, Stocklmayer (1980)12 established a succession
that could not be extrapolated to Mozambique, largely because the Zimbabwe marker beds
peter out to the east. Aerial photograph interpretation led Hunting (1984) to distinguish five
main lithologic units. These units are shown on the 1:250 000 Hunting maps in the vicinity of
the Lucite Fault and have been extended with less confidence as far north as Bandula (SDS
1933/34). GTK Consortium proposes a different sub-division (Table 7.1) that only in part
correlates with the one presented by Hunting (1984).

12
Reference unknown.

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Table 7.1. Sub-division of the Gairezi/ Fronteira Group according to Hunting (1984) and GTK Consortium
(2006a; this Map Explanation).

Hunting 1984 GTK Consortium 2006a

Upper Chlorite Schist Muscovite-Biotite Schists P1Zss

Gairezi Formation*
Gairezi Group

Upper Quartzite Saccharoidal Quartzite/ Quartzite Schist P1Zqs

Lower Chlorite Schist Mica Schist P1Zms

Lower Quartzite
Basal Quartzite Schist Arenaceous Mica Schist P1Zas

Arenaceous Mica Schist (P1Zas)

A heterogeneous succession of variously deformed psammitic to semipelitic metasediments is
widely exposed in the eastern side of the Serra Sitatonga mountain range. In the area south of
the Lucite river, the observed rocks are mostly feldspathic quartzites, possibly due to poor and
selective exposure conditions. To the south of the main road, the dominating lithology of the
succession comprises grey, medium-grained, rather massive psammitic rocks, possibly meta-
arkoses in origin (Fig. 7.1A). In a strongly foliated rock there commonly exist small, oriented
potassium feldspar porphyroblasts, possibly due to mylonitization (Fig. 7.1B).

A B

Fig. 7.1. (A) Outcrop of massive but foliated

arenaceous schist (meta-arkose ?), (B) Detailed photo
of the rock with plenty of oriented potassium feldspar
porphyroblasts. East of the Serra Sitatonga range
(0522448/7757322), (C) Obscure bedding in
arenaceous schist with quartzofeldspathic veins
(segregated leucosome) and feldspar porphyroblasts.
E of the Serra Sitatonga range (0522599/7759173).
Scale bar is 15 cm, diameter of coin is 28 mm.

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Thin quartz and quartzofeldspathic segregation veins are also common, and obscure
bedding is only locally visible in this rock unit (Fig. 7.1C).
Further to the south and east, massive metapsammites turn into more micaceous
schists, which have locally preserved sedimentary structures (Figs. 7.2A). In a well-exposed
tributary of Rio Buzi, over 500 m long traverse across the subvertical rock sequence reveals a
thick succession of semipelitic rocks, which structurally and compositionally resemble
greywackes. Although deformed by polyphase folding, these rocks often show a distinct
compositional bedding, ~ 1–5 cm thick, feldspathic beds regularly alternating with biotite-rich
layers (Figs. 7.2B and 7.2C). In micaceous layers, there exist plenty of small garnet and
kyanite porphyroblasts, and locally thin amphibolitic and quartzitic interbeds are associated
within these metapsammites. Deformed and boudinaged quartz veins are also very common in
this rock succession.
A B

C D

Fig. 7.2. (A) Isoclinally folded arenaceous mica schist with boudinaged quartz veins, (B) Detailed photo of the
same rock. North of Rio Buzi (0525328/7748726), (C) Distinct bedding with alternating feldspathic and
biotite-rich beds. Northwest of Rio Buzi (0525106/7749138), (D) Tight isoclinal folding in arenaceous mica
schist. Same location as in Fig. 7.2A. Scale bar is 15 cm, length of compass is 12 cm.

Mica Schist (P1Zms)

Further to east, psammitic and semipelitic rocks turn into garnet and sillimanite-bearing mica
schists and mica gneisses, the latter being locally migmatitic in appearance. The change from
slates and phyllites to mica gneisses is a result of increasing metamorphic grade towards east.

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Coarse-grained biotite-muscovite schists are greyish on fresh surface and dark grey on
weathered surface. When intensively foliated, they form 'knife blade' outcrops with steep or
vertical dip (Fig. 7.3A). Small staurolite and garnet porphyroblasts are common in mica
schists, as well as quartzofeldspathic segregations. Microtexturally these schists comprise
stripes of quartz and plagioclase, and those with biotite, muscovite and Al-silicate
porphyroblasts. The amount of micas in the rock is 20–40 vol.%; muscovite and biotite seem
to have rather equal modal composition.
Strongly folded and crenulated biotite gneisses usually comprise garnet and sillimanite
porphyroblasts, as well as narrow segregated leucosome veins, which locally turn gneisses
into migmatites (Fig. 7.3B). In places, the rocks are relative quartz-rich, and include
psammitic intercalations.

A B

Fig. 7.3. (A) Knife blade outcrops of intensively foliated garnet-staurolite mica schist. E of the Sitatonga
mountain (051992/7763521), (B) Folded garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss, which comprises thin leucosome
veins. E of the Sitatonga mountain. (0524047/7765993). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Saccharoidal quartzite (P1Zqs)

White to pinkish, variously foliated, saccharoidal quartzites of the Gairezi Formation* form
the prominent Serra Sitatonga mountain range between well-preserved metasediments of the
Umkondo Group* in the west and psammitic to pelitic varieties of the Gairezi Formation*,
affected by polyphase deformation, in the east. The N–S trending, steeply (~ 45–85°) east
dipping quartzite ridge can be followed along strike for over 100 km from the Buzi river in
the south into rugged Chimanimani Mountains in the north. The remote and rather poorly
known Chimanimani Mountains on the Chimoio map sheet are separated from the Sitatonga
range proper by the conspicuous, NE–SE trending Lucite Fault. Further to the north these
quartzites occur as a thin, but continuous ridge west of the Catandica village and form a
peculiar orthoquartzite rim of Monte Senga-Senga around an Archaean gneiss dome.
The texture of Gairezi quartzites varies from fine-grained, sugary and foliated varieties
to rather coarse-grained (Fig. 7.4). Strong deformation and recrystallisation have generally
obliterated sedimentary structures, and primary features like parallel or cross-bedding are only
rarely visible (Figs. 7.5A and 7.5B).

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Towards the east, and upwards in the Gairezi sedimentary succession, saccharoidal
quartzites turn into muscovite-biotite schist, while the western contact against Umkondo
deposits is probably tectonic.

Fig. 7.4. Strongly foliated quartzite in a road cut at

the Sitatonga ridge (0518596/ 7761770).

A B

Fig. 7.5. (A) Pure quartzite with obscure plane-parallel bedding. N of Rio Muzezigi and Rio Búzi confluence
(05180360/7738430), (B) Tangential and tabular cross-bedding in saccharoidal quartzite. W slope of the
Sitatonga ridge (0517084/7761607). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Muscovite-biotite schist (P1Zss)

A horizon of fine-grained muscovite-biotite schists with moderate Al-content are exposed on
the eastern side of the Sitatonga range, interfingering with, and overlying saccharoidal
quartzites of the Gairezi Formation*. The nature of the contact between this rather thin
lithological unit and more voluminous metapsammites in the east is unknown, but justified on
the ground of often mylonitic character of the latter, a tectonic one (overthrust?) is most
probable.
The lithology of the unit consists mainly of biotite-muscovite schists and phyllites,
which locally comprise plenty of garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts (Figs. 7.6A–C).
Phyllites have random quartzitic intercalations, and quartz veins, generally boudinaged into
lenses parallel to the foliation, are also common. Fine-grained, greyish brown schists are
characterized by slaty cleavage.

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A B

Fig. 7.6. Muscovite-biotite schists of the Gairezi

Formation*. (A) Muscovite-biotite schist with
boudinaged quartz veins, (B). Detailed photo of
garnetiferous muskovite-biotite schist. E slope of the
Sitatonga mountain (0521226/7753029), (C) Garnet
and kyanite-bearing schist in the tributary of Rio
Meruaze (0520101/ 7761713). Scale bar is 10/15 cm.

Mafic dykes
Mica gneisses of the Gairezi Formation* are intruded by a few notable mafic dykes, which
may represent ~1.1 Ga old Umkondo mafic magmatism, or belong to ~0.97 Ga dolerite
swarm found in the Gairezi Formation from the Manica area (see Mos-36 in App. 2 of
Volume 2). The later dykes, however, are metamorphosed in the Manica area during Pan-
African orogeny (~0.5 Ga) (see Volume 2). The north-trending dykes, 10 – 20 m in width, are
parallel to the general regional strike of the host rocks (Fig. 7.7). Dykes have fine-grained
rims and somewhat coarser central parts, comprising plagioclase and clinopyroxene,
amphibole, opaque and quartz. The best outcrops to study these dykes are located on the
banks of Rio Lucite, some 20 km SW of the Dombe village.
The age of these dykes is problematic. If they represent Umkondo dolerites, the
postulated overthrust of the Gairezi Formation* at the Sitatonga mountain is obviously older
than ~ 1.1 Ga, which is the age of the Umkondo dolerite sills – assuming that the schists
assigned here to the Gairezi Formation* are allocthonous. In the present map, the dykes are
supposed to be comparable with the 0.97 Ga dolerites found in the Manica region, some 100
km north. It is not clear, however, how intensively the doletites have metamorphosed in the
area of map sheet DS 2031/2032.

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Fig. 7.7. Sharp contact

between mica gneiss of the
Gairezi Formation* and mafic
dyke. S of Rio Lucite.
(0526523/7779093) Diameter
of coin is 25 mm.

7.2.3. Age

Vail (1965), using the K-Ar method, reported an age of 465±20 Ma of muscovite from the
Chicamba quartzite of the erstwhile ‘Fronteira Formation’. This is interpreted as a Pan-
African cooling age.
Using SHRIMP analyses, 17 zircon zones have been dated by the GTK Consortium
from P1Zss garnet-kyanite schists of the Gairezi Formation* (sample Mos-26/ 1011-02;
location 0512045/ 8008144; for details see App. 2). On the concordia diagram, the majority of
the U-Pb data plot on a same regression line intercepting the concordia curve at 2.06 Ga.
These are mostly magmatic zircons. The lower intercept age is high (~ 860 Ma) and may
therefore indicate some real metamorphic event. As it is determined, however, only by a few
discordant data points the age is poorly constrained. When reliably determined, the lower
intercept age could have an important role in estimating the minimum age of the
sedimentation. The mean age of concordant 207Pb/206Pb data yield a maximum age of
2041±15 Ma for the sedimentation of the metapelites of the Gairezi Formation*. This is
remarkably similar to the maximum age determined to the metasediments of the Rushinga
Group (Section 7.4.6).
In addition to ~ 2.04 Ga zircons, SHRIMP data indicate also Archaean provenances
for detrital zircons of Gairezi sediments. Archaean zircons with 207Pb/206Pb ages of 3.06 Ga,
2.7 Ga and ~ 2.6 Ga, respectively, have been determined.

Quartz dykes (qz)

Areas occupied by the Gairezi Formation schists and gneisses comprise narrow elongated
‘piles’ (3 m wide, 30 m long, 0.5 m high) composed of quartz boulders (Fig. 7.8). Origin of
these milk-white, medium- to coarse-grained quartz rocks is unclear due to the intense
recrystallization of quartz. Locally the trend of boulders is not parallel to the main structural
trend (N-S); the boulders may represent quartz dykes. However, rather near occur also high
quartzite ridges.

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Fig. 7.8. A boulder of quartz rock. They form several

meters long elongated ‘piles’ on the surface. East of
the Serra Sitatonga mountain ridge.
(0521804/7776875). Scale bar 10 cm

7.3. BÁRUÈ COMPLEX

7.3.1. Introduction

The Báruè Complex is not distinguished by any intrinsic characteristic properties, but rather
by the lack of them. The rocks of the Complex form a series of plateaus rising from the
coastal lowlands towards the Báruè highlands and the Chimanimani Mountains. It is typically
a weakly dissected undulating country with inselbergs formed mostly from intrusive granitic
rocks. On aerial photographs and airborne magnetic maps the Complex is characterised by
swirling foliation trends that appear to define a series of approximately circular to oval-shaped
domes with intervening structural basins. This manifests complex interference fold patterns
(Map Explanation, Volume 2, Figs. 2.9 and 2.10; GTK Consortium, 2006b). The irregularity
of the fold pattern, combined with the high-grade metamorphism, suggests that a significant
proportion of the structures reflect ductile flow at mid- (to lower?) crustal levels (‘diapiric’
folding?).
The Báruè Complex, as defined by Hunting (1984) and presented in the 1:1 000 000
geological map (Pinna et al. 1986, 1987), extends from just south of the Tete Suite down to
beyond 20°S. It is composed of a variety of medium- to high-grade gneisses, migmatites and
granitoids, with subordinate to minor intercalations of mafic rocks, quartzites and marbles.
The sedimentary protoliths of these lithologies correspond most likely to monotonous
turbiditic sequences on a passive continental margin of an unknown craton.
In the 1:1 000 000 geological map of Pinna et al. (1986, 1987), the Báruè Complex has
been sub-divided into a number of litho-stratigraphic units including the Nhamatanda,
Madzuire, Changara, Canxixe and Matambo Groups. Based on radiometric, aeromagnetic,
satellite imagery and field observations, the GTK Consortium has made a new subdivision of
the Báruè Complex. The most obvious change is that, instead of the previous uninterrupted
continuity of the Complex from ca. S16° (the Tete latitude) to S20° (the Beira latitude), the
area has now been split into two main blocks, each with its own status. The northern block of
the large Báruè Complex sensu Hunting (1984) is now designated as the Matambo Group,
containing Mesoproterozoic as well as possible older material, outlined between ca. S16° –
S17°30', while the southern block extends between ca. S17°30'- S20° comprising the newly

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defined Mesoproterozoic Macossa and Chimoio Groups. Rock units of the latter Groups are
found in the Espungabera/ Chibabava (SDS 2032/2033) Map Sheet (this Map Explanation).
There are various reasons for the above change. The northern part of the previous
Báruè Complex, south of Tete, consists of lithologies, which are in contrast to the others.
Particularly, the Neoproterozoic Guro Suite (Map Explanation, Volume 2, Section 7.8; GTK
Consortium, 2006b) of this part of Mozambique does not continue to the south of the present
Matambo Group and thereby implying a break in geology, particularly visible in the
radiometric data. Moreover, the previously poorly defined Augen gneisses and thick marble
horizons in the northern block (N-block) are alien to the southern block (S-block), which after
all, remains internally rather coherent, but variable. Differences within the S-block, between
its northern and southern segments, are much less distinct, but gave reason to subdivide it into
the afore-mentioned Macossa and Chimoio Groups, respectively. The main basis for the
subdivision is that in the Macossa Group the supracrustals are more widespread than in the
plutonic-dominated Chimoio Group, without showing a discrete boundary between them on
the map.
The structural grain in both major blocks (Matambo Group / Macossa-Chimoio
Groups) is much the same although according to the radiometric data they seem to join along
a highly strained, curved zone (SDS 1732/1733 and 1734). No outcrops were found in the
core of the zone to have more precise characterisation in the field. The western boundary of
the S- block against the Archaean crust is known to be a major sinistral, N-S trending shear.
North-directed movement of the whole S-block along this shear and the existence of its high-
strain northern boundary, running E-W, encouraged GTK to draw on map the northern
boundary of the S- block as a north-directed thrust.
In the east the Báruè Complex is bounded by a set of rift faults against Karoo and
younger formations and partly remains covered by recent sediments.

7.3.2. Chimoio Group

The Chimoio Group comprises various mappable units of metagranites and paragneisses (see
Map Explanation, Volume 2, Section 7.7.3; GTK Consortium, 2006b). In the Espungabera
map sheet, the only unit tentatively attributed to the Chimoio Group is migmatitic paragneiss,
while Inchope orthogneiss of the Macossa Group is not exposed here.

Migmatitic paragneiss (P2BCmi)

Variously deformed and migmatized paragneisses are exposed along the Lucite river, south-
west of the Dombe village (SDS 2033). Located between mica gneisses of the Gairezi
Formation* and Quaternary deposits, the origin of gneisses is problematic; the region is
characterized by intense N-S trending deformation, which locally turns the rocks into
mylonites. The grade of metamorphism increases in the region towards east. According to
Hunting (1984), these gneisses belong to the Báruè Complex (as defined by Huting).
The most common rock type is banded paragneiss, composed of thin, parallel felsic
and mafic bands with gradual contacts (Fig. 7.9A). It is often rather intensively foliated.
Locally the gneisses also include granitic and migmatitic varieties with isoclinally folded
segregation veins (Fig. 7.9B). In these gneisses, biotite dominates over hornblende, modal
composition of mafic minerals being 20 – 30 % in total. Due to intense deformation, some of
the micas in gneisses may be even the result of phyllonitization.

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A B

Fig. 7.9. Migmatitic paragneisses of the Báruè Complex. (A) Banded paragneiss, which comprises granitic
veins and segregations. Rio Lucite, (0527728/7779999/). (B) Close up photo of the granitic gneiss. 20 km SW
of Dombe. (0530080/7777250). Scale bar is 10 cm.

In the present map, banded paragneisses are attributed to the Chimoio Group of the
Báruè Complex. However, some weakly deformed varieties of this gneiss closely resemble
arenaceous mica gneisses of the Gairezi Formation*. Two contrasting areas of a rather high
radiometric signature, located within low-signature Karoo basalts south of Rio Buzi, are also
tentatively assigned to migmatitic paragneisses of the Chimoio Group.

Inchope gneiss (P2BUig)

Inchope orthogneiss is not exposed in the area of Volume 1. The rock is described in Map
Explanation - Volume 2, Chapter 7.

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CHAPTER 8

PHANEROZOIC COVER – KAROO SUPERGROUP

8.1. INTRODUCTION
The geology of Mozambique can be conveniently divided into crystalline basement and
Phanerozoic cover, the latter comprising all lithologies deposited after the Pan-African
Orogeny. These are generally (sub-)horizontal terrestrial sediments and associated (sub-)
volcanic rocks that have not been affected by penetrative deformation, but may show
extensive brittle tectonic deformation structures. The Phanerozoic cover is in turn divided into
(from old to young) the Karoo Supergroup and a loose assemblage of East Africa Rift
sequences.
Rocks of the Karoo Supergroup have been deposited during the Karoo Event, i.e., the
break-up or rift phase of the Gondwana supercontinent, prior to drift phase starting in the
Cretaceous. In Mozambique, Karoo sediments and volcanic rocks are deposited in a number
of Graben-type rift structures. These include (from N to S) the Metangula (or Maniamba)
Graben (Niassa Province), the Rovuma basin (Cabo Delgado Province) and the Middle
Zambezi Graben (Tete Province). Karoo volcanic rocks, mainly comprising basaltic and
rhyolitic lavas, ash-flow tuffs and ignimbrites, are found along the continental margin in
Nampula Province, in Serra Mevunge dome south of Cahora Bassa, in Rio Mázoè area, in
Doa–Canxixe area around the Cretaceous Lupata Group deposits, in Nuanetsi-Sabi volcanic
belt, in Pafuri volcanics, and in the Lebombo mountain range in the south. The volcanics of
Canxixe, Nuanetsi-Sabi, Pafuri and Lebombo together form a narrow volcanic belt, exposed
between the crystalline basement and the Mesozoic cover. This strata, dipping eastwards and
forming a monoclinal flexure, underlie a thick cover of Cretaceous and younger sediments of
the Mozambique basin, and possibly mark the eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton.
Superposition of several phases of extensional brittle tectonics, mainly during the
Cretaceous, but also later, may produce sub-basins and complex rift structures. As a
consequence, the E-W striking Middle Zambezi (or Mana Pools/Cahora Bassa) Graben was
divided into a western and eastern part with a NW-SE directed crystalline basement horst –
mainly underlain by rocks of the Matambo Group, Báruè Complex – in between. The western
part of the Middle Zambezi graben can be divided into a number of second-order basins
including the Mecúcuè, Mucanha-Vúzi, Chióa, Mafidézi, Sanângoe, and Estima-Changara
sub-basins. Similarly, the eastern arm of the Middle Zambezi graben can be divided into the
Muaradzi-Mecondezi, Moatize-Monjave (also spelled Minjova) and Baicho Chíre sub-basins.
Subsequently, during the Tertiary, NE-SW directed extensional forces gave rise to E-W
directed extension with N-S directed rift structures (e.g., the Lake Malawi trend; Figs. 9.3, 9.4
and 9.5).
The Karoo Supergroup of the western part of the Middle Zambezi Graben (Tete
province) consists of a thick sequence of sandstones and argillites with coal seams near the
base. Bimodal lava flows are not restricted to the top of the succession (e.g., Drakenberg
Basalts), as in the Main Karoo basin, South Africa, but also occur in the middle parts of the
Upper Karoo sequence. Bimodal magmatism at the end of the Karoo Event in the area north
of 20° S (Map Explanation, Volumes 2 and 4; GTK Consortium, 2006b,d) is widespread, but

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modest in terms of volume. It is restricted to small subvolcanic batholiths, plugs and dykes of
the Rukore (Bimodal) Suite of which the felsic component is represented by the Rukore
microgranite and related felsic dykes and the mafic component by dolerite dykes and small
microgabbro intrusive bodies. South of 20° S (this Map Explanation) late-Karoo volcanism is
widespread and extremely voluminous as demonstrated by the large volcanic provinces of the
Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi monoclines.
The Karoo Supergroup can be divided into the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups.
Sediments of the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups within the area covered by this Map
Explanation (Volume 1) are only exposed in the Espungabera region (SDS 2032/2033) in a
number of relatively small polygons, generally resting on top of Umkondo metalavas.
Volcanic rocks described in Volume 1 are attributed to the Upper Karoo Lebombo and
Nuanetsi-Sabi monoclines. Distribution of the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups as well as
other rock units in the Map Explanation area, Volume 1, are presented in Fig. 8.1.

8.2. LOWER KAROO GROUP

8.2.1. Introduction

The depositional history of the Lower Karoo Group starts with a period of glaciation of
Dwyka age (latest Carboniferous) and ends with the deposition of mixed, coarse- to fine-
grained clastic deposits during the Permian. In places, the Lower Karoo is well developed in
the Middle Zambezi Graben and comprises (from bottom to top): the Vúzi, Moatize, and
Matinde Formations*. In the area covered by this Map Explanation, only sediments assigned
to the Moatize Formation* have been found.

8.2.2. Lithology

Moatize Formation* (PeM)

In the area covered by Volume 1, the Moatize Formation* is exposed in a small basin, about
nine km south-west of the Macuo village (SDS 2032/2033), where a heterogeneous unit rests,
probably unconformably, on basaltic to andesitic metalavas of the Espungabera Formation*
(Umkondo Group). Here the smoothly southward dipping Formation* is covered by
sandstones of the Upper Karoo Cádzi Formation*. Also coal measures have been located
along the M'Pote Pote River in this basin (this Volume, Chapter 12).
The heterogeneous unit, only exposed along the M'Pote Pote River near the
Zimbabwean border, commences with thinly bedded, yellowish and fine-grained argillitic
shales (Fig. 8.2A) and coal-bearing silt layers (Fig. 8.2B). These silty horizons along the river
dip 5 – 10° south, and attain a thickness of 4 – 6 m with associated coal seams, up to one
metre in thickness.

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Fig. 8.1. Distribution of the Lower and Upper Karoo Groups in the Map Explanation area, Volume 1.

Upwards in the sedimentary succession fine-grained argillites turn into tens of metres
thick pile of weakly imbricated, monomictic, matrix-supported quartz-pebble conglomerate
(Fig. 8.2C) and polymictic, clast-supported conglomerate, here tentatively assigned to the
Moatize Formation*. In polymictic conglomerate, sub-rounded to rounded clasts, up to 10 –
15 cm in size, mostly comprise amygdaloidal lavas of the Umkondo Group (Fig. 8.2D).
Random lenses and interbeds of thinly bedded, coarse-grained sandstone and locally observed
imbrication of clasts are reflective of fluvial deposition for these rock units.
In the Espungabera area, the total thickness and areal extent of the Formation* is still
largely unknown. Sediments covering a wide, flat-bottomed valley between Rio M'Pote Pote
and the Espungabera Formation* in the north, possibly belong to the Moatize Formation*.

Age
The presumed age of this unit is Early Permian, equivalent to the Late Dwyka to Early Ecca
Groups of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa.

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A B

C D

Fig. 8.2. A) Argillitic shale with distinct bedding in the lower part of the Moatize Formation*. Tributary of
M'Pote Pote river (0452294/7699036) Scale bar is 10 cm, (B) Coal seams in siltstone of the Moatize
Formation*. M’Pote Pote river. Hammer is 65 cm long. (C) Faintly imbricated, monomictic conglomerate with
well-rounded quartz clasts in a coarse, sandy matrix. Upper part of the Moatize Formation*. A hill south of the
M'Pote Pote river (0447697/7699944), (D) Polymictic conglomerate, clasts mostly comprising amygdaloidal
lavas of the Espungabera Formation* (Umkondo Group). Upper part of the Moatize Formation*. Tributary of
M'Pote Pote river (0448850/7699338). Scale bar is 10 cm.

8.3. UPPER KAROO GROUP

8.3.1. Introduction

In the Middle Zambezi Graben, the Upper Karoo Group comprises a number of informally
defined formations together with interstratified (sub-)volcanic rocks of Early Triassic to Early
Jurassic age (Map Explanation, Volumes 2 and 4; GTK Consortium, 2006b,d). These include
(from bottom to top) the sedimentary Cádzi and Zumbo (formerly Carumacáfuè)
Formations*, the basaltic Rio Nhavúdezi, Rio Mázoè, Chueza and rhyolitic Bangomatete and
Serra Bombuè Formations*, and the sedimentary Lualádzi Formation*. The epoch is
concluded with the emplacement of the Rukore Suite, now reliably dated at 180 – 190 Ma.
The latter is a volumetrically rather modest bimodal igneous suite, composed of small
batholiths, plugs, sills and dykes. Rocks of the Rukore Suite are coeval with and possibly
related to the isolated Gorongosa Suite intrusives and associated dyke swarm (SDS 1834). In
the north-western part of this Map Explanation, a sandstone unit overlying basaltic to

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andesitic metalavas of the Espungabera Formation*, or conglomerates in the upper part of the
Moatize Formation*, is loosely assigned to the Upper Karoo Cádzi Formation*.
South of 19° South, huge masses of late Karoo volcanic rocks have been emplaced in
three structurally controlled belts that meet near Pafuri at the border with Zimbabwe (~ 22°
South). The northern NNE-SSW- to NE-SW-directed belt, roughly between 19 and 22° South,
is represented by the Nuanetzi-Sabi volcanic flexure. A similar volcanic belt, roughly between
22 and 27° South, is represented by the N-S to NNW-SSE directed Lebombo Monocline. The
two belts meet near Pafuri where a third, ~ E-W directed branch of volcanic rocks has been
developed, which progrades into the WNW-ESE directed Okavango dyke swarm. The Pafuri
location thus corresponds with a mantle diapir triple junction (sensu Burke and Dewey, 1973),
termed Lebombo-Nuanetzi-Limpopo triple junction (Klausen, 2002). This idea is
supported by a dense array of N-S directed, monocline-parallel dyke swarms (e.g., Balule and
Rooi Rand Dyke Swarms), which radiate out from this triple junction (Ernst et al. 1997;
Reeves, 2000; Mekonnen, 2004) as well as the spatial distribution of ultra-potassic lavas such
as nephelinitic, picritic and high-(Ti,Zr) basaltic lavas (Reid et al. 1997).

8.3.2. Lithology

Cádzi Formation*(PeC)
Exposures of the Upper Karoo Cádzi Formation* are found on top of coarse-clastic sediments
assigned to the Moatize Formation* in a valley about ten kilometres south-west of the Macuo
village, close to the Zimbabwean border (SDS 2032/2033). In the area south of Rio M'Pote
Pote, conglomerates of the Moatize Formation* are covered by a thick, gently (8 – 30°) south
dipping succession of finer-grained sediments, which mostly comprise light brownish grey to
pinkish grey, saccharoidal and variously bedded sandstones. On the base of tens of metres
high sandstone cliff (Fig. 8.3), and probably situated directly on top of polymictic
conglomerate horizon, sandstone has pinkish siltstone interbeds (Figs. 8.4A and 8.4B). In
these siltstone beds exist thin conglomeratic layers comprising small, rounded chips of shale,
possibly representing reworked fragments of dried clay, and indicating shallow-water
depositional conditions. Sub-vertical, tabular structures found within sandstone beds (Fig.
8.4C) resemble trace fossil burrows described from sandstones of the Lualadzi Formation* in
the area south of the Cahora Bassa Lake (see Volume 4, Chapter 9).
Except in the hills south of Rio M'Pote Pote, similar fine-grained sandstones are
widely exposed on both sides of the road to Macuo village, in the southern margin of the
Espungabera highland. There the northern contact with underlying lavas of the Espungabera
Formation* is probably tectonic. A thin layer of identical sandstone also covers these
amygdaloidal lavas in the southwestern tip of the fault-bounded outcrop area to the east of the
Chiurairue village. There the sub-horizontal sandstone beds have plenty of small (< 5 cm in
diameter), roundish knots, probably nodules or concretions, oddly protruding on the
weathering surfaces (Fig. 8.4D)
A major hiatus separates here these sandstones from underlying Umkondo
metavolcanics; no Lower Karoo deposits have been found in this area. Also here Cádzi
sandstones are conformably covered by basaltic lavas of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*.

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Age
A Late Permian to Early Triassic age is generally accepted. As such it straddles the boundary
between Lower and Upper Karoo.

Fig. 8.3. Sandstone cliff of the Cádzi

Formation*. South of Rio M'Pote
Pote (0448126/7698298).

A B

C D

Fig. 8.4. Sedimentary textures of the Cádzi Formation*. (A) Massive sandstone bed on the foot of the cliff, (B)
Alternating beds of light grey, sugary sandstone and pinkish siltstone, (C) Possible trace fossil burrows in
sandstone. A cliff south of Rio M'Pote Pote (0448126/7698298), (D) Roundish knots, probably concretions, on
the weathering surfaces of Cádzi sandstone south of Rio Gaba (048916/7704550). Scale bar is 10 cm.

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8.4. RIO NHAVÚDEZI FORMATION*

8.4.1. Introduction

The Nuanetzi-Sabi volcanic flexure is expressed as a zone of basaltic lavas with few rhyolitic
beds, extending from the area south of Espungabera (SDS 2032/2033) up to the Nhamatanda
region on the Beira map sheet (SDS 1934). These basalts have been incorporated into the Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation*, and found also in the area north-east of Serra Gorongosa (see Volume
2, Chapter 9).

8.4.2. Lithology

Basalts
A homogeneous pile of basaltic lava flows assigned to the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* form a
continuous, 15 – 25 km wide belt, which extends from the Zimbabwean border over 250 km
north-east towards the Nhamatanda village by the Beira–Manica highway. The western
contact of the Formation* against the metalavas of the Espungabera Formation* is tectonic,
while in the east basalts of the Nhavúdezi Formation* are mostly overlain by unconsolidated
sediments of the Cretaceous Sena Formation*. The dark green or greenish brown, fine-
grained lavas are frequently exposed along Rio Merenguese and its tributaries, but the most
prominent outcrops are met in Rio Búzi, where basaltic flows form spectacular rapids and
cataracts (Fig. 8.5A). On the aeromagnetic map, basalts of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* are
characterized by a high magnetic signature and low radiometric signature.
The Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* is composed of basaltic lavas that constitute fine-
grained to aphanitic olivine basalts and basalts with andesine and pigeonite, but without
olivine. In addition to medium-grained sub-ophitic types, also plagioclase porphyritic types
are found in places. In porphyritic types, randomly oriented plagioclase laths are typically 1 –
6 mm in size. These varieties most likely represent the central part of flows, while
amygdaloidal types dominate the upper part. Medium-grained types are most common
adjacent to the northwestern boundary of this SW-NE trending basaltic sequence, whereas the
amygdaloidal types are more common towards the south-eastern boundary of the Formation*.
The available tectonic measurements of lava flows together with geophysical interpretation
indicate that the volcanic sequence is dipping smoothly towards the E or SE.
Based on observed lava flow boundaries and different lava structures, which include
zeolite-filled amygdules, flow-top mega-vesicles up to 15 – 20 cm in diameter (Fig. 8.5B),
and sub-vertical vesicle cylinders (Fig. 8.5C), the estimated average thickness of flows is 1 –
2 metres. The highly vesicular texture (Fig. 8.5D) and obvious absence of pillows and/or
marine or lacustrine interflow sediments, indicate sub-aerial eruption of basaltic magma.

Geochemistry
Based on major element geochemistry, the lavas the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* are
subalkaline tholeiitic basalts with typical SiO2 content ranging from 49.7 to 53.6 %, MgO 4.9
to 6.5 % and TiO2 1.2 to 2.6 %. However, the analysed samples are located within the
Volume 2 area, except one sample, which was taken 25 km south of the Espungabera town

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(see rock 29 in Table 1 of App. 3). Trace elements geochemistry indicates correlation with
lavas in the Lebombo, especially the Sabie River Basalt Formation*.

A B

C D

Fig. 8.5. Lava features of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*. (A) Rapids in the Bùzi river, formed by basaltic lava
flows, (B) Quartz-filled mega-vesicles in the upper part of a lava flow, (C) Quartz-filled vesicle cylinder in a
basaltic flow. S of Monte Sitatonga (0523719/7743119), (D) Zeolite-filled amygdules in the upper part of a
basaltic lava flow. Rio Merenguese (0470676/7702175). Scale bar is 15 cm.

8.5. LEBOMBO MONOCLINE

8.5.1. Introduction

The Lebombo Monocline is a 600 km long linear flexure along the boundary between South
Africa and Mozambique. Its location is most likely controlled by the sudden transition from
normal lithospheric upper mantle to thick Archaean lithospheric upper mantle of the Kalahari
Craton or, alternatively, between normal and stretched continental crust. An E-W section over
the central part of the flexure reveals flat-lying Karoo sediments resting unconformably on
crystalline basement, overlain by a deeply weathered sequence of volcanic rocks dipping to
the east. Further east, the dip of the volcanic rocks increases to a maximum of 45 to 65° east
indicating that the Lebombo Monocline was actively flexing down during emplacement of the
lava flows.

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Based on a W-E section through the Swaziland sector of the flexure the following
major lithologic units ban be distinguished (from W to E and from bottom to top):
• Karoo Sediments
• Sabie River Basalt Formation
• Jozini Rhyolite Formation (in South Africa)
• Mbuluzi Rhyolite Formation (with basal Oribi beds)
• Movene Basalt Formation (with Sica beds in upper part)
• Pessene alkaline rocks
• Cretaceous and younger cover rocks

Table 8.1. Lithostratigraphic subdivision of volcanic rocks of the Lebombo Monocline. Only the coloured
units are present in Mozambique (modified after Riley et al. 2004, and references therein). Ages refer to rocks
in South Africa.
LEBOMBO MONOCLINE
South Africa and Swaziland Mozambique Code Age (Ma)
Formation Beds Cretaceous and younger cover
Pessene Alkaline lava JrPal
Basalt JrM
Rhyolite breccia JrMbr
Movene Basalt Movene Pequenos Limombos rhyolite JrMr
Fine-grained rhyolite JrMfr
Quartz latite JrMq

JrU
Microgranite JrUg 178.1±0.6

Rhyolite with agglomerate

Mbuluzi Rhyolite JrUa
layers
Umbelúzi Rhyolite 182.1±2.9
Tuff, locally siltstone JrUt

Jozini Rhyolite Dacite and trachydacite JrUf 176.7±5.6

Basalt and massive dolerite JrJb 179±3

Sabie River Basalt Twin Ridge Sabie River Basalt JrSba 181.2±1.0
Mkutshane
Olifants 184.2±1.0
Letaba-Pafuri Basalt JrLb
Letaba Basalt 182.7±0.8

Mashikiri Nephelinite 182.1±1.6

Karoo Sediments

Basement (Kalahari Craton)

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There is evidence that the Karoo volcanics continue eastwards beneath the Cretaceous
and younger cover at least as far as to the coast (Flores, 1970, 1973; Darracott and Kleywegt,
1974) and probably even further off-shore. The thickness of the buried lavas beneath the coast
has been estimated at between 6 and 13 km (Eales et al. 1984).
Further northwards, near Pafuri, the Sabie Basalt Formation is underlain (from bottom
to top) by:
• Mashikiri Nephelinite Formation.
• Letaba Basalt Formation.

Small bodies, sills and dykes of granophyres, rhyolite, dolerite and basalt have invaded
the above volcanic strata (e.g., Balule and Rooi Rand Dyke Swarms). All the above
lithologies found in South Africa and Mozambique are summarized in Table 8.1.
It is important to note that Karoo rhyolites situated in the eastern part of South Africa –
against the Mozambique border – belong to the Jozini Formation with subordinate Mbeluzi
(that is Umbelúzi) formation rocks (e.g. Cox and Bristow 1984). However, in western
Mozambique (see new maps compiled by GTK Consortium) – against the South Africa
border – all rhyolites are named after Umbelúzi. Thus the frontier between Mozambique and
South Africa separates petrographically similar rhyolites into two Formations, Jozini and
Umbelúzi!

8.5.2. Letaba-Pafuri Formation (JrLB)

Basaltic rocks occur near at the village of Pafuri, in the most western parts of the Gaza
Province. They are supposed to be comparable with the Letaba Formation basalts, which
occur in South Africa just behind the near frontier.

8.5.3. Sabie River Formation (JrSba)

Basalts
Basalts of the Sabie River Formation comprise the lowermost lithological unit of the
Lebombo monocline in Mozambique. Although forming a several kilometres thick pile of
basaltic lavas in South African (Cleverly and Bristow, 1979), only a narrow sliver of these
fine-grained, low-MgO basalts are exposed north of the Singuédzi River on the Mozambican
side of the border (SDS 2331). In this location, the Sabie River basalts occur in weathered
outcrops as massive rocks, lacking amygdules or other features typical to lava flows. Most
probably, these outcrops represent massive, medium- to coarse-grained flow cores, with the
amygdaloidal flow top being mostly covered.

Rhyolites
Along the South African border the Sabie River basalts have rhyolitic interbeds, which form
low ridges, generally 10 – 20 m in width, within the poorly exposed basaltic terrain. Some of
these ridges comprise pinkish brown, fine-grained, highly vesicular rhyolite lava with
occasional flow-banding, clearly indicating an extrusive mode of emplacement. Other ridges
with medium to coarse-grained, massive rhyolites with spheroidal weathering and feldspar
phenocrysts may represent subvolcanic dykes or sills. Together, they probably correspond to

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the lenticular rhyolite units described within the Sabie River basalts more southwards as Twin
Ridge, Mkutshane and Olifants Beds (Cox and Bristow, 1984).

Age
The age of these basalts ranges from181.2±1.0 to 184.2±1.0 Ma, thus corresponding the age
of the underlying sequences (Duncan et al. 1997). Rhyolites of the Olifantes River Beds have
yielded SHRIMP ages of 182.0±2.1 and 179.9±1.8 Ma (Riley et al. 2004).

8.5.4. Umbelúzi Formation (JrU)

Introduction
A smoothly E-dipping succession of dacitic and rhyolitic rocks assigned to the Umbelúzi
Formation overlie basalts of the Sabie River Formation, comprising high-grade ignimbrites,
pyroclastic ash-fall deposits, and random lava interflows. Covering most of the rugged
Lebombo mountains in south-western Mozambique, it forms a 425 km long and 3 – 23 km
wide belt along the South African - Mozambican border. North of the Massingir dam (DS
2331), the narrow belt broadens into complicated volcanic structure that is over 20 km wide
and 100 km long. In Swaziland the thickness of individual flows of this well-studied rhyolite
sequence, divided there into Jozini Formation (lower) and Mbuluzi Formation (upper), ranges
from 80 to 350 m, some flows being traceable along strike up to 50 km (Eales et al. 1984).
Based on the observed volcanic features Bristow and Cleverly (1979) suggested an ash-flow
to ignimbritic origin for rhyolites of the Jozini Formation.

Dacites (JrUt)
Dacitic rocks form several kilometres long, narrow (< 200 m wide) horizons within the
rhyolite-dominated rocks of the Umbelúzi Formation*, particularly in the middle part of the
Lebombo monocline. Dacites differ from pinkish rhyolites by their dark grey to dark violet
brown colour. Texturally they are also more massive than typical rhyolites, which often
exhibit flow banding. Locally dacites comprise quartz-filled amygdules, implying lava origin
for the rock (Figs. 8.6A and 8.6B). The main mineral assemblage of dacites includes
plagioclase, quartz, clinopyroxene and opaque; feldspar may form phenocrysts 1 mm in size.

Basalt and massive dolerite member (JrUb)

Within the Umbelúzi rhyolites, particularly in regions north of the Massingir town (DS
2331/2332), there occur relative narrow (< 200 m) but tens of kilometres long, elongated units
of mafic basaltic rocks. Their appearance is limited compared to the extensive basalts of
Movene Formation in Mozambique or those of the Letaba and Sabie basalts in South Africa.
Texturally these rocks are often rather massive, however, features of supracrustal basalts are
also found (Figs. 8.6C). Grain size varies from fine-grained to coarse (Fig. 8.6D).

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A B

C D

Fig. 8.6. Volcanic rocks occurring within the Umbelúzi rhyolites. (A) Massive dacitic lava with quartz-filled
amygdules and small feldspar phenocrysts. N of the Namaacha border post (0402172/7127738/), (B) Dacitic
lava with quartz-filled amygdules, 1 – 2 cm in size. W of the Massingir Lake (0376439/7361660). (C) Basaltic
andesite, which contains quartz and carbonate-bearing amygdaloids. North of the Gaza Camp. (0355966/
7431830). (D) Mafic massive rock, which comprises pseudomorphic amphibole ‘knots’. SE of the Gaza Camp.
(0361728/ 7415296). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs and ignimbrites (JrUr)

In the Lebombo Mountains, rhyolitic flows form smoothly (~10 – 15°) east tilting terraces,
with thickness of single flows probably ranging from some tens of metres up to 200 – 300 m.
Although the rhyolitic rocks generally show gentle dips, patterns developed during the
emplacement and cooling of single flows, including shrinkage jointing and ramp structures,
may occasionally show variously steep, or even vertical attitudes (Fig. 8.7A). In exposures
northwest of the Massingir dam shrinkage joints often form a regular pattern of parallel
discontinuities (Fig. 8.7B).
While contacts between successive flows are often covered, sub-vertical walls of flow
terraces often offer excellent sites for field observations. Flat, mesa-like roofs of flow terraces
also provide various primary features connected to flow contact zones. Well-developed
laminar flow patterns (Fig. 8.7C), often intensively flow-folded and contorted, have been
found in rhyolite flows of the Umbelúzi Formation throughout the area covered by this Map
Explanation (Fig. 8.7D). A fresh surface of welded rhyolite shows eutaxitic textures (Fig.
8.8A), and a microphotograph of the same sample reveals dark, vitric bands alternating with

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light, microcrystalline layers with plenty of small (< 0.2 mm) spherulites in various stages of
devitrification (Fig. 8.8B).

A B

C D

E F

Fig. 8.7. (A) Ramp structure with subvertical shrinkage joints in massive rhyolite flow. West of the Massingir
dam, (B) Regular parallel cooling joints in rhyolite of the Umbelúzi Formation. Northwesr of the Massingir
dam (0317013/7380421), (C) Flow folding in rhyolite. Nothwest of the Mapulanguene village
(0403024/7294931), (D) Contorted flow banding in lava-like rhyolite. Note roundish rhyolite fragments, which
possibly represent a volcanic bomb. West of the Massingir dam. (0392921/7352615), (E) Folded flow bands in
rhyolite. Road cut NEE of Nanaacha (0412929/7128745), (F) Detailed photo of the flow bands. Hammer is 65
cm long, scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 28 mm.

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Except flow banding, also clusters of lithophysae are commonly found within rhyolitic
rocks of the Umbelúzi Formation. The most spectacular clusters are found in the eastern part
of the Lebombo range, north-east of the Namaacha border post, where lithophysae form
horizons and zones in the lower parts of rhyolitic flows. The size of star-shaped (Figs. 8.8C)
or concentric (Fig. 8.8D) lithophysae varies from 1 – 2 cm to 10 – 15 cm.
The volcanic textures found within rhyolitic flows of the Umbelúzi Formation* are
common in welded ash-flow tuffs and high-grade ignimbrites (e.g. Sheridan and Wong,
2005).

A B

C D

Fig. 8.8. (A) Eutaxitic texture in densely welded ash-flow tuff of the Umbelúzi Formation, (B)
Microphotograph of the sample with vitric layers and small spherulites. W of the Corumana Lake
(0403182/7228703), (C) Star-shaped lithophysae ('thunder eggs') in a rhyolitic flow. NE of Namaacha
(0408713/7141567), (D) Lithophysae with concentric shells of vapor-phase minerals. NE of Namaacha
(0408562/7142266). Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 2.5 cm, width of the microphoto (B) is 20 mm.

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Rhyolitic lavas
Due to the obvious thickness of flows, pink brown to chocolate brown, fine- to medium-
grained, massive feldsparphyric rhyolite is a common variety in most flow core outcrops in
the area extending from Ressano Garcia to the north of the Massingir dam. Although dense
welding and rheomorphism of ignimbrites can produce similar massive and porphyric, lava-
like rocks, probably also proper lava flows exist within the ash-flow deposits. In a road cut
exposure east of Ressano Garcia, a gradual transition from massive, feldsparphyric rock (Fig.
8.9A) through a vesicular zone (Fig. 8.9B) into flow-top breccia (Fig. 8.9C) may represent a
top of a pristine lava flow.

A B

Fig. 8.9. (A) Detailed photo of a massive part of a

rhyolite flow of the Umbelúzi Formation*. Note
euhedral feldspar phenocrysts and crystal aggregates,
(B) Highly vesicular upper part of the same flow, (C)
Flow-top breccia of the same flow, comprising
angular fragments of feldspar-phyric rhyolite. Road
cut south of Ressano Garcia (0399017/7183886).
Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm.

Small inclusions of more mafic components are common everywhere within the
rhyolites of the Umbelúzi Formation*, but they are particularly common in lava-like rhyolite
flows in the wide rhyolite belt north of the Massingir dam. These enclaves generally occur as
dark brown, roundish spots or elongated fragments within the flow (Fig. 8.10A), but also
larger, sheet-like fragments are occasionally observed (Fig. 8.10B).
On weathered surfaces these globule-like spots, generally ~ 1 – 3 cm in size, have been
weathered out forming small pits, thus denoting their divergent, less weathering-resistant
composition. These features, indicating coeval eruption of compositionally contrasting
magmas, and resulting magma mingling and mixing (see e.g. Yoder 1973, Sparks et al. 1977),
can be expected within an extensional tectonic regime like the Lebombo monocline, where
bimodal basalt-rhyolite magmatism dominates.

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A B

Fig. 8.10. (A) Basaltic inclusios in massive rhyolitic flow of the Umbelúzi Formation*. Note diffuse margins
of inclusions. Northwest of the Massingir dam (0366406/7388298), (B) Sheet-like basaltic fragments in a
massive rhyolitic flow of the Umbelúzi Formation*. Northwest of the Mapulanguene village
(0400973/7295720). Scale bar is 8 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm.

In addition to rhyolitic rocks, the Umbelúzi Formation also includes minor interflows
of basaltic lavas and subvolcanic sills and dykes. Though often poorly exposed, basaltic
interbeds are generally distinguished by their subdued topography and low intensity
anomalies on radiometric maps. Usually only some hundreds of metres wide (in the present
erosion level), but up to 30 – 40 km in length they interfinger with rhyolitic flows, also
indicating coeval extrusion of mafic and felsic magmas.
Most of basaltic enclaves occur in a large volcanic structure northwest of the
Massingir dam, but thin basalt lava flows, which probably belong to the Sabie River
Formation, exist also east of Ressano Garcia. In the latter location, normal contacts between
basaltic and rhyolitic lavas can be followed over several tens of metres (Fig. 8.11A). Zeolite-
filled pipe vesicles (Fig. 8.11B) at the base of basaltic lava flows attests to the extrusive
character of the rock.

A B

Fig. 8.11. (A) Exposed contact between amygladoilal basaltic lava of the Sabie River Formation and auto-
brecciated rhyolite flow of the Umbelúzi Formation. Southeast of Ressano Garcia (0398706/7184575), (B)
Pipe- vesicles at the base of a basaltic lava flow. Old quarry southeast of Ressano Garcia (0398981/ 7184380).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

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Volcanic breccias
In the northern part of the Lebombo monocline, there are some wide (> 10 m) zones of
breccias, which can be lithologically divided into flow-top breccias, solely composed of
rhyolitic fragments, and volcanic breccias, where fragment material comprise lithologically
different volcanic rocks. These breccias are parallel to the main structural N-S trend of the
monocline.
A prominent flow-top breccia is exposed near the South African border, some 14 km
SSW of the Gaza Camp. The size of angular fragments generally varies from 1 – 2 cm to 25
cm, but locally there exist also fragments with a diameter exceeding one metre (Fig. 8.12A).
This breccia is at least 10 m wide and parallel to the regional northern trend of rhyolite flows.
A breccia zone composed of fragments derived from angular to subrounded felsic and
mafic(-intermediate) volcanic rock occur about eight kilometres south of the Gaza Camp.
Here, the breccia zone is located at the contact between a voluminous rhyolitic flow and
relative narrow (~50 m), but several kilometres long layer of basaltic andesite. Internal texture
of fragments, generally 5 – 75 cm in size, is heterogeneous; e.g. rhyolitic fragments are flow-
banded, while mafic ones have phenocrysts (Fig. 8.12B). Also the violet brown, fine-grained
matrix of the breccia is intermediate in composition.

A B

Fig. 8.12. Volcanic breccias in rhyolitic rocks of the Umbelúzi Formation*. (A) Flow-top breccia, which
comprise large lava fragments. About 14 km SSW of the Gaza Camp (0351845/7416592), (B) Volcanic
breccia composed of mafic and felsic lava fragments. about 8 km S of the Gaza Camp (0354539/7421885).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Tuff Member (JrUf)

In the eastern side of the Lebombo Mountain range exists a tens of kilometres long horizon of
rhyolitic rocks with tabular bedding, interpreted to represent pyroclastic ash-fall deposits
(Figs. 9.13A-F). In an old quarry, located about 6 km north-west of the Goba village, the tile-
red rhyolite comprises alternating layers or beds of unwelded pyroclastic material, ranging
from fine-grained ash to lapilli-size pumice fragments. Well-preserved pumice fragments,
embedded in places into fine-grained tuff beds (Fig. 8.13D), and layers of only partially
devitrified shards (Fig. 8.13F) suggest an ash-fall tuff origin for the rock.
However, the rocks locally resemble siltstones. In the aforementioned quarry (see Fig.
8.13A) near Goba village, the upper sequence may represent a poorly sorted debris flow,
matrix supported, containing several volcanogenic clasts, ejecta and tuff. The lower part part

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could have originated from sheetfloods deposits along a slope and may be a distal equivalent
of a lahar. Microtextures of rocks in the Tuff Member are shown in Fig. 8.14.

A B

C D

E F

Fig. 8.13. Pyroclastic ash-fall deposits in rhyolites of the Umbelúzi Formation. (A) Tabular bedding of
rhyolitic ash-fall tuff, (B) A layer of lapilli tuff with pumice fragments on top of a fine-grained tuff with
graded bedding, (C) Detailed photo of the contact between ash-fall tuff and overlying lapilli tuff layers, (D) A
pumice fragment embedded in fine-grained tuff. Note shard layers in the upper part of the photo, (E) Detailed
photo of sharp-edged, partly devitrified fragments of volcanic glass (shards). Old quarry by the road, north of
Mte Ligadjanga (0414117/7107659). (F) Collapsed pumice fragments (fiamme) in a fine-grained tuff matrix.
Road cut on the EN4 highway (0409944/7169003). Diameter of coin is 28 mm, pen is 15 cm long.

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A B

Fig. 8.14. Microtexture of pyroclastic rocks, which may partly represent weathering products of volcanics. (A)
Fine-grained tuff, which macroscopically resembles siltstone. It comprises subangular quartz clasts with rare
mica clasts. Wide of photo 0.6 mm. (0414117/7107659). (B) Medium(-coarse)-grained rock composed of
subrounded volcanic fragments. Wide of photo 1.5 cm. (0414602/7218759)

Microgranite (JrUg)
A few elongated microgranite bodies intrude mafic and felsic volcanic rocks within the
Limpopo National Park in the northern part of the Lebombo monocline (SDS 2331/2332).
Microgranites are pinkish grey, massive, locally strongly fractured and spheroidally
weathered rocks, which have intrusive contacts against the surrounding basaltic lavas (Figs.
8.15A and 8.15B).
The grain size of microgranites ranges from small to medium (0.1 – 0.5 mm), and
F
granophyric intergrowths between feldspar and quartz grains are common (Fig. 8.15C).
Except quartz and plagioclase, microgranites comprise potassium feldspar, and clinopyroxene
phenocrysts, up to 1 mm in size, have also been observed. Obviously, these microgranite
intrusions represent the coeval magmatic phase with the Tshokwane granophyre, located
nearby in the South African side of the border13.

Age
SHRIMP dating yielded an age of 182.1±2.9 Ma zircons from the Jozini Formation (Riley et
al. 2004), while two rhyolite samples from the lower part of the Jozini Formation give a mean
age of 178.9 ± 0.5 Ma (Duncan et al. 1997).

13
see 1:250 000 scale geological map ‘2230 Tzaneen’, published by the Geological Survey of South Africa.

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A B

Fig. 8.15. (A) Massive microgranite at Gaza Camp

(0353555/7430267), (B) Speroidal weathering in
microgranite. S of the Gaza Camp (0352881/
7404493), (C) Microphotograph of granophyric
texture in microgranite. Note the bluish
clinopyroxene. Crossed nicols. S of the Gaza Camp
(0342890/7467720). Scale bar is 10 cm.

8.5.5. Movene Formation (JrM)

Introduction
The Movene (Basalt) Formation represents the uppermost lithological unit of the Lebombo
Monocline (e.g. Eales et al. 1984), extending over 400 km from the Maputo River at the
South African border (SDS 2632) onto the Singuédzi River, north of the Massingir dam (SDS
2331). Dominating the fertile lowlands between the rhyolitic Lebombo mountain range in the
west and Quaternary formations in the east, the Movene Formation mostly comprises a
succession of basaltic lava flows, but includes also intercalated rhyolite flows of the Pequenos
Libombos Member in the upper part of the basaltic lava pile.

Basalt (JrM)
Basaltic lavas of the Movene Formation are poorly exposed compared to the felsic volcanic
rocks. Most of the outcrops are located in rivers or in riverbanks. Some outcrops are also
found in topographically higher places, covered by more resistant rhyolite units (see Fig.
8.18).
The field exposures of basalts typically exhibit characteristic features of inflated
pahoehoe flows: a massive flow core and highly amygdaloidal lower and upper crusts (Figs.
8.16A and 8.16B). These mafic volcanics mainly have an aphyric field appearance (Fig.
8.17A), although plagioclase porphyritic types are also commonly observed (Fig. 8.17B). The
thickness of individual flow units varies from <1 m up to ~10 m. The highly amygdaloidal

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lower crust is glassy, commonly < 0.5 metres thick, and may contain pipe amygdules. These
are ~1cm thick and 10–50 cm long fossil tracks of rising vapour bubbles that formed during
the emplacement of the lava flow. Pipe amygdules are commonly inclined towards the lava
flow direction. Both easterly and westerly flow directions are observed, which may reflect
local topography of the lava flow field rather than distinctive eruptive centres. The massive
flow core of relatively thick (>1 m) inflated pahoehoe lava units lacks or contains few
amygdules and characteristically shows spheroidal weathering. The core of the lava flow may
contain sub-vertical amygdule cylinders and, just below the upper crust, sub-horizontal
amygdule sheets. Each inflated pahoehoe flow unit has a thick (~1/3 – 1/2 of the flow
thickness) upper crust with highly abundant round amygdules that are commonly ~1 cm but
up to ~1 m (geoids) in diameter (Fig. 8.16C). The amygdules and the geoids are filled mainly
with agate, quartz, carbonates, and zeolite. Agate layers in partially filled amygdules provide
a useful tool for establishing the postmagmatic tilting of the lava flows (Fig. 8.16D). Obtained
measurements, although sparse, invariably show 6–8° dipping towards ESE. Some of the
pahoehoe flow units have a distinctive brecciated flow top above the amygdaloidal upper
crust. The breccia consists of broken pieces of pahoehoe lava (e.g. Pequenos Libombos),
which is a diagnostic feature of pahoehoe flows. Pahoehoe lavas have not been previously
reported from the Movene Formation or from the greater Karoo large ignous province.

A B

C D

Fig. 8.16. Amygdaloidal textures in basaltic lavas of the Movene Formation. (A) Amygdule-rich upper zone of
a basalt flow with typical brownish weathering surface (0412516/7253096), (B) Large, quartz-filled
amygdules in the upper zone of basalt flow near the Pequenos Libombos dam (042210/7113705), (C) A large,
quartz crystal coated geoid in the upper part of the same inflated pahoehoe flow unit (0424177/7113835), (D)
Previously horizontal agate layers in partially filled amygdules. NW of Monte Portela (0418871/7120492).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

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A B

Fig. 8.17. Textures of the basaltic flows. (A) Medium-grained and uniform, subophitic core of a lava flow
(0411494/7257363), (B) Plagioclase porphyritic basalt that contains also some carbonate filled amygdules
(0412516/7253096) (C) Phonotephrite with sparse amygdules (0430758/7157 784). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Pequenos Libombos Rhyolite Member (JrMr)

A prominent rhyolite ridge of the Pequenos Libombos (Little Lebombo) Mountains in
southern part of map sheet SDS 2532 and northern part of SDS 2632 comprise a succession of
variously welded ash-flow tuffs in the upper part of the Movene Formation, north and east of
the Pequenos Libombos dam. The north- trending rhyolite interlayer can be followed for over
65 km along strike, its maximum width being about five kilometres. The estimated maximum
thickness of this succession, known formerly as Sica beds (Cleverly et al. 1984) ranges from
some tens of metres in the area of Monte Portela to few hundred metres east of Monte Sica
and Monte Pequenos Libombos proper. The unit, which stands out as a resistant cap within
the Movene basalt terrain, is cut by several NW-SE trending faults and fractures, while a NW-
SE trending sinistral strike-slip fault has separated the ridge into two major parts.
Evidence for a pyroclastic emplacement of Pequenos Libombos rhyolite is provided by
its gradational transition from a weakly welded basal tuff breccia and a lithophysal zone
upwards into an increasingly flow-banded and flow-folded rheomorphic lava-like rock.
The lower contact of the rhyolite unit is exposed in a road cut on top of the Pequenos
Libombos ridge, where a maroon coloured zone in the upper part of the underlying basalt
flow may represent a hydrothermally altered palaeo-laterite horizon (Fig. 8.18). The same
maroon contact zone is exposed in an old quarry north of the Sica ridge, where plenty of
greenish agate amygdules up to 5 cm in diameter are preserved in the oxidised top layer.
The weathering and alteration of rocks in the contact zone hamper the study of
volcanic structures at the base of the rhyolitic flow. Horizons of poorly welded ash-flow tuffs
or ash-fall deposits exist in the basal zone of the (lowermost) flow (Figs. 8.19B). Elsewhere,
the flow base is characterised by chaotic tuff breccias with plastically deformed lithic chips or
fragments (Fig. 8.19A) or by lithophysa clusters (Fig. 8.20A), with the size of roundish
lithophysae ranging from small spherulitic ones to lithophysae, 10 – 15 cm in diameter. In
some large lithophysae, onion-like texture is well developed (Fig. 8.20B).

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Fig. 8.18. Contact between a

yellowish brown rhyolite flow of the
Pequenos Libombos Member (on
top) and maroon basaltic lava of the
Movene Formation. A quarry on the
western side of the Pequenos
Libombos mountain (0421955/
7119193). Hammer is 65 cm long.

A B

Fig. 8.19. (A) Detailed photo of plastically deformed (ash flow) tuff fragments in a non-welded zone. A quarry
on the western side of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0421955/7119193), (B) A non-welded ash-fall
deposit on the base of rhyolitic flow. A quarry north of the Sica mountain (0424899/7108411). Diameter of
coin is 3 cm.

A B

Fig. 8.20. Cluster of large lithophysae in rhyolite. Old quarry north of the bentonite plant (0423900/7119729).
Scale bar is 8 cm, (B) Detailed photo of onion-like structure of lithophysae. Old quarry NE of the Portela ridge
(0422725/7118163). Diameter of coin is 2.5 cm.

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Densely welded varieties of rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs, consolidated by vapour-phase

crystallisation, constitute the major lithology of the Pequenos Libombos Member of the
Movene Formation, exposed in most aggregate quarries of the area. Dark brownish red, fine-
grained rock is often distinctly flow-banded, with flow folding locally distorting the gentle
regional tilting angle of flows (Figs. 8.21A-B, see also image in cover page of the Volume1).
Flow-banded rock comprises dark greenish and light to reddish brown, <1 to 2 mm thick
laminas with plenty of small (< 0.5 mm) spherules and quartz and feldspar phenocrysts,
probably as a result of vapour phase crystallisation (Fig. 8.21D). Only in zones where the
intensity of rheomorphic flow has not been comprehensive, flame-like fiamme and round to
lenticular vesicles can still be discerned (Fig. 8.21C).

A B

C D

Fig. 8.21. (A) Magmatic folding in flow-banded rhyolite in an aggregate quarry north of the bentonite plant
(0423900/7119729), (B) A zone of tight, recumbent flow folds in densely welded ash-flow tuff in the northern
part of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0426480/ 7147382), (C) Small fiamme and stretched vesicles in
partially welded, eutaxitic tuff. Aggregate quarry north of the Portela mountain (0422028/7119159), (D)
Detailed photo of flow-banded rhyolite with rolled rhyolite clasts. Old quarry north of the Pequenos Libombos
dam (0423468/7114906) Hammer is 65 cm long/scale bar is 10 cm/diameter of coin is 2.5 cm.

On top of the mountain, southeast of the Monte Muguene, there occur two circular-
shaped structures, 6 – 7 m in diameter, which may represent eruption vents for rhyolite flows,
surrounding these structures (Fig. 8.22A). Steeply outwards dipping flows exhibit distinct
flow banding and have plenty of distorted pumice fragments (?) and gas cavities (Fig. 8.22B).

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A B

Fig. 8.22. (A) A probable volcanic vent or feeder on top of the Pequenos Libombos ridge, (B) Detailed photo of
surrounding rhyolite with flow banding and (possible) deformed pumice fragments. S of Monte Muguene
(0427990/7109961). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Rhyolite breccia (JrMbr)

A horizon of sub-aerial pyroclastic breccia (tuff breccia), probably tens of metres in thickness,
is exposed along the western slope of a separate hill on the eastern side of the Pequenos
Libombos ridge proper (SDS 2632). Its position as an immediate northern extension of the
southern rhyolite ridge suggest that this unit represents an air-fall tuff breccia or unwelded
ash-flow deposit amongst the densely welded ash-flow sheets of the area.
The pyroclastic breccia is composed of lithic (juvenile to accidental) fragments, up to
10 cm in size, in a fine-grained tuff matrix (Fig. 8.23). These matrix-supported clasts mostly
comprise weathered fragments of basalt, broken lapilli and bombs of vesicular pumice, and
light brown chips and fragments of aphanitic rhyolite. The occasional lithic fragments found
have probably been derived from the pre-volcanic Karoo sedimentary strata, not exposed in
this area.

A B

Fig. 8.23. Pyroclastic breccia, comprising juvenile and accessory fragments in a tuff matrix, (B) Detailed
photo of pyroclastic breccia. A hill east of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0425129/7117510). Length of
pen is 15 cm, diameter of coin is 28 mm.

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Quartz latite (JrMq)

A light grey or greenish grey variety of felsic volcanic rocks, also assigned to the Pequenos
Libombos Member, is exposed in an old aggregate quarry 6 km north-west of the Boane town
(SDS 2631-2632). Obscure flow banding and rare fiamme suggest ash-flow origin for the
aphanitic rock with abundant dark brown, mafic enclaves, generally < 10 cm in size (Fig.
8.24). Light brownish bands or portions, possibly due to hydrothermal bleaching and
alteration of the rock, are also common. Thin, sub-vertical basaltic dykes intrude the rock unit
in the quarry.

Fig. 8.24. Quartz latite with

mafic enclaves and obscure
banding. Aggregate quarry
(0428363/ 71223753). Marker
pen is 14 cm long.

Pessene alkaline lava (JrPal)

One of the easternmost observed exposures of mafic volcanic rocks in southern Mozambique
is massive, aphyric, aphanitic and contains sparse amygdules (Fig. 8.25). The exposure is
located on the top of a small hill and has a minimum diameter of several hundreds of metres.
In previous maps this rock has been classified as a basaltic dyke, but it more likely represents
a sub-horizontal sill or a lava unit.
Since no geochronological data are available and the outcrop seems to be surrounded
by Cretaceous sedimentary deposits, it is currently uncertain whether this rock type belongs to
the Movene Formation. Based on geochemical data, the phonotephrite may be comagmatic
with the Pessene nepheline syenite intrusion nearby.

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Fig. 8.25. Close up photo of Pessene

alkaline lava. SE of the Moamba
town. (0430758/ 7157784). Scale bar
10 cm.

8.5.6. Upper Karoo intrusive rocks

Pessene nepheline syenite (JrPns)

A nepheline syenite body is exposed ~ 8 km SW from the Pessene village, in the contact zone
between Movene basalts and Quaternary sediments (SDS 2532). The size and shape of the
subvolcanic intrusion seem to be elongated. In addition to the large outcrop situated in
aggregate quarry near the highway EN4, there also occur some outcrops 8 km to south.
Pessane nepheline syenite is a light greenish grey, massive and distinctly porphyritic
rock with potassium feldspar, nepheline, aegirine augite and augite as phenocrysts in a
microcrystalline to aphanitic ground mass (Figs. 8.26A and 8.26B). There are also some
analcite and amphibole. The rock is cut by dense network of small fractures and joints.
An age of 1750±33 Ma was determined for eight zircons separated from the nepheline
syenite sample (see App. 2), but zircons are probably inherited from an Early Proterozoic
magmatic or sedimentary source.

A B

Fig. 8.26. (A) Porphyritic texture of the Pessene nepheline syenite, (B) Microphotograph of nepheline syenite,
where euhedral phenocrysts are enclosed in ophitic groundmass. Nic X. The Pessene quarry
(0431268/7150433). Diameter of coin is 2.5 cm, width of photo is 35mm.

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Mafic dykes and sills (Jrdo, do)

Mafic dykes and sills intrude felsic volcanic rocks of the Lebombo sequence, although
observations of them are rare. In the north, within the Limpopo National Park, very fine-
grained, vertical mafic dyke impressively cut dacite of the Umbelúzi Formation* (Fig.
8.27A). The weakly zoned dyke has chilled margins, resulting in a finer grain size, and the
rock comprises small chemical variations parallel to contacts. The dyke is composed of
plagioclase, clinopyroxene and opaques. Microtexture of the fine-grained dyke is
characterized by diabasic texture.
A vertical mafic dyke, about 2 m wide, crosscut quartz latite of the Pequenos
Libombos Member in an large aggregate quarry, about 6 km north-west of Boane (Fig.
8.27B). The dyke has altered margins against the host rock. Obviously, the same dyke
intrudes rhyolite some 10 km south-west.
A basaltic sill, more than 20 m thick, intrudes rhyolites of the Pequenos Libombos
Member* in the western side of the mountain. Exposed in an active aggregate rock quarry,
this sill exhibits a prominent columnar jointing (Fig. 8.27C), polygonal columns mostly being
pentagonal or hexagonal in cross-section (8.27D). An intrusive contact of the sill against the
flow-banded rhyolitic host rock is also exposed in the quarry.

A B

C D

Fig. 8.27. (A) Vertical mafic dyke intruding a dacitic lava of the Umbelúzi Formation in Rio Singuedzi
(0361577/7414943), (B) Vertical diabase dyke in quartz latite of the Pequenos Libombos Formation. NW of
Boane (0428363/7123753), (C) Columnar jointing in a basaltic sill, (D) Detailed photo of regular columnar
jointing. Quarry in the west side of the Pequenos Libombos mountain (0424318/7145314). Hammer is 65 cm
long.

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Columnar jointing is also found in doleritic rock situated 20 km north of the Catuane
village in southern Mozambique. The dyke or sill here must be wide, because it forms a small
hill in the low-lying landscape covered by the Movene basalts.

Gabbroic dykes (Jrgd)

A prominent, NNE-trending mafic dyke, over 100 m in thickness, cuts a thick, basaltic lava
flow of the Movene Formation* near the Pequenos Lipombos dam (SDS 2632) (Fig. 8.28).
Brownish, medium-grained dyke has plenty of randomly oriented, chalcedony filled fractures.
Individual outcrops of basaltic rocks are sometimes difficult in terms of the rock
origin, as the core of a thick basaltic lava flow may petrographically resemble medium-
grained gabbro or mafic dyke. For example, medium-grained, massive gabbroic rock occurs
south of the Boane town (Figs. 8.29A). Compositionally it is rather basic and comprises lot of
pyroxene. Another example nearby has plagioclase crystals size up to 5 mm, with diabase
texture (Fig. 8.29B). Both of these two rocks are supposed to be dykes rather than basalts.

Fig. 8.28. Gabbroic dyke (light brown, middle part of figure) crosscuts the Movene basalt (dark brown, lower
part of the photo). Close up photo is of the gabbroic dyke. Dam of the Albufeira dos Pequenos Libombos.
(0424161/ 7113823).

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A B

Fig. 8.29. Obvious mafic dykes. (A) Massive, pyroxene-bearing gabbroic rock, which comprises spheroidal
weathering. SW of Boane town. (0425018/ 7172522), (B) Mafic rock, which has a diabasic texture. S of Boane
town (0430808/7113337). Scale bar is 10 cm.

8.5.7. Geochemistry

The rhyolitic rocks of the Umbelúzi Formation have slightly dacitic features compared to the
rhyolits of the Movene Formation, particularly those of the Pequenos Libombos member (Fig.
8.30). In the former rocks SiO2 content ranges 67.6 – 73.6 % and in the later 72.7 – 77.5 %.
The microgranitic rock is also intermediate between dacites and rhyolites. The Umbelúzi
Formation comprises dacites and trachydacites, which have SiO2 contents below 65 %.
Chemical analyses of rhyolites and dacites of the Umbelúzi Formation are presented in App.3,
Table 1.
The mafic volcanics of the Movene Formation are dominantly subalkaline basalts and
basaltic andesites. Whole-rock geochemical data indicate predominance of basaltic
compositions with rather uniform SiO2 (50–52 %) and MgO (4.3–5.5 %) contents, but
markedly variable TiO2 (1.6–4.4 %) and Zr (113–796 ppm) content. A representative basaltic
andesitic sample (55 % SiO2) has overlapping contents of MgO (4.3 %), TiO2 (1.9 %), and Zr
(315 ppm) compared to basalts. In general, mafic volcanics of the Movene Formation show
geochemical affinities to both low Ti-Zr and high Ti-Zr-groups of the Karoo basalts that
underlie the Movene Formation. Melluso et al. (2006) have recently studied petrogenesis of
the Karoo related magmatism in southern Mozambique.
A total of 6 analyses are available from the Movene basalts (Appendix 3, Table 1).
One analyses is made from basalt of the Rio Mazoe Formation; it differs from the Movene
basalts by higher Mg/Fe. Microprobe analyses of clinopyroxenes in Movene basalts are
presented in Table 1 of App. 4.

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Fig. 8.30. Alkalies vs. SiO2 diagram (Le Bas et al. 1986) for the volcanic rocks of the Map Explanation,
Volume 1 area.

The rhyolites in the Pequenos Libombos member of the Movene Formation have
elevated SiO2 content. The quartz latites are relative calc-alkaline rocks (Fig. 8.31).
Based on whole rock geochemical data, the Pessene alkaline lava may be classified as
phonotephrite and is distinguished from the stratigraphically older Movene basalts by notably
higher K2O (2.3 %) and Na2O (5.9 %) at SiO2 content of 49 %, MgO of 3.5 %, and TiO2 of
2.9 %. Further it is calc-alkaline with alkaline-affinity in contrast to tholeiitic and subalkaline
basalts. The concentration of Zr (1618 ppm) is exceptionally high compared to Movene
basalts (see App 3, Table 1, rock 33).

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Fig. 8.31. AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar 1971) for the volcanic rocks of the Map Explanation, Volume 1
area. The fields of calc-alkaline and tholeiitic rocks are shown by line.

Compositionally, the nepheline syenite of Pessene falls in the field of phonolites in the
alkalies vs. SiO2 classification diagram shown in see Fig. 8.30. This is expected as the rock
comprises nepheline without quartz. The nepheline syenite of Pessene has high Zr-, Ba- and
Sr-contents (1440 ppm, 2447 ppm, 3127 ppm) (App. 3, Table 1, rock 34). Microprobe
analyses of minerals in the rock are shown in Table 1 of App.4.
Chemical analyses of a dolerite sample (see Fig. 8.27A) taken 2 meters from the
contact shows slightly elevated FeOt (15.3 %) and TiO2 (3.2 %) (App.3, Table 1, rock 31).
Here, the dacitic host rock comprises Fe-augite and albite (see Table 1 of App.4); the latter
mineral is probably result of alteration. One possible dyke (Fig. 8.29B), situated south of the
Boane town, has also elevated TiO2 concentration (2.2 %), and it comprises rather titanium-
rich augite (see App. 4, table 1, rock 11).

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CHAPTER 9

PHANEROZOIC COVER – EAST AFRICA RIFT SYSTEM

9.1. INTRODUCTION
The Phanerozoic cover is conveniently divided into (from old to young) the Karoo
Supergroup and a succession of Early?/Middle Cretaceous and younger rocks coeval with the
development of the East Africa Rift System. Whereas the Karoo Supergroup – described in
Chapter 8 – manifests a phase of continental rifting, the deposits coeval with the East Africa
Rift System reflect a period of continental drifting and dispersal followed by renewed rifting.
The dispersal of Gondwana and the opening of the Indian and South Atlantic Oceans are
manifestations of the first process. Renewed rifting is demonstrated by the development of the
East Africa Rift System that was initiated in the Cretaceous but accelerated during the
Tertiary. Continental break-up continues till today as shown by recurrent activity along East
Africa Rift System. Elsewhere, however, re-assembly of lithospheric plates is already taking
place as manifested by consumption of the Tethys Ocean and development of the Alpine-
Himalayan collisional orogen.
In Mozambique, the above processes gave rise to the development of the Mozambique
Basin, which covers the bulk of the area discussed in this Map Explanation (Volume 1). The
Mozambique Basin spans an area of ~ 185 000 km² onshore and some 100 000 km2 offshore down to
the 500 m isobath (Fig. 9.1). It is floored by Jurassic volcanics and overlain by Early to Middle
Cretaceous and younger sediments and subordinate (sub-)volcanic rocks. The maximum
thickness of this sedimentary cover exceeds 10 000 m in the Zambezi delta.
Definition of the surface geology of this basin is hampered by the scarcity of outcrops
due to low relief depositional surfaces, strong alteration and the presence of weathering
residues such as laterite, calcrete, caliches and ferricrete. Intensive alteration of microfossils
seriously constrains the establishment of a bio-stratigraphic framework. The best in-depth
stratigraphic studies date-back from the 1960’s, but their validity is of a local nature and
cannot be extrapolated on a regional scale. The poor stratigraphic definition of the lithologic
units further complicates the correlation of thin, exclusively erosional-bounded sedimentary
sequences that may extent over distances of several hundreds of kilometres.
The overall sedimentary column of the Mozambique Basin can be divided into a
shallow platform sequence and deeper sequences that are restricted to various narrow rift
structures. The first is represented by the shallow subsurface extending over vast areas, but
probably not exceeding 150 m in total thickness. It is generally overlain by a thin Quaternary
coverage like the Manangas or wind-blown sands and, as a consequence, the immediate sub-
surface geology is completely unknown over an estimated 90% of the land surface.
On the other hand there is a kilometre-thick, marine-dominated sequence that is only
seen in several N-S directed rift structures. These lithologies have been studied in samples
from various deep hydrocarbon wells. Both sequences display E-W directed litho-
stratigraphic boundaries while facies changes have N-S trends. Such boundaries and trends
are still insufficiently sampled and described.

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Fig. 9.1. Simplified geological map showing extent of Phanerozoic basins in Mozambique. The ‘rift-phase’ is
represented by Karoo rifts such as the Maniamba basin in the north and the Middle and Lower Zambezi rifts
near Tete (in brown). Continuity of the W-E trending Zambezi rift is interrupted by the allochtonous Tete Suite
and a NW-SE directed ‘basement horst’ underlain by gneisses and migmatites of the Báruè Complex. Volcanic
rocks of the regional Karoo Large Volcanic Province (KLIP) are in purple. They include the Lebombo and
Sabi Monoclines. The ‘drift/rift phase’ is represented by Early Cretaceous and younger rocks of Rovuma and
Mozambique basins (adapted after ENH/ECL).

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9.2. GENERALISED STRATIGRAPHY

Five major depositional sequences, separated from each other by angular unconformities and
periods of non-deposition or erosion, have been recognised and incorporated in a basin-wide
stratigraphic framework (Fig. 9.2; Coster et al. 1989). This stratigraphic framework is a
synthesis based on surface geology and deep hydrocarbon exploration wells (Fig. 9.3; see also
Chapter11, Fig. 11.2).

Fig. 9.2. Generalised stratigraphy of the Mozambique Basin. The red line shows the transgression-regression
cycles, resulting from the interplay between episodic eustatic sea level fluctuations, basin subsidence and
continental rise. This interplay results in a number of unconformities and periods of non-deposition or erosion
within the stratigraphic column at one location and sedimentation in another location. Uplift and erosion are
particularly evident in the western, continental part of the Mozambique Basin and correspond to the Mid-
Cretaceous, Santonian-early Campanian, late Maastrichtian-Ypresian, Bartonian-Aquitanian and late Miocene
hiatuses. Facies changes are generally from W to E and vary from terrestrial to paralic to shallow marine to
full marine. Litho-stratigraphic classification (Section 5.1) implies that some mappable units are strongly
diachronous (e.g., Sena Formation*) or contemporaneous with other units (e.g., Sena and Domo Formations*).

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Fig. 9.3. Location of onshore deep hydrocarbon wells and simplified stratigraphy (in part) in southern
Mozambique (source: Sasol).

• Sequence 1: Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous deposition of the Lupata Group in the

north and coeval emplacement of volcanics of the Chilwa Alkaline Province with
Neocomian (Berriasian till Barremian) and Aptian unconformities.
• Sequence 2: Middle to Late Cretaceous with deposition of Sena and Domo
Formations* and basin-wide intra-Senonian unconformity.

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• Sequence 3: Late Cretaceous (Campanian-Maastrichtian) to Palaeocene deposition

of lower part of Grudja Formation* separated by Early Palaeocene unconformity
from upper part of Grudja Formation*
• Sequence 4: Paleocene Mapai Formation* and Cheringoma Formation* below
intra- and late-Oligocene unconformities
• Sequence 5: Paleocene-Pliocene deposition of Mangulane, Tembe, Inhaminga,
Maputo, Boane and Salamanga Formations* and ‘Zambezi Deltaic Complex’ in the
east, erosion and redeposition products elsewhere.
• Sequence 6: Quaternary deposits, subdivided into Pleistocene deposits such as the
Internal Dunes, Fluvial Terraces, Coastal Sandstones (or ‘Beach Rock’) and
Lacustrine Limestones and Holocene deposits such as flood plain deposits of a
sandy-clayey or mud composition.

All litho-stratigraphic units (including code) that are portrayed in the geological maps
(scale 1:250 000) discussed in this Map Exploration (Volume 1) have been summarised in
Table 9.1.

9.3. LATE JURASSIC – EARLY CRETACEOUS (SEQUENCE 1)

9.3.1. Introduction

This sequence represents the phase of incipient rifting and initial flooding of the shelf, in the
Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, and subsequent deposition of the first true rift deposits
and associated volcanics. The top of this sequence is the ‘Mid-Cretaceous Unconformity’,
which in the Zambezi Depression (Fig. 9.3 and Fig.9.4) marks the transition from the Lupata
Group to the Lower Domo Shale.

9.3.2. Lupata Group

Red beds of the Lupata Group are not exposed in the area covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 1), instead they are known from deep hydrocarbon wells. The type locality (Tete and
Tambara Map Sheets, SDS 1633 and 1634; Map Explanation, Volume 2; GTK Consortium,
2006b) is described below to allow comparison with rock types in exploration wells.

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Table 9.1. Lithostratigraphic units and codes as presented in the accompanying geological maps.

Sequence Group/Formation/Member Code

Coastal Sand Dune Qd
Internal Dune Qdi
Alluvium Qa
Alluvial Mud of Fluvial-Marine origin Qst
Pebble-bearing debris ‘Mantos de Cascalheiras’ Qp
6 Quaternary Eluvial Floodplain Clayey Sand Qps
Lacustrine Limestone Qcs
Raised beach sediment/ Coastal sandstone Qll
Colluvium Qc
Eluvial Floodplain Mud Qpi
Fluvial Terraces Qt
Aeolian Sand Qe
Mazamba TeZ
Ponta Vermelha TeVs
Inharrime TeIn
Jofane Conglomeratic reworked sandstone TeJco
Sandstone with local silicification TeJs
Cabe TeJc
5 Paleocene – Pliocene Urrongas TeJu
Cheringoma TeC
Salamanga Sandstone TeSs
Limestone TeSl
Boane TeB
Maputo TeP
Inhaminga TeI
Tembe TeT
Mangulane Magube TeMm
Sandy Limestone TeMl
Mapai Upper Limestone TeAul
Paleocene Upper Sandstone TeAuc
Middle Sandstone TeAcs
4
Middle Limestone TeAml
Lower Sandstone TeAlc
Basal Limestone TeAbl
Cretaceous (undifferentiated) Cr
3 Late Cretaceous – Incomanini CrI
Early Palaeocene Grudja Upper Grudja
CrG
Lower Grudja
Sena Sandstone (high K) CrSas
2 Middle – Late Basal Conglomerate CrSb
Cretaceous Thorium sandstone CrSt
Domo
Lupata Monte Linhanga Agglomerate CrLMa
1 Late Jurassic? – Group Phonolite Sandstone CrLMs
Early Cretaceous Monte Mazambulo conglomeratic rhyolite CrLP
Monte Palamuli Rhyolite JrLM

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Fig. 9.4. Rift structures within the floor of the Mozambique Basin. Rocks of the Karoo Supergroup have been
divided in the Late Karoo (~ 180 Ma; Early Jurassic) volcanics of the Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi
Monoclines (purple) and older sediments and volcanics (brown). Early Jurassic rift structures (green) include
the Palmeira and Xai-Xai Grabens. After ENH data.

Teale and Wilson (1915) and Dixey and Campbell Smith (1929) were the first to
describe this volcano-sedimentary sequence in the Lupata Gorge of the Zambezi River (Tete
Map Sheet, SDS 1633). Mennel (1929) coined the names ‘Upper Lupata Sandstones’ and
‘Lower Lupata Sandstones’ for the sandstones occurring above and below rhyolite rocks.
Araújo et al. (1968) referred to this mixed clastic-volcanic sequence as ‘Lupata Series’,
making references to the ‘Upper Lupata Sandstones’ on top of rhyolites and tuffs. Based on
observations in the Doa and Lupata regions (Tete and Tambara map sheets, SDS 1633 and
1634), Afonso (1975) introduced the term ‘Lupata Group’, divided into the Upper and Lower

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Lupata Formations*. The Lower Lupata Formation* is described as a volcano-sedimentary

sequence with basal feldspathic sandstones, topped by rhyolite flows with fluidal breccias and
tuffs. These members were formerly known as Feldspathic Sandstones and Acid Lavas,
respectively. The Upper Lupata Formation* comprises (from bottom to top) conglomeratic
sandstones, sandstone with tuffaceous intercalations, trachytic agglomerate and trachyte and
basalt.
The thickness of the Lupata Group in the Lupata Gorge area varies from place to
place. According to Afonso (1975), the upper unit is about 150 m thick near the Lupata
Trough to increase to about 200 metres north of Monte Dómuè. In this region, the ‘Lupata
Upper Formation*’ rests unconformably on the top of the Uçúpè (Sandstone) Formation*
(Upper Karoo Group). In the right bank of the Lupata River and close to the Chueza railway
station ruins, the unit tops with a paraconformity basalts of the Chueza (Basalt) Formation*
(Upper Karoo Group).
Based on field observations and map analysis, the GTK Consortium (this Map
Explanation) has re-defined the Lupata Group and proposes – in line with international
nomenclature – the informal formation and member names as presented in Table 9.1.
Sediments attributed to the Lupata Group have been incorporated in the Tchazica Basal
Sandstone and Monte Mazambulo Conglomeratic Sandstone Formations* of the Lower
Lupata and the Sandstone-Tuff member of the Monte Linhanga Formation* of the Upper
Lupata.

Tchazica Formation*
The rocks of the Tchazica Formation* are exposed along the western margin of the Lupata
Trough and are constituted by thick-bedded, light brown to reddish, feldspathic sandstone
layers with interbedded conglomerate horizons. Pebbles comprise Karoo basalt, gneiss and
other rock types derived from the underlying basement, all cemented by a clayey matrix. In
the type locality, the unit presents a maximum thickness of 105 m.

Table 9.2. Litho-stratigraphic units in the Lupata Group.

Group Sub- Formation* Member Age

Group (Ma)
Trachytic agglomerate
Monte Linhanga Phonolite
Upper

Sandstone-Tuff
Lupata

Monte Mazambulo Conglo-

meratic Sandstone
Lower

Monte Formation
Palamuli Rhyolite 131±10

Tchazica Basal Sandstone

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Monte Mazambulo Formation*

Monte Mazambulo Formation* comprises a fining- upward sequence of clastic sediments,
resting on top of the Monte Palamuli rhyolites. Reddish brown, medium to coarse-grained or
pebbly sandstones with distinct laminar bedding and thin horizons of polymict conglomerates
grade upwards into silty sandstones. Conglomeratic horizons with subrounded to rounded
clasts up to 10 – 15 cm in size are common, and locally a high-angle cross bedding has been
encountered in sandstones (Fig. 9.5). Tile-red, fine-grained sandstone or siltstone
(occasionally with fossil root remains) occurs nearby.

Fig. 9.5. High-angle cross-

bedding in coarse-grained
sandstone of the Monte
Mazambulo Formation*.
Southeast of Monte
Nhamalongo (0603484/
8157829). Scale bar is 15
cm.

Sandstone and Tuffitic sandstone

Very small outcrops of sandstone, tuffaceous sandstone and tuff have been encountered on
top of rhyolite along the northern margin of the Lupata polygon Sandstones. From their
stratigraphic position it can be concluded that these mixed sedimentary-epiclastic rocks
belong to the basal part of the Monte Linhanga (Phonolite) Formation*.

Red Beds of the Lupata Group in drill holes

Early terrigenous influx in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous resulted in the deposition of a
thick regressive wedge of red bed deposits, Lupata Group, in the Zambezi Delta Depression.
Where penetrated by wells on the western flank of the Depression it is seen to extend upwards
into the non-marine sediments of the Sena Formation* (at a depth of 2700 m in well
Nhamura-1). Further east the sequence onlaps the Beira High. In the south of the basin the
sequence, again represented by thin-bedded non-marine red beds, have only been penetrated
in wells centered in the Palmeira and Xai-Xai Grabens. In the marine portion of the Zambezi
Delta Depression red beds of the Lupata Group grade upwards into the Lower Domo Shales
sometime during the Hauterivian/ Barremian (~ 130 Ma).

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Volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group

The volcanic rocks have alkaline affinities, are enriched in potassium, undersaturated and are
generally attributed to the Chilwa Alkaline Province defined by Bloomfield (1968) and
named after a carbonatite complex in Lake Chilwa (Lago Chiuta) at the border between
Malawi and Mozambique. In the type locality of the Lupata Group near the Lupata Gorge and
surroundings (Tete and Tambara Map Sheets, SDS 1633 and 1634; Map Explanation, Volume
2; GTK Consortium, 2006b) these comprise (from bottom to top) the Monte Palamuli
Rhyolite and Monte Linhanga Phonolite Formations*, including trachytic agglomerates in the
latter unit. Volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group have not been found in the area covered by
this Map Explanation, but are relevant with respect to the age of the associated sediments.
The volcanic episode of acidic rhyolitic lavas, alkaline lavas and phonolites, which
form a 300 meters thick intercalation in the Lupata Gorge, continues unexposed up to the
Zambezi Delta.

Age
Initially, the volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group have been correlated with the Upper Karoo.
No modern geochronological data are available. Older K40 - Ar40 data yield ages of ~ 106 to ~
130 Ma (Barremian-Albian; Upper Early Cretaceous; Table 9.3). The lower part of the Lupata
Group has supposedly a Late Jurassic age.

Table 9.3. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group.

Location Rock type Mineral/ Rock dated Method Age (Ma) Source
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 106±7 Gough et al. (1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 110±5 Gough et al. (1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Whole Rock K-Ar 115±10 Flores (1964)
Lupata Gorge ‘Basalt’ Feldspar K-Ar 131±10 Vail (1964, 1965)

* Kenyte is a phonolitic lava studded with one inch (=2.5 cm) anorthoclase crystals and named after type-
locality at Mt Kenya

9.4. MIDDLE – LATE CRETACEOUS (SEQUENCE 2)

9.4.1. Introduction

This sequence is again diachronous and comprises the mainly terrestrial Sena Formation*
(west) and the marine Lower and Upper Domo Shales (east). They unconformably rest on top
of the Lupata Group. The hanging wall of this sequence is formed by the intra-Senonian
unconformity, which separated this sequence from the Grudja Formation*.

9.4.2. Sena Formation* (CrS)

Introduction
The Sena Formation* is well exposed along the right bank of the Zambezi River for more
than 150 km, up to the Chire-Urema Graben in the southern Lupata Trough (Tambara,
Chemba, Mutarara-Morrumbala and Gorongosa Map Sheets, SDS 1634, 1734, 1735 and
1834; Map Explanation, Volume 2 and 3; GTK Consortium, 2006b,c). Sedimentary rocks

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assigned to the Sena Formation* overlie rocks of the Karoo Supergroup and Lupata Group or,
in places, overstep them onto the crystalline basement. The Cretaceous sands and gravels
form a flat featureless countryside. Exposures show parts of the sequence with a maximum
thickness of the profile between 30 and 40 meters. On airborne magnetic maps these rocks
show a very low magnetic susceptibility. Their natural radioactivity is moderate, but distinct
zoning can be observed in the Sena Formation* in the region between the Pompue and
Nhamapasa rivers (see Volume 2) and appears to be related to the proportion of sandy versus
clayey material. The sandy material is apparently positively correlated with the presence of
thorium-bearing minerals (zircon?).
In southeastern Zimbabwe, palaeo-current directions measured in Sena lithologies are
consistently to the S and ESE (Moore and Larkin, 2001). Continental sandstones and
conglomerates of the Sena Formation* were deposited in a setting that can be compared with
the inner margin of the modern coastal plain. Marine sediments were deposited in the outer
margin, with the main depositional basin in the vicinity of the mouth of the modern Save
River, where the sequence exceeds 1500 m of thickness in the subsurface (Moore and Larkin,
2001).

Lithology
The Sena Formation* comprises the former Grès de Sena (Sena Sandstone) and the litho-
stratigraphically equivalent Grès de Tete. The unit represents the ‘Continental Cretaceous’
and is mainly composed of conglomeratic or arkosic sandstones that are brownish in colour,
sometimes reddish, or brownish yellow to light grey. Unaltered feldspars indicate a proximal
source and/or rapid transport. The rock is barely cemented or contains carbonate cement.
Intraformational conglomerate horizons or pebble layers occur in places. Pebbles are derived
from granite, gneiss, quartzite and, sometimes, rhyolite and alkaline lavas of the Lupata
Group (Lächelt, 2004). Eluvial concentration of pebbles may give rise to pebble debris
coverage on top of the Formation* (Fig. 9.6).

Fig. 9.6. Typical pebble debris

coverage of Sena Formation* in
southern part of Volume 2 area.
Surface pebble accumulations may
form by colluvial concentration.
(0603614/ 7801479).

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The lower part of this unit comprises impure limestone layers with remnants of fossil
flora and calcareous clay stones with fragments of fish scales, arthropods and fossil flora.
Brown colours dominate and hues of red, yellow and grey occur. These conglomeratic
sandstones are massive and in places cross-bedded. Deposition is believed to have taken place
in an alluvial flood plain followed by a deposition in lacustrine environment (Lucas and
Afonso, 1965).
In the east, the presence of sub-outcropping Sena lithologies is recognised in drill hole
and seismic data. Based on deep hydrocarbon well information, an up to 2000 m thick
sequence is reported from the Zambezi Delta depression (Pinna et al, 1987) and the maximum
thickness of the Sena Formation* is estimated at ~ 3000 m. At the bottom of the drill holes
impure limestone with fossilised plant remains, or calcareous shales with fragments of plants,
fish scales and arthropods were found.
Sena lithologies have been recognised underground in the Urema Graben, where they
reach their maximum known thickness (2800 m in drill hole Inhaminga 5). They occur again
along the western flank of the Inhaminga Horst, where the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic
series cover them.
In the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1), exposures of the Sena
Formation* are restricted to the Búzi river valley on the Espungabera map sheet (SDS
2032/2033). In the Massangena map sheet, some 40 km west of Massangena village (SDS
2132), outcrops abruptly terminate, most likely by fault structures coinciding with the
streambed of the Save River at the border with Zimbabwe. Comparable outcrops exist along
the west flank of the Inhaminga horst and fringing the Cheringoma Plateau just northwest of
Inhaminga.
The GTK Consortium distinguishes three mappable units in the southern Lupata
Trough, with the status of Member, within the Sena Formation* (from bottom to top): (1)
Thorium Sandstone, (2) Basal Conglomerate and (3) Sandstone Members.

Thorium sandstone Member (CrSt)

Arkosic sandstones and polymictic conglomerates, assigned to the Thorium sandstone
Member of the Sena Formation*, are exposed along the Búzi river and its tributaries. Well-
rounded clast material of conglomerates, up to 30 cm in size, mainly comprises quartz,
quartzites, and basalts in sandstone or calcrete matrix (Figs. 9.7A and 9.7B). Locally, light
brownish to redish, massive sandstones have conglomerate horizons (Fig. 9.7C), and small,
whitish reduction spots (Fig. 9.7D).

Basal conglomerate and Sandstone Members (CrSb, CrSas)

On the SE side of the afore-mentioned Thorium sandstone Member occur conglomerates and
conglomeratic sandstones (CrSb), but more extensively there are reddish sandstones (CrSas)
characterized by high radiometric K-signature. The limits of these two units are interpretated
by new geophysical data.

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A B

C D

Fig. 9.7. (A) River bed outctop of polymictic conglomerate of the Sena Formation*, (B) Detailed photo of
conglomerate with well-rounded clasts in a calcrete matrix. Rio Vumaúze (0463051/7680567), (C)
Intraformational conglomerate horizon in sandstone of the Sena Formation* in Rio Búzi (0568177/ 7756506),
(D) Massive, coarse-clastic sandstone with small reduction spots. The Sena Formation* in Rio Save
(0447656/7642641). Scale bar is 10 cm

Age
Initially considered as ‘Undifferentiated Cretaceous’ in age (de Andrade, 1929), results of
pollen analysis of a drill core sample from a depth of between 1685 and 2987 m indicates an
Albian-Turonian age (Middle Cretaceous; ~ 112 to 93 Ma) for the Sena Sandstones. This is
confirmed by its position on top of the Lupata alkaline lavas, which have an age of 115+- Ma
(K-Ar). Only a small part belongs to the Early Cretaceous Sena Formation*, as well as the
Elefantes / Singuedeze succession and, in South Africa, the Malonga Formation14, all consist
of irregularly bedded units of coarse sandstone with pebble-streaks and massive sandy
conglomerates in places alternating with siltstone intervals showing effects of palaeo-
weathering.

9.4.3. Domo Formation*

The Lower and Upper Domo Shales are separated by an intraformational unconformity,
associated with a narrow sandstone horizon. The unit is entirely sub-outcropping and was
evidenced in drill holes located in the northern part of the Domo-Pomene and the Inharrime

14
The stratigraphic/genetic relations of the Sena and other similar looking ‘red’ formations of coarse sandstone
and conglomerate is not consistent and need improvement

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Horsts (drill hole Domo 1). It is constituted by greyish-black marl-clays or silt-clays,

deposited in a euxinic environment of a closed basin, with rare and episodic open connections
with the sea (Flores, 1961). Deposition of this Formation* commences between parallels 23°
and 25° S during the Albian-Aptian stages (~ 125 – 100 Ma). The transgressive sequence
reaches more northern areas during the Cenomanian and Turonian stages (100 – 94 Ma).
The thickness of the Early Cretaceous Domo sequence ranges from 400 (drill hole
Domo 1) to less than 250 m (drill hole Zandamela 1). North of parallel 23° S until the Beira
latitude (~ 20° S) the base of the Domo sequence seems to have an Albian age as shown by a
narrow marine succession deposited in a Graben structure (Flores, 1973).

9.5. LATE CRETACEOUS – EARLY PALAECENE (SEQUENCE 3)

9.5.1. Introduction

The Late Cretaceous – Palaeocene Sequence 3 spans the period from the Campanian-
Maastrichtian till the Palaeocene, approximately from 80 till 56 Ma. It corresponds to the time
of deposition of the Lower and Upper Grudja, separated by the Early Palaeocene
unconformity and hiatus, in the western part of the Mozambique Basin coeval with the
deposition of marine shales and deep water carbonates in the eastern part and off-shore. The
footwall of the sequence is formed by the intra-Senonian unconformity and hiatus (Fig. 9.2).
The hanging wall contact is by Early Eocene unconformity and hiatus.

9.5.2. Grudja Formation* (CrG)

Introduction
Most of the rock exposures attributed to the Grudja (Sandstone) Formation* occur in a narrow
NE-SW directed belt in Map Sheets Inhaminga-Marromeu (SDS 1835) and Beira (SDS 1934)
(Map Explanation, Volumes 3 and 2; GTK Consortium, 2006c,b). In the area covered by this
Map Explanation (Volume 1) the unit is found in the northeastern part of Map Sheet
Espungabera-Chibabava (SDS 2032/2033) and northwestern part of Map Sheet Nova-
Mambone (SDS 2034) where its forms a narrow, elongated NE-SW oriented strip, ~ 20 km in
length and 3 km wide, resting on top of Sena conglomeratic sandstones along the western
escarpment near Chiboma village.

Lithology
The Grudja Formation* consists of marine strata starting with a basal bed with Alectryonia
ungulata, which is used as a marker-horizon separating the Grudja from the Sena Formation*.
The Grudja Formation* is composed of calcarenites or glauconitic calcarenites, yellow-
greenish in colour, with rare interbedded limestones (Moura et al. 1968). The rocks contain an
abundance of microfossils that in the lower marly-silty part is characterised by the presence of
Alectronya ungulate and Hexogyres and, to the top, by a fauna containing various species of
foraminifera including Cibicides sp., Nodosaria sp., Marginulina sp., Robulus sp. (Flores,
1964).

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Field observations demonstrate a transgressive passage from the terrestrial Sena

brownish coarse-grained sandstones to marine Grudja terrains composed of fine-grained
sandstones, siltstones and argillitic sandstones (Fig. 9.8). Basal strata comprise marine
yellowish coarse-grained sandstone and yellowish or reddish siltstones with abundant fossils
at the base (Alectryonia ungulata, Ostrea sp., Cardium sp., Cardita sp. and fragments of
Inoceramus sp.). At observation station 10736-04 fossils of Cardium sp. have been observed
and collected. The above sandstones are covered by fine-grained calcareous sandstones,
yellowish to whitish grey siltstones and fine-grained, yellowish to light grey glauconitic
sandstones with Gryphea vesicularis, Gryphea convexa, Veniella forbesiana, Baculites cf.
vagina, Obulus sp., briozoa, fish teeths, Cibicides sp., Nodosaria sp., Marginulina sp.,
ostracoda, etc. Medium- to coarse-grained, white, and sometimes conglomeratic calcarenites
with marine macrofauna occur in places (NW part of SDS 2034). These may contain small
mafic rock fragments.

Fig. 9.8 Fossiliferous calcarenites of

the Grudja Formation*. West of the
Estaquinha village (0607804/
7790007). Scale bar is 10 cm.

The Grudja Formation* continues and thickens in the subsurface towards the east,
being almost 1400 m in the Búzi 1 drill hole, ~ 900 m and 600 m in the Nhamura 1 and
Sangussi Marin drill holes, > 900 m in the Sofala 1 and Nemo 1 drill holes, > 1000 m in the
Pande 1 drill hole and 700 m in the Balane 1 drill hole. The Grudja Formation* is mostly
hosted by an elongated N-S through extending from the Zambezi to the Save River. In the
region south of Vilankulos, however, the sequence shows a strongly reduced thickness
(Flores, 1973). Between the Save and Limpopo Rivers, no information is available.

9.5.3. Incomanini Formation* (CrI)

Introduction
A sequence of calcarenites is developed below the Quaternary cover south of the Massintonto
River. These rocks are known as the Incomanini Series and termed Incomanini Formation* in
this Map Explanation. South of 26°S, between the Movene and Maputo Rivers, there exist
also calcarenites. They are equivalents to those of the Incomanini Formation* and younger
than the Cenomanian Mapicane sandstones, described by Förster (1975).

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Lithology
The rock is mainly composed of well-fossilised marine calcarenites with occasional
polymictic conglomeratic horizons (Nunes and Oberholzer, 1959). They present
lammelibranchea, gastropoda (Turrilites), and baculites (Moura and Oberholzer, 1969), which
can be considered as the equivalents of the Grudja Formation*, in age and in depositional
environment. The thickness of conglomeratic beds ranges 0.5 – 1.5 m and diameter of
individual clasts is up 15 cm (Figs. 9.9 and 9.10). Calcareous beds seem to be narrower than
the conglomeratic ones. Outcrops of the Incomanini Formation occur 10 km north of the
Sabie village, in the map sheet SDS 2531/2532).

Fig. 9.9. Almost horizontal sandstone

beds of the Incomanini Formation*.
Between them occur narrow
calcareous layers. 12 km North of
Sabie village (0428467/ 7207368).

A B

Fig. 9.10. Congolomerates of the Incomanini Formation*. (A) Close-up photo of conglomerate layer, which
comprises granitoid boulders and shells. (0428467/7207368), (B) Microphotograph of conglomeratic
sandstone, which comprises granite clast (middle to lower part of photo). 12 km North of Sabie village.
(0428467/ 7207368). Number plate is ~ 8 cm, width of the microphoto is 20 mm.

Age
Rennie (1936) attributed the lammelibranchea fauna of this unit to the Late Cretaceous.

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Undifferentiated Cretaceous (CrM)

South of the Limpopo river (SDS 2431/2432 and 2531/2532), along Karoo age basalts and
rhyolites of the Movene Formation, a marine intercalation is found in continental sandstones
of the terminal Cretaceous. These are the Uanéteze sandstones with conglomeratic and silty
levels that are sporadically exposed in the valleys of the Singuédeze, Elefantes, Uanéteze and
Massintonto rivers (Flores, 1961). These littoral deposits, up to100 m in thickness, with
fluvial influences were dated by Alectronya ungulate and are correlated with the bottom of the
Grudja Formation* more to the north (Flores, 1961). In the map produced by the GTK
Consortium, these rocks, among certain others, have been incorporated into ‘Undifferentiated
Cretaceous’(Fig. 9.11).

Fig. 9.11. Calcareous sandstone of

the 'Undifferentiated Cretaceous' unit.
East of the Sabie village (0429980/
7200707).

Age
Based on fossil content a Senonian (Coniacian till Maastrichtian or ~ 90 to 65 Ma) age is
attributed to the bulk of the Grudja Formation*. In a few locations, e.g., the northern part of
the Baixo Zambeze and Save/Limpopo Basins, Grudja-facies sedimentation of glauconitic
sands continued into the early Palaeocene. A similar situation is reported from the western
side of the Inhaminga Horst, where 20 meters of glauconitic marly sandstones with
Nummulites, Exogyra and Operculina are found on the top of the Grudja Formation*. The
same happens in the Buzi plateau, and eastwards in depth (Flores, 1964; 1965). These
Palaeocene rocks are included into the Grudja Formation*.

9.6. PALEOCENE-PLIOCENE (SEQUENCES 4 AND 5)

9.6.1. Introduction

In the eastern and offshore part of the Mozambique Basin, marine sedimentation continued
without interruptions. In the western part, this phase of basin development started with a
Palaeocene to Early Eocene hiatus and unconformity, and terminates with an intra-Oligocene
and Late Oligocene unconformity and hiatus. It reached several regions in the Save-Limpopo

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Basin. South of the Limpopo river, it reached the Pequenos Libombos mountains. These
comprises the Mapai Formation* near the Libombos range (see Sequence 4, Table 9.1).
South of Maputo, the marine Miocene is represented by sandstones and limestones,
which crop out along the Tembe River. They are littoral deposits, enriched in fossils,
sometimes showing coral reef facies (Moura and Oberholzer, 1969). North of Maputo, the
Miocene marine formations are described between the Incomáti and Uanéteze River valleys.
Close to Mangulane, in the margins of the Incomáti River, the Santiago limestones present
intercalations of fossiliferous sandstones (Spondylus, Teredo and Ostrea), dated as Miocene
(Borges et al. 1939). Sequence 5 spans the Oligocene to Pliocene period with deposition of
the exposed Mangulane, Inhaminga, Jofane, Inharrime and Ponta Vermelha Formations*.
Other formations such as the ‘Zambezi Deltaic Complex’ in the East are only known from
hydrocarbon wells. With deposition in one place, erosion and redeposition occurred elsewhere
(Mamad, 2005).

9.6.2. Mapai Formation* (TeA)

Introduction
The Mapai Formation* is mainly exposed in the western part of Mozambique, along the low-
angle valley slopes of the Limpopo, Uanètzi, Singuédzi Rivers, Baragem de Massingir and the
Rio dos Elefantes (SDS 2231, 2232, 2331/2332 and 2431/2432). In west it unconformably
onlaps in places the Lebombo volcanics. The unit is covered by Mazamba arkosic sandstones
or, in only a few locations, Inhaminga purple sandstones. Overall, the Mapai Formation*
underlies a flat featureless landscape characterized by thin cover of aeolian sands and eluvial
fooldplain clayey sands (Fig. 9.12).
However, near the dam of Massingir (SDS 2331/2332) the nature of the lowermost
Mapai unit against beneath fossil-rich sedimentary rocks is unclear. These fossilerous rocks at
bottom, from which a detailed profile in shown in Appendix 5, may have correlations with the
Cretaceous Grujda Formation (see Flores 1961). Regional scale stratigraphic cross-section of
the Mapai Formation is shown in Fig. 9.13.

Fig. 9.12. Featureless landscape one

kilometer E of the Limpopo river,
SW of the village of Mapai.

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Regional scale E-W trending stratigraphic section along rocks

situated north of the town of Massingir

Location of the cross-section in SDS 2331/2332

Eluvial floodplain mud and sand
Aeolian sand
Mazamba Formation
Mapai Formation:
. MASSINGIR 1. Upper part
2. Middle part
3.
Lower part

Fracture zone

Fig. 9.13. E-W trending ~100 km long stratigraphic section across the Paleocene Mapai Formation and overlying sedimentary formations situating north of the
Massingir town. Note that the position of detailed mapped section called ‘Profile of Massingir’ (see Appendix 5) is marked in the section.

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General lithology
Field verification by the GTK Consortium has identified six mappable sub-units coded as
TeA. The mapping of the units was possible because Rio Limpopo, Rio Singuédzi and Rio
dos Elefantes form rather deep (>100 m) channels at places within the region in more or less
horizontal sedimentary rocks.
From a sedimentological point of view, it is, however, difficult to use this subdivision
in a genetic sense. These deposits consist of very coarse braided alluvials made-up of mid-
channel bars (the pebbly and conglomerate intervals) and the inter-channel areas dominated
by finer sands and siltstones. Limestone-dominated lithologies may correspond with periods
of flooding or higher sea level. The members (sub-units) have been attributed the following
codes (from top to bottom):
Upper Limestone (TeAul)
Upper Sandstone (TeAuc)
Middle Sandstone (TeAcs)
Middle Limestone (TeAml)
Lower Sandstone (TeAlc)
Basal Limestone (TeAbl)

East-west -trending, ~100 km long profile across the Mapai Formation sub-units
situated north of the Massingir town is in Fig. 9.13. Moreover, about 25 meters high profile,
mapped in detail in lowest part of the Mapai Formation* rocks at Massingir is presented in
Appendix 5. Relative thickness of the uppermost Mapai sub-units indicates, in the N-S
direction, an inferred stratigraphical order shown in Table 9.4.

Table 9.14. Simplified stratigraphic order of the uppermost Mapai Formation sub-units TeAul, TeAuc and
TeAcs and the overlying Mazamba Formation (TeZ) in a 100 km long N-S trending section from the map
sheet SDS 2231, 2232 to sheet SDS 2331/2332.

TeZ
TeAul
TeAuc

TeAcs

North South

Lithology
The oldest stratigraphic unit, called as the Basal Limestone Member (TeAbl), comprises
sandy to silty limestones, which crop out along the Lebombo monocline north of the
Massingir dam. They represent the lowermost sedimentary unit of the Mapai Formation*,
deposited on the Karoo volcanic rocks (Fig. 9.13). These limestones are grayish and only
weakly banded, forming low, rounded outcrops (Fig. 9.14). Based on one chemical analysis
made, the CaO content is about 25 %. (see Table 2, App. 4).

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The Lower Sandstone Member (TeAlc) comprises polymictic conglomerates, which

are characterized by calcareous matrix (Fig. 9.15). The boulders are mostly composed of
rhyolites and quartz-rich rocks, but also large clasts of granitoids, mafic volcanics, and BIF-
type rocks are found. The lowermost sub-unit near the dam of Massingir comprises also
fossils (see Appendix 5); in fact this part may represent an older formation.

Fig. 9.14. Outcrop of the Basal

Limestone Member of the
Mapai Formation* at the
South African border, north of
the Gaza Camp (0345392/
7458524).

Fig. 9.15. Part of 15 m high

section of polymictic
conglomerate with calcareous
matrix. The Lower Sandstone
Member of the Mapai
Formation*. Rio Singuédzi
(0389798/ 7389888). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

Compared to the outcrops of Basal Sandstone Member nearby, which are usually
found in the river channels, rocks assigned to the Middle Limestone Member (TeAml) occur
on higher altitudes. These rocks are impure limestones, and obviously do not form vertically
notable units (Fig. 9.16).

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Fig. 9.16. Sandy carbonate

rock of the Middle Limestone
Member of the Mapai
Formation*. North of the
Massingir village. (0391108/
7385791). Scale bar is 10 cm

Near the Mapai village, about 200 km NNE of the Massingir dam, discontinuous
exposures of variegated white-grey, coarse-grained, bioturbated sandstone of the Middle
Sandstone Member (TeAcs) are found, exposed in the banks of the Limpopo river. The total
exposed interval measures ~ 50 m of vertical thickness. In upward-steps of 3 m, this interval
shows:
• White, coarse-grained, well-sorted sandstone with a calcareous matrix, massive
texture and with vertical, dm-scale burrows;
• As before, but more fine-grained, in places with a reddish colour;
• Gradual upward transition into calcareous siltstone with white and variegated red
colours;
• Passing upwards into pure red siltstone with cm-thick calcrete streaks and laminae;
• Higher-up appears again white, coarse-grained sandstone with occasional cm-large
pebbles.

There are irregular, coarse bedded (~20 to 100 cm), horizontal to weakly tilted
sequence of sandstones, pebbly sandstones and intraformational conglomerate horizons,
alternating with sandy siltstone intervals. Sandstones and conglomerates are predominantly
ferruginous and have brick-red colours with, in places, bleached white zones due to carbonate
redeposition (Fig. 9.17). These whiter calcrete-coated horizons mostly affect the medium- to
coarse-grained sandstones, presumably as a result of their higher porosity and permeability.
Well-preserved burrows are frequently observed. These sub-vertical burrows are often oval-
shaped, up to one cm in diameter and 5 to 20 cm long.

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A B

Fig. 9.17. (A) Typical metre-scale alternation of greyish-green and reddish ferruginous sandstone, pebbly
sandstone and sandy silt with local bioturbation. The Mapai Formation* near the Limpopo river (0395863/
7474034). (B) Details of previous photograph. Reducing fluids along fractures and joints have caused colour
differences. Traces of tri-valent iron (ferri) produce reddish colours; bi-valent iron (ferro) produces grey-
greenish colours. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Going in a SE direction along the Limpopo river, similar scattered outcrops can be
found containing irregularly distributed red and white, coarse-grained calcareous sandstones
with minor pebble horizons, alternating with bioturbated, red silty fine-grained sandstone.
Vague dm-scale bedding can be observed in places. In a wider area, S of the Limpopo,
weathered breccias are irregularly distributed and occur as metre-sized pockets, in or around
gravelly sandstones. The breccias contain dm- to cm-scale, unsorted clasts derived from
sandstone, calcrete and ferricrete that are set in a ferruginous siltstone matrix.

Fig. 9.18. Fine-grained silty

sandstone of the Mapai
Formation*. Note angularity
of clastic grains, 0.01 to 0.2
mm in size. Thin section,
plane light. (0413742/
7359226).

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Microscopically, the rock is composed of fine argillaceous matter, fossil fragments and
clastic grains. The latter are usually angular to sub-rounded quartz grains. Plagioclase is less
abundant (Fig. 9.18). Conglomeratic horizons are composed of quartz or minor plagioclase
fragments in a carbonate matrix (Fig. 9.19).
These coarse-grained immature deposits were laid down as broad sandy braid-plains,
draining the westward, up-scarp margin of the Kaapvaal Craton and Lebombo volcanics.
These near-coastal plains and playas typically consisted of low-relief, braided sandy channels,
mid-channel pebble-bars and inter-channel (non-channelised) areas with overbank silt
deposition and incipient weathering and soil formation. Episodically, these braid-plains
became inundated as result of storm-driven floods or rising sea level, temporarily turning the
system into a sandy tidal flat. Ophiomorpha-type bioturbation indicates shallow marine to
coastal conditions at the time of formation. Bioturbation predominates in the medium- to
coarse-grained and often calcareous sandstone intervals and is far less prominent in silty
intervals. It should be noted, however, that similar forms have also been attributed to rhizo-
concretions (Botha and de Wit, 1996).

A B

Fig. 9.19. Micro-conglomerate composed of sub-rounded to angular pebbles of vein quartz or feldspar. The
matrix is largely composed of fine-grained carbonate with grain sizes of 0.1 to 0.2 mm. (A) Plane light, (B)
Crossed nicols. The Mapai Formation*. N of the Massingir village (0414022/ 7355193).

The Upper Sandstone Member (TeAuc) comprises conglomerates (Fig. 9.20), but size
and amount of boulders are smaller compared to those found of the Lower Sandstone
Member. The matrix is here also, rather rich in calcium. In areas east of the Massingir town
(SDS 2331/2332), particularly on the western slope of the Limpopo river valley occur impure
limestones (Upper Limestone Member, TeAul). These rocks are grayish in colour and may
form interlayers within the Upper Sandstone Member.

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Fig. 9.20. Conglomeratic

sandstone of the Upper
Sandstone Member of the
Mapai Formation*. Note the
segregated veins of carbonate-
rich material. (0461734/
7363364). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Coarse-clastic conglomerates, reported from the South African side of the border, have
been interpreted as alluvial fan deposits (Malongo Formation; Botha and de Wit, 1996). These
very coarse deposits are here considered as gravel bed channels, stream floods and debris-
flows, representing proximal alluvial fans. The less coarse, time-equivalent rocks around the
Massingir dam represent the more distal fan-toes and braided fluvial deposits that on their
turn grade into braid-plains towards the Limpopo area. Particularly at and near the Massingir
town, there are conglomerate layers, exposed on the top of hills (Figs. 9.21 and 9.22).
However, the nature and startigraphic position of these conglomerates – do they belong to the
Mapai Formation or perhaps represent an individual succession – is not clear.

Fig. 9.21. Coarse-grained

conglomerate above the Mapai
Formation. The highest hill of
the Massingir town
(0414109/7355542). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

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Fig. 9.22. Channel-like deposit

(brown upper part of the cliff),
composed of conglomerates
and sandstones, crosscuts
sedimentary units of the Mapai
Formation*. The Massingir
village.

Formation of duricrust and related features, such as solution and re-deposition of

carbonate with formation of calcrete coatings, indicates incipient pedogenic processes, but
post-date deposition. The observed colour changes, due to redox reactions (ferro ↔ ferri),
may be both primary and secondary.

Age
No studies of the fossils found in the Mapai Formation* rocks are available. It is supposed
that the sedimentary rocks of the Mapai Formation* are Paleocene in age, and at the same
time refer to oldest Tertiary succession in the Map Explanation area. However, basal layers of
the Mapai Formation in the valley of Elefantes river near Massingir town (SDS 2331/2332),
may have correlation to the Cretaceous Grudja Formation (cf. Flores 1961).

9.6.3. Mangulane Formation* (TeM)

Introduction
The Mangulane Formation* comprises two members; that of the Magude Member, which is
composed of ferruginous sandstones, and that of the Sandy Limestone Member.

Magude Member (TeMm)

Brownish, ferrugenous sandstones of the Magude Member occur below the railway bridge at
the Magude village (Fig. 9.23). The tens of meters high profile comprises polymictic
conglomerate layers. The rock is mostly unbedded and matrix re-deposited. The size of clasts
varies 1 – 10 cm. These fragments are set in a silty to fine sandy matrix.
The depositional environment is one of channel and interchannel areas on the lower
reaches of a braid-plain. Intermittant flooding and exposure and episodic erosion could have
led to formation of duricrusts and redeposition fabrics. A notable fault zone in direction of
070° limits the SE boundary of the rocks.

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Fig. 9. 23. Conglomerate layer

in ferrigenous sandstone. The
Magude Member of the
Mangulane Formation*.
Railway bridge in the Magude
village (0465250/7231797).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Limestone Member (TeMl)

In addition to the old Mangulane limestone quarry area, exposures of sandy limestones of the
Limestone Member occur near the quarry, on the slope of a hill situated on the eastern side on
the Lake Mandjaringa. Here the rock is greyish in colour and relative homogeneous (Fig.
9.24). The limestone is covered by a few meters of slightly reddish sand. Chemical
composition of the rock is shown in Table 2 of Appendix 4.

Fig. 9.24. Weathering surface

of light coloured sandy
limestone. The outcrop is
located 5 km north of the
abandoned Magude limestone
quarry (0440473/7198122).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

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9.6.4. Tembe Formation* (TeT)

The sedimentary rocks of the Tembe Formation* seem to be closely associated with the
Maputo Formation*, particularly in areas south of the Boane town. The outcrops of the
Tembe Formation* are relative rare; in southern Mozambique only some half dozen places are
known. The best ones occur at the river banks of Rio Tembe (SDS 2632).
The Tembe sedimentary rocks can broadly be divided into two units. First, there are
sandy, silty limestones, relative homogeneous in appearance (Fig. 9.25). They are yellowish
brown to greyish in colour and show weak bedding, 10 – 40 cm in thickness. Macroscopic
fossils are rare. Near the main road from Boane to the town of Bela Vista, these rocks are
situated below the fossiliferous Maputo Formation*. Secondly, there are fossiliferous
sandstones and silty marls, greyish in colour (Fig. 9.26). Locally these sedimentary rocks are
silicified and thus rather hard.

Fig. 9.25. Silty limestone of

the Tembe Formation*.
Outcrop with almost
horizontal bedding at the bank
of a small river, 15 km south
of the Boane town. (0433282/
7104414).

A B

Fig. 9.26. Fossiliferous sandstone of the Tembe Formation*. (A) Close up photo of silicified sandstone, (B)
Microphoto of the same rock. NE of the Porto Henrique village (0439272/ 7091052). Scale bar is 10 cm and
width of microphoto is 4 mm.

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9.6.5. Inhaminga Formation* (TeI)

Introduction
Eocene rocks of the Cheringoma Formation* on the Cheringoma Plateau are covered, in
places, by rocks belonging to the Inhaminga (Purple Sandstone) and Mazamba (Sandstone)
Formations*, heralding a new marine transgression. Best outcrops of purple Inhaminga
sandstones are situated along the Massamba river (outside the mapped area), about 25 km
southwest of the Inhaminga town (SDS 1834), where they cover large parts of the
Cheringoma Plateau, and furthermore in the northwest corner of map sheet
Marromeu/Inhaminga (SDS 1835). In the area covered by this Map Explanation, the unit
occurs as a small polygon in the eastern bank of the Limpopo river (SDS 2331/2332). The
unit rests discordantly on top of the Mapai Formation* and is covered by Quaternary
floodplain muds.

Lithology
The unit comprises a basal part composed of fine- to medium-grained, argillitic, micaceous
sandstones with bright red to creamy colours. Bedding is generally not well visible in the
rock, which contains small fossils of gastropods and bivalves. The upper part of the unit is
coarser grained, including some rolled pebbles of generally angular vein quartz. The content
of mica is lower than in the basal part of the sequence.
At Sambize river, located 65 km southwest of Massamba river, the succession starts
with a coarse-grained conglomerate with pebbles and boulders of granite, gneiss, quartzite
and basalt. These are cemented by a sandstone matrix, which, in places, is cemented itself by
carbonate. Overlying these conglomerates, yellow or grey, fine- to medium-grained, very
micaceous sandstones with rare Nummulites, are found. They are followed by medium-
grained, micaceous sandstones, purple in colour, also with Nummulites. On the top exist
reddish, fine-grained sandstones with lamellibranquia and gastropoda. Within the fossils are
identified Turritela sp., Ostra sp., Protocardia sp., and Pecten sp., as well as small
crustaceous and foraminifera (Quinqueloculina, Robulus, and Cancris). These fossils and the
associated lithological characteristics indicate the deposition in littoral marine environment,
possibly with deltaic intercalations.

Age
The Inhaminga Formation* is probably of Early Miocene in age.

9.6.6. Maputo Formation* (TeP)

Introduction
The Maputo Formation* comprises a range of lithologies including sandstones,
conglomerates and sandy limestones. Fossils are relative common in the rocks. The
sandstones include more than 15 % of fine-grained matrix, and may be called as greywackes.
Further studies may show that the Maputo Formation* can be subdivided members.

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Regional appearance
A sequence of thin-bedded glauconitic sandstones with limestone nodules is exposed in the
left bank of the Maputo river, up to the South African border (Bela Vista Map Sheet, SDS
2632). The transgression progressed from south to north and from east to west and,
consequently, glauconitic sandstones rest directly on the top of weathered Karoo basalts in the
western exposures. Presenting a thickness of ~ 200 m close to the left bank of the Maputo
river, the unit peters out towards north, disappearing in the surroundings of the Boane town.
In this sector, the obvious Early Cretaceous transgression apparently halted near the 26° S
parallel. Between the Maputo river and Boane, north of Machavire, the Early Cretaceous
outcrops are sparse with small exposures in the valleys of the Mazeminhama, Tembe and
Mahube rivers. West of the Chalala village occur also Aptian limestones and sandy
marlstones with glauconite.
Towards the NE, the Maputo Formation* is sub-outcropping, and attains a more open
marine facies. It reaches a thickness of ~ 250 m in the Palmeira Graben (drill hole Sunray 1-
A) (see Figs. 9.3 and 9.4). Further NE, the unit is reduced to 70 m (drill hole Sunray 7-1) and
it is draped over a palaeo-high, separated from another basinal structure, the so-called
Mozambique South Graben or Xai-Xai Graben (see Fig. 9.4), where the unit was identified in
seismological data (Lafourcade, 1984). Towards the east and north, it follows the palaeo-
relief imposed by the ‘highs’ and ‘lows’ with a thickness of 300 m over the Zandamela High
(drill hole Zandamela 1), and 200 m over the Inharrime High (drill hole Sunray 12).
Towards the centre of the actual Mozambique Basin, the extent of the Early
Cretaceous Maputo Formation* in depth is conditioned by the development of the roughly
parallel, N-S directed deep rift structures, i.e., the Mazenga (east) and Funhalouro Grabens
(west), during the Neocomian (= lower part Early Cretaceous). Drilling operations at
Mazenga, south of the graben, identified a very thick marine sequence (> 1000 m), deposited
between the Hauterivian and the Albian, based on dating of calcareous nannofossils
(Lafourcade, 1984). A similar situation is encountered in the southern and central parts of the
Funhalouro Graben where Neocomian and Albian sediments have been identified
(Funhalouro drill hole). In the northern part of the Funhalouro Graben, the section (drill hole
Balane 1) presented sediments with a more continental facies and a younger Albian and Late
Cretaceous age (Flores, 1961). In this portion of the Mozambique Basin, the Cretaceous
transgression took place over a strongly weathered erosion surface of Karoo volcanics with a
reduction of the thickness of the unit over pre-Cretaceous ridges, recognised close to the
coastline, i.e., the Domo-Pomene Horst and Inharrime Horst, respectively.

Lithology
The Maputo Formation* is often constituted by glauconitic clay-marl sandstones (Fig. 9.27),
greyish-greenish to brownish in colour, with coarse tuffaceous material at the base, covered
by greyish calcareous sandstones with fossilised nodules containing ammonites
(Mortoniceras subgroup, Deiradoceras, Hoplitidae). Facies and fossil content of these
deposits are representative of a littoral to open circa-littoral environment. Noteworthy is that
some rounded small (Ø 1–4 cm) boulders of rhyolitic rocks are found in the ammonite-rich
horizons. These boulders could have ‘travelled’ into deep environments during turbiditic mass
flows.

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The textural and compositional variations of the Maputo Formation* rocks can be
observed near the village of Catuane. On the western side of the village occur fine-grained,
rather hard greywacke sandstones (Fig. 9.28), but on the eastern side conglomeratic,
brownish, fossiliferous sandstones dominate (Fig. 9.29).

A B

Fig. 9.27. (A) Weathered of grey-yellowish, silty marlstones of Maputo Formation*, containing horizons with
abundant macrofossils like ammonites, nautiloids and mega-bivalves. These deposits have been supposedly
deposited as suspension deposits in medium to deep marine waters, well below the level of wave action. The
white streaks are due to mobilisation and redeposition of carbonate. It is possible that the upper part of the
deposit is a proximal turbidite or mass flow (without granoclassification). Some rounded rhyolitic clasts 1 – 3
cm in diameter are found here. The ‘mud balls’ that can be seen everywhere in the photograph can be
compared with slump balls. Note the absence of bedding and the hazardous distribution of slump balls in the
upper part of the outcrop, (B) Concretion completely composed of skeletal fragments, including ammonites of
which some belong to acanthoceratids, manifesting an Albian or Turonian age. 10 km south of the Boane
town (0433676/ 7104975). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Fig. 9.28. Microtexture of fine-

grained sandstone of the Maputo
Formation*, located about 5 km west
of the Catuane village
(0424739/7034224). Width of
microphoto is 4 mm.

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Fig. 9.29. Fossiliferous conglomeratic

sandstone of the Maputo Formation*.
5 km NE of the Catuane village
(0431408/7032884). GPS is 14 cm
long.

Overall depositional setting

Outcrops rarely have more then 2 m of vertical exposure. A common aspect of these outcrops
in the eastern Maputo province is that they are well stratified on a dm-scale, are calcareous
and have yellowish tinge. Skeletal fauna and intense bioturbation indicate shallow marine
conditions in the photic zone. The dominant grey-yellowish appearance points to reducing
conditions. The high content of broken shells are the result of constant sorting and winnowing
of skeletal material as may occur in a high-energy surf zone at depths of 5 to 10 meters. The
overall setting is shallow marine, high-energy upper shoreface not far off the coast. The
palaeo coastline is visualised as north-south with a shallow sea deepening towards the east
and south. The coastline may have been a rocky one, constituted by hard volcanic cliffs.

Age
The presence in the southern occurrences of a fauna comprising pelecypodes, gastropodes and
ammonites [Creoceratites barremensis (Kilian) and C. cf. thiollierei (Astier)] indicate a Late
Barremian (Mid Early Cretaceous) age (cf. Förster, 1981). Deposition in the northern
occurrences commenced in the Albo-Aptian (Middle Cretaceous). An Early Albian hiatus is
found in places. The presence of the Mid Albian is confirmed by the Douvilleiceras cf.
mammillatum (Förster, 1975). Near the Catuane village, the Late Albian age is confirmed by
the presence of Anisoceras and Myloceras (Ferreira da Silva, 1970).
In the old 1:250 000 scale geological map sheet Maputo from 1969 compiled by
‘Serviços de Geologia e Minas da Provincia de Moçambique’ the Maputo Formation is
Cretaceous in age. However, in the new maps compiled by GTK Consortium the Maputo
Formation is supposed to have Paleogene age.

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9.6.7. Boane Formation* (TeB)

Introduction
Rocks attributed to the Boane Formation* (previously Boane Sandstone Formation) are
exposed in a few small polygons around and south of the Boane town. The type locality is
located near the railway bridge, directly south of the village (0432631/7118363).
The Boane formation has not been dated. It is here supposed to be Paleocene in age –
in comparison to Cretaceous age in 1:250 000 scale geological maps from 1960s compiled by
‘Serviços de Geologia e Minas da Provincia de Moçambique’.

Lithology
Deep brownish-red, friable siltstone and slightly sandy siltstone, seen in an E-W trending
profile, have a structural dip of 8º E (Fig. 9.30). Siltstones display bed sets of some 50 cm in
thickness, and show dm- to metre-scale low-angle cross-bedding and soft sediment
deformation. The features resembling overturned bedding are in fact result of water flows
trough the sediment (Fig. 9.31). Planar cross-bed sets are generally dipping towards the SE
with a dip of 19°. Locally, these siltstones contain isolated pebbles or cm-thick pebble layers,
containing rounded granules, small and large pebbles. These extraclasts are largely of
rhyolitic and basaltic origin.

Fig. 9.30. Railway bridge outcrop just S of Boane. Ferruginous siltstone showing slumping and loadcasting
within a metre-thick zone bounded by an upper and lower slide-plain (see arrows). Gravity transport was
towards the north. Mottling stains in upper part of profile (blue arrow) are due to recent rootlet-induced
reduction and weathering. View to NW.

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Texturally these siltstones are highly immature and consist of a deeply weathered
feldspathic framework resulting in a friable, poorly consolidated rock. Within the 7 m high
profile, a few cm-thick, compacted clayey layers acted as detachment surfaces over which
gravity sliding took place. Tight slump folds and over-turned bedding characterise the
detached intervals (a few dm to one metre thick). A vertical trend in grain size
(granoclassification) is absent. The upper part of the outcrop features cm- to dm-size, grey-
greenish reduction spots (mottling) of recent origin.
The lower contact is not exposed in the Boane area, but weathered basaltic rocks occur
in the river bank close by. Coarse-clastic conglomerate, covering the spheroidally weathered
top of a thick basaltic lava flow of the Movene Formation* about 500 m NE of the Pequenos
Libombos dam, possibly also belongs to the Boane Formation*. The upper contact is non-
conformable and is defined by three metres of sand/clay-matrix supported conglomerate of
Miocene age, consisting of pebbles and dm-sized boulders.
These highly immature, thoroughly weathered siltstones are derived from distal (peri)
volcanic erosion products, including tuffs. Combined traction (channel) and gravity sliding
took place on an unstable, low-angle slope dipping towards the east. Some traction transport
and deposition was shortly followed by gravity sliding. This scenario supposedly reflects an
unstable continental margin during incipient rifting.

Fig. 9.31. Ferruginous siltstone of the

Boane Formation*, where fold-like
structures (note ghost horizontal
bedding in background) are result of
water flows through the porous rock,
just below upper slide plain (see Fig.
9.30). Compass is 12 cm long.

South of the famous ‘railway bridge outcrop’ comprising Boane Formation* rocks of
Fig. 9.30, there occur two relative similar looking siltstones, the stratigraphic position of
which is unknown, however. First of them is located ~ 6 km SW of the bridge, and has
approximately same altitude, outcropping on a small hill. This rock is relative massive and
yellow brownish in colour (Fig. 9.32A). Another exposure is located further south and is
surrounded by the Movene basalts. Here, it is supposed that sedimentation took place in a
trench (see map sheet Bela-Vista, 2632). The rock is reddish brown in colour with some
greyish patches. (Fig.9.32B). However, the rock is a silty limestone although it resembles
siltstone. CaO content is high, 30 % (Table 2 of App. 4). The rock has been used as surface
aggregate on the local roads.

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In the new geological map these two rock types are interpreted to represent products of
the same Paleogene sedimentary event that resulted in the Boane siltstones.

A B

Fig. 9.32. Sedimentary rocks, which are supposed to have about the same age as the Boane Formation*. (A)
Siltstone, which forms a small hill 6 km SW of the Boane town (0429810/ 7113429), (B) Silty limestone,
which resembles a siltstone. SE of the Changalane village (0426412/ 7085565). Scale bar is 8 cm.

9.6.8. Salamanga Formation* (TeS)

Introduction
In the south of the Mozambique Basin, the marine Eocene forms two groups of outcrops: the
first elongated between the valleys of the Uanéteze and Massintonto Rivers, between parallels
24° and 25° south. These are limestone with shells, attributed to the Palaeogene according to
their fauna. South of parallel 26° south, sandstones, marls and mainly glauconitic fossiliferous
limestone occurs in Salamanga and Santaca regions, in the banks of the Maputo River and
overlaying discordantly the Late Cretaceous formations. They represent a littoral
environment. These beds have the same age as the Cheringoma Formation* but belong to a
more littoral depositional environment. The large, broadly E-W oriented Salamanga quarry is
probably the best outcrop south of the Save river. The Salamanga Formation* comprise two
units on the new maps: (1) the fossiliferous limestone described above and (2) a younger
reddish sandstone, which is in appearance partly loose sand.

Lithology
The main limestone unit, with an exposed, estimated thickness of 10 m, is composed of pure,
skeletal grainstone deposits with shell fragments of many different marine species (Fig. 9.33).
The rocks show metre-scale mega-foresets or clinoforms that dip to the ESE. Limestones are
dirty yellow to pale grey-white, the beds range 10 – 60 cm in thickness, averaging 40 cm.
Cm-sized vertical burrows exist. Karst holes are one to four cm in diameter and can be
considered as over-sized solution washouts along previously existing rootlets and clay-
pebbles. This unit has a planar, abrupt upper contact with a white, nummulitic massive
limestone unit. The overlying unit gradually thickens towards the east, from ~ 2 m up to 6
meters.

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Fig. 9.33. Examples of fossils from

nummulitic grainstone in the
B C Salamanga quarry. (A) Giant
gastropod shell fragments, (B
Ammonite, (C) Cm-size, coated
calcrete and speleotheme fragments
(karst-induced solution-collapse),
re-sedimented within coarse
nummulitic grainstone. Also note
abundant (recent) solution
phenomena. The Salamanga quarry
(0466231/ 7076279). Match box is 5
cm, pencil is 12 cm.

In a vertical profile a threefold division is apparent, i.e., a massive white-greyish lower

unit of 6 m, overlain by hard limestone with solution holes (solution pitting). On top exists a
more grey-white, nummulitic unit with 10 to 20 cm-thick cross-beds dipping in various
directions (Fig. 9.34). The upper abrupt contact is a karst profile and is overlain either by a
deep red (carbonate-leached), sandy unit or a dark, wine-red to brown, massive siltstone with
characteristic ‘bad land’-type erosion (Fig. 9.35).

Fig. 9.34. Salamanga quarry.

Large-scale, low-angle cross
bedding to west (A), to east
(B) and upper, seemingly
A unbedded unit of Nummulitic
limestone (C).

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Fig. 9.35. Salamanga quarry.

Unit (A) not exposed; unit
(B) is crossbedded and
overlain by coarse
nummulitic unit (C) and finer
variable bedded unit (D).

Texturally, these rocks classify as pure bioclastic grainstones to packstones with a

particle size ranging between one and two mm. Framework clasts consist of algae,
foraminifera and shell fragments. Locally, some sand-sized quartz particles are admixed, but
this fraction does not exceed 10%. In places, the matrix is leached due to recent karst
processes.
A local variety is presented by well-bedded grainstones, showing lateral accretionary
bedding that may represent a migrating tidal inlet (Figs. 9.36A and 9.36B).
Below an intensely deep red to red-brown silty soil, decimetre- to metre-scale karst
phenomena like dissolution cavities can be observed. The contact with the overlying dark
brown-red siltstone is abrupt (Fig. 9.36C). This siltstone is 3 m thick and shows up to 5 mm,
rounded iron pisoliths on its weathered surface. Locally red-greyish and brown-grey mottling
can be observed, indicating incipient soil formation. Note the conspicuous bad-land erosion
(Fig. 9.36D).
In a small quarry, halfway along the road between Bela Vista and Catembe, 60 cm of
hard limestone and leached marl (grey white) is shown. This grey white limestone passes
upwards into a chalky, nodular calcrete that ends at a very sharp contact with an overlying
dark-red soil. This limestone most likely belongs to the Salamanga Formation*.
Carbonates of the Eocene Salamanga Formation* characterise inner platform
carbonate shoals with, from bottom to top, an overall shoaling-upward. The lower part of the
Salamanga quarry section is an off-shore, high-energy, shoal driven by wave-currents, with
tidal exchange as shown by tidal-channel like features. The abrupt very straight upper contact
points to a transgressive ravinement surface.

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A B

C D

Fig. 9.36. The Salamanga quarry. (A-B) Irregular, lateral accretionary bedding in the upper nummulitic unit
may represent migration of small tidal inlets. View towards south (images do not overlap), (C) Sharp
unconformably contact between Eocene bioclastic limestone of the Salamanga Formation* and (D) lagoonal,
silty deposits of Miocene or Pliocene age (Ponte Vermelha Formation*?). Hammer is 65 cm long.

The entire profile shows, from west to east, low-angle foreset bedding of a prograding
bar or shoal, transected by a lenticular-shaped tidal channel with a flat, scoured base. The
overlying unit is interpreted as a transgressive ravinement surface on high-energy shoals. This
uppermost coarse nummulitic unit shows, in the eastern part of the quarry, lateral accretion
bedding representing small tidal channels. Although not recorded at the surface, these tidally
influenced carbonate shoals, are most likely flanked by reefs that nucleate over slightly more
elevated banks on the seaward side. Near the inner, sub-tidal to inter-tidal zone, tidal inlets
existed, resulting in local scouring and lateral accretion as seen in the Salamanga quarry.
These deposits are part of a carbonate ramp like the modern Bahamas.
The reddish sandstones form usually several meters high formations of loose sand,
which seem to represent the weathering products of sandstones found below. For example,
tens of meters high and kilometers long, N-S trending hill composed mainly of reddish sand
(Fig. 9.37A) occurs 10 km SW of the Salamanga quarry. Below these reddish sands grey red
sandstones are found (Fig. 9.37B). These sandstones are almost horizontally bedded and
comprise greyish patches.

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A B

Fig. 9.37. Red sand(stones) of the Salamanga Formation*. (A) Loose sand on top of a hill, 15 km SW of the
Salamanga quarry. (0456444/7068943), (B) Bedded fine-grained sandstone, 18 km east of the Catuane village
(0443757/ 7036847). GPS is 14 cm long.

9.6.9. Cheringoma Formation* (TeC)

Introduction
Between 18° S and 20° 30' S rocks of the Cheringoma Formation* are exposed in a NE-SW
directed belt, interrupted by the N20°-N40° trending, Miocene age Urema Graben, along the
western flank of the Inhaminga Horst and west of the Urema Graben in the eastern flank of
the Buzi River (Map Sheets SDS 2032/2033 and 2034). Along the flanks of the Cheringoma
plateau, they reach 70 m of thickness and form an escarpment at the bottom of the Grudja
Formation*. The southern outcrops rest directly on Sena conglomeratic sandstones. These
limestones occur again in the southern part of the graben, with a N-S trend north of the Buzi
river and trending towards SW south of the river, inside the area covered by this Map
Explanation.

Lithology
Oolithic limestones together with glauconitic limestones and white limestones, enriched in
Nummulites constitute a characteristic lithologic unit named Cherinyoma or Cheringoma
Formation* (the latter name will be preferred). The basal greenish part contains glauconite
and is devoid of fossils. The white-yellowish top part contains nummulites. Both facies
measure 50 m and comprise dominant nummulitic levels (Fig. 9.38).
The deposits of the Cheringoma Formation* represent an open infra- to circa-littoral
environment, with clear waters, devoid of fine clastic particles and hot weather conditions.

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A B

Fig. 9.38. (A) Outcrop of grayish nummulitic limestone of the Cheringoma Formation*, (B) A sample taken
from the same outcrop. (575195/ 7748883). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Age
In the eastern parts of the Mozambique Basin the Eocene Cheringoma Formation* was
deposited without interruption on the Palaeocene. In the Zambezi river delta the Early Eocene
is missing (Flores, 1973), and further westwards a Late Maastrichtian to Ypresian hiatus
interrupts the stratigraphic column.

9.6.10. Jofane Formation* (TeJ)

Introduction
The Jofane Formation* includes the former Morrumbene Formation* (SDS 2334) and extends
over more than 300 km from parallel 24° 30' S up to the north of the mouth of the Save River.
This vast zone of outcrops and near-outcrops have been recognised at depths of 5 to 15 m in
many water wells over the entire region. On previous geological maps the Jofane limestones
have been indicated as outcropping, while in fact, they are commonly covered by a thin
veneer of Quaternary deposits.

Lithology
The Jofane Formation* consists of white to pale-yellow calcareous marine limestone and
calcarenite that overlie the Temane evaporite (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). Barrocoso (1968)
subdivided the Jofane Formation* into two units, i.e., (from bottom to top) the Urrongas
Limestone Member and the Cabe Calcarenite Member. The first unit is deposited in an
elongated zone from Massinga, in the south, to close to Malanguene, in the north. It forms a
vast planar area with multiple fissures and karst features. The Cabe Member follows the lower

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course of the Save River, north of the Urrongas limestones. Based on field verification, the
GTK Consortium has separated two divergent lithologies (of uncertain rang) in the Cabe
Member. Mappable units identified by the GTK Consortium are (from bottom to top):
• Urrongas Limestone Member (TeJu);
• Cabe Calcarenite Member (TeJc);
• Sandstone with local silicification (TeJs);
• Conglomeratic sandstone/ reworked sandstone (TeJco).

The previously identified Morrumbene and Divinhe Formations will be attributed to the
Urrongas and Cabe Members, respectively, thereby loosing their independent status.

Urrongas Limestone Member (TeJu)

The Urrongas Member appears restricted to the Nhachengue–Domo horst and the Pande-
Temane high in Inhambane Province and attains a thickness of ~ 35 m in total. Possibly this
narrow unit was never developed outside these horsts (Barrocoso, 1968). The entire unit was
supposedly sub-aerially exposed during the Pleistocene (Vaclav, 1989) and, consequently,
karst features such as solution-collapse breccias, caves and dolines are widespread.
The unit comprises three levels with limestone and marl at the base, followed by
fossiliferous brown limestones and compact crystalline limestones (Barrocoso, 1968). These
almost pure, bioclastic grainstones (Fig. 9.39B) are yellow-white, fossiliferous, and have a
structural dip less than 3º to the east witth mostly sub-horizontal stratification. Gastropods,
moulds of Globularia, Pectinidae and Lamellibranchiatae (Terediniidae – featuring
cylindrical tubes) are common (Barrocoso, 1968). Petrographically, this is a bioclastic
limestone with microspar and micrite (Fig. 9.40A), in places becoming coarse sparite (Fig.
9.40C). The cement content is low compared to the skeletal framework constituents. There is
a small admixture of quartz and feldspar grains (Barrocoso, 1968). Neoalveolinas,
Nummulites, Miliolidae, Lepidocycline, and Miogypsinas were frequently observed. The
sequence is a manifestation of a marine infra-littoral, clear water (no influx of clastic material)
depositional environment (Flores, 1961).

Fig. 9.39. (A) Fine-grained, micritic Urrongas limestone with tubes resulting from the roots of Thalassina sea
grass, indicating palaeo-depths of 5 to 10 m., (B) Limestone showing intense recrystallisation and dissolution
resulting in hard pisolithic texture. These syn-sedimentary features are over-printed by recent karstic solution
pits. Such complicated textures easily become classified as a separate, new lithotype. CMC limestone quarry.

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A B

Fig. 9.40. Limestones of the CMC

quarry. (A) Karst features in Jofane
Limestone, solution cavities filled with
chocolate-brown clay residues. Karst in
limestone of Jofane Formation*, (B)
The photograph shows red weathering
colours (from insoluble clays) and
solution-collapse features. The
fragments – like a jigsaw puzzle – still
fit together, (C) Very coarse, poorly
sorted, bioclastic grainstone of the
Urrongas Member, manifesting a
shallow, high-energy, wave (surf?)
dominated environment.

Calcarenites coeval with Urrongas Limestones occur in the littoral zone, close to
Morrumbene, in Ponta Mongue and north of Inhambane Bay (Borges, 1939). South of parallel
24° S, calcarenites and grey-greenish glauconitic limestones, locally with significant clay
contents, are found in a thin strip in the banks of the Inharrime River (Borges, 1939). This
horizon has a thickness of 10 m. These rocks contain Nummulites sp., Orbitöides and Pecten
burdigalensis (Cox, 1939).
The Urrongas Member underlies a huge fault block, part of the coastal plain south of
the Save River, in areas covered by the following Map Sheets: Save-Bazaruto (SDS
2134/2135), Mabote-Vilanculos (SDS 2234/2235) and Funhalouro-Inhambane (SDS
2334/2335). Exposures under a red sand cover are generally small and bedding, where visible,
is horizontal to sub-horizontal with a gentle eastwards dip (Fig. 9.41). Best exposures are in
SDS 2235 along the main road EN 1 and in small artisanal lime pits. The predominant rock is
a semi-crystalline limestone, frequently with fossils and organic remains. The micro-fauna

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suggests a littoral deposit of shallow waters (marine facies). Besides the principal component,
a variable percentage of quartzose, and less frequently, feldspathic elements may be present in
the rock. Urrongas Limestones are strictly associated with reddish soils. This so-called ‘terra
rossa’ is believed to have formed from the insoluble residue in the limestones.

Fig. 9.41. Limestone of the Urrongas

Member of the Jofane Formation*,
exposed in a small lime pit by the
road to the Mabote village (0633053/
7557368). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Cabe (Calcarenite) Member (TeJc)

Rocks from the Cabe (Calcarenite) Member (Grès de Cabe; also called ‘calcario gressoso’)
underlie a small polygon in the eastern margin of SDS 2133, south of Rio Save. Further
eastwards, in Sheet 2134, the same Member is exposed in both banks of the Save river,
forming a vast ENE-WSW oriented strip, following the riverbanks (Fig. 9.42).
The Cabe Member consists of yellow-grey, calcareous arenite, that is fine- to medium-
grained and partly bioclastic with abundant micro-fauna, manifesting a more littoral
environment. Carbonates contain a large proportion of detrital fragments, and feldspathic
fragments are frequently found at the lowest horizon of this Member.

Sandstone with local silicification (TeJs)

In the NE corner of the area covered by SDS 2134, north of the Save river, this unit is
essentially arenaceous with a variable proportion of carbonate cement. The rock may be
called a fine- to medium-grained calcarenite or calcareous sandstone. Clastic grains consist of
quartz and feldspar, i.e., plagioclase with Carlsbad twins (Barrocoso, 1968). It shows
horizontal or sub-horizontal bedding, sometimes dipping 10° to 15° towards SW, particularly
in the exposures along and close to the main road from Vila Franca do Save to the Inchope
village. Elsewhere, cross-stratification was observed. Quartz grains are well rounded, and the
rock is generally rich in fragments of macro-fauna. The unit is intersected by carbonate-rich
veins, 10 – 15 cm in width, that can be seen ~ 900 m north of the Save river bridge. To the
north of Mapinhane, calcarenites of the Cabe Member are reported to be pseudo-oolitic
(Barrocoso, 1968).

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Fig. 9.42. General view of well-

exposed calcarenites of the Cabe
Member (Jofane Formation*) in the
left bank of the Save river. Photo
taken from the southern bank of the
river (0633903/ 7642482).

Conglomeratic sandstone/ reworked sandstone (TeJco)

Along the south bank of the Save river, starting from Jofane going westwards, appears a
poorly sorted conglomerate15 with sub-angular pebbles, ranging from 0.5 to 2 cm in size.
Pebbles in the conglomerate horizons are of quartzite, vein quartz and, more rarely, of
volcanic composition. Conglomerate is very iron-rich and has white reduction spots and dark-
brown, concentric (pisolith-like) rims of cement. Locally, there occur conglomeratic
ferruginous quartzite layers in the Cabe Member, covered by a ~ 4 m thick limestone bed.
Conglomeratic sandstones occur also in Chilembe and Maputo map sheets (SDS
2431/2432 and 2531/2531), some 30 km SW and NW of the town of Magude. They are
exposed in local cliffs. However, gravel mantles of relative similar appearance (see Chapter
9.7.13) locally seem to cover these conglomeratic sandstones.

Divinhe limestones
These rocks, formerly attributed to the Divinhe Formation, are exposed in a few narrow,
subdued, NNW-SSE directed ridges, parallel to the coastline between Nova Mambone and
Nova Sofala (SDS 2034). They comprise a 25-m thick sequence of silty marls and limestones,
supposedly deposited in a lagoonal to marine depositional environment (Moura, 1974). When
visible, limestones occur as whitish, fine-to coarse-grained rocks with occasional rounded
quartz grains.

Age
An abundant microfauna includes echinoderms, gastropods, molluscs and crustaceans. Based
on the occurrence of Pecten burdigalensis in rocks of the Urrongas Member, an Early
Miocene age has been attributed to the marine limestones constituting the basal part of the
Jofane Formation* (Barrocoso, 1968). As the Tembe Limestones, south of Maputo, the upper
horizons of the Divinhe unit may have a Pliocene age.

15
Presumably this bears no relation with the Jofane Members.

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9.6.11. Inharrime Formation* (TeIn)

The marine Inharrime Formation* is coeval with and equivalent to the Urrongas Member of
the Jofane Formation*. The unit is composed of greenish-yellowish glauconite-bearing
calcareous sandstones. The Inharrime Formation* is exposed in patches in both banks of the
upper and middle course of the Inharrime river (SDS 2434), below red sands of Quaternary
Internal Dunes.

Age
The formation presents Early Miocene age.

9.6.12. Ponte Vermelha Formation* (TeVs)

Maputo is largely build on the Ponte Vermelha Formation*, reported to be Pliocene in age. It
comprises, in its upper part, ferruginous red sandstones and silty sand (Foster, 2004). A
subdivision into a Pliocene lower part and a Pleistocene upper part (= Internal Dunes) is
possible. Standing on this Formation* in Maputo, one can actually see its continuation in the
cliffs of the Ponto dos très Marianes on the other side of the estuary.
Siltstones and marls of the Ponte Vermelha Formation* are soft semi-consolidated
rocks, showing bedding and characteristic ‘bad land’-type erosion (Fig. 9.43).

A B

Reduction
spots in
Pliocene

Fig. 9.43. (A) Cliffs at ‘Ponto dos tres Marianes’. Height is ~ 18 m. Top of the section is composed of reddish
Pleistocene Internal Dunes (upper arrow), the Internal Dunes (second arrow) is an intermediate slightly lighter
coloured sandy siltstone deposit with ‘bad-land’ erosion (see figure to the right). The lowermost sequence
(below third arrow) is yellowish-creamy coloured and shows sub-horizontal layering, (B) ‘Bad land’ erosion in
reduction spots due to rhizolites.

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9.6.13. Mazamba Formation* (TeZ)

Introduction
The Mazamba Formation* was formerly named Mazamba Formation, Inhaminga Beds or
Inhaminga Sandstones (Flores, 1959). Main exposures of this unit are located on the
Cheringoma Plateau, along the Massamba river. Similar rocks have been found further
southwards on both sides of the Save river, where it was formerly called Chicolane Formation
(Barrocoso, 1968). The Chicolane conglomeratic sandstones rest on the Urrongas Limestone
Member of the Jofane Formation*. Elsewhere, Mazamba sandstones overlie unconformably
Inhaminga purple sandstones or Cheringoma limestones.
Rocks of the Mazamba Formation* are exposed south of the Baixo Zambeze, in the
banks of the Buzi river and in its nearby plateau with main distributions in areas covered by
SDS 2033, 2034 and 2133, with minor polygons in SDS 2132 and 2134. The unit presents its
largest extension along the northern and southern banks of the Save river (SDS 2133), resting
on top of the Jofane Formation* further east, when following the river downstream (SDS
2134). Similar rocks further south along the Limpopo river and from the Elefantes river until
the South African border are nowadays attributed to the Mapai Formation* (Section 9.7.4).

Lithology
The Mazamba Formation* comprises a continental arenaceous-sandstone-conglomeratic
sequence, composed of detritic deposits of unsorted argillaceous sandy or conglomeratic
material, and resting on top of the mostly marine Jofane Formation*. In places, sandstone
boulders may reach 10 – 15 cm in diameter (Fig. 9.44). The pebbles are overwhelmingly
composed of quartzite, with minor proportions of saccharoidal sandstone and carbonate. The
cement in the matrix-supported conglomerates (Fig. 9.45) is argillaceous and, depending on
degree of lateritisation, the rock shows a variable coloration ranging from yellow to red. Pale
kaolinite is commonly found in association with detrital feldspar.

Fig. 9.44. Detrital deposit with

rounded quartzose pebbles on the top
of the Mazamba Formation*
(0615310/ 7785675). Scale bar is 10
cm.

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Fig. 9.45. Matrix supported ‘pebbly

mudstone’-type conglomerate of the
Mazamba Formation*. Red colour of
clayey matrix manifests intense
lateritisation. (0635472/ 7788834).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

In the northern part of the Baixo Zambeze and Save/Limpopo Basins and the region
overlying the Inhaminga Horst, the depositional facies becomes typically littoral and is
constituted by the arkosic and conglomeratic sandstones of Chicolane (formerly Chicolane
Formation; Barrocoso, 1968). The Inhaminga Purple Sandstones, which cover discordantly
sandstones of the Grudja Formation* and the nummulitic limestones of the
Cheringoma/Salamanga Formation* are also incorporated into the Mazamba Formation*.
These underlie the northern and western flanks of the Cheringoma Horst, extending more than
100 km, and presenting a thickness of 15 to 20 m. Fine- to coarse-grained ferruginous
sandstones with local conglomerate horizons also occur in a small polygon at the western
limit of SDS 2034.
The continental facies Mazamba Formation* is contemporaneous with the Miocene
regression and forms vast detritic deposits, distributed all over the basin. At the Inhaminga
Horst, yellow-brownish/reddish arkosic sandstones, sometimes with conglomeratic levels,
overlay the purple sandstones without a discontinuity (Flores, 1964) and occur largely from
Dondo until the Zambezi river region in LOT 2 area (Map Explanation, Volume 2; GTK
Consortium, 2006b). These sandstones show a fair stratification, are less carbonate-rich than
the ones of the Sena Formation* and reach a thickness of 100 metres in that sector (Moura,
1968).
Directly south of Morrumbene village (SDS 2335) there occurs a small (3 x 2 km),
isolated polygon of the Mazamba Formation*. Rather similar exposures also are in Ponta
Mongue and north of Inhambane Bay (Borges, 1939). Major rock types comprise calcareous
sandstones and sandy limestones (sandstone facies). It is doubtful whether these rocks should
be presented as ‘own’ Morrumbene Formation*. Alternatively, they may represent a separate
facies belonging to the Urrongas Member of the Jofane Formation*.

Age
The unit rarely contains fossils (Flores and Truit, 1964) and, consequently, a precise age is not
known. Most likely, they have an age between Upper Miocene and Pliocene.

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9.7. QUATERNARY DEPOSITS

9.7.1. Introduction

Quaternary deposits cover the bulk of the area discussed in this Map Explanation. Their
deposition is partly controlled by endogenic forces exercised during basin development. More
important for the Quaternary deposition are, however, exogenic processes, notably significant
sea level fluctuations due to the alternation of glacial and intra-glacial episodes. As always,
the mappable units deposited during this period are related to their environment of deposition
(marine, lacustrine, fluvial, aeolian, old soils, etc.) and to the relative age in the different
regions and physiographical units of the country. In Lot 3 Project area (this Map
Explanation), the following zones have been distinguished:
• Central coastal zone between the palaeo-delta of the Zambezi River and its actual
delta;
• Zone south of Save River.

The proposed chronology deals with four advances (transgressions) and five retreats
(regressions) of the sea, corresponding to the glacial and interglacial phases:
• Episode 1, corresponds to a transgression and alluvial and lacustrine sedimentation,
maintained over a zone more than 100 km west of the actual coastline.
• Episode 2, a first regression of the sea, corresponding with a second lacustrine
interphase east of the former one.
• Episode 3, marked by fluvial deposition, covering a marine abrasion glacis.
Alluvial deposits are partially blocked by a consolidated dune barrier, which
constitutes an obstacle to the normal fluvial discharge into an open sea. At the
interphase of fresh and salty waters in the intra-dune lakes, the first level of
diatomite has been deposited.
• Episode 4, the intra-dune depositional channels change with the accretion of new
dune barriers. Between the sea tides and lakes, lagoons with mangrove were
formed.

9.7.2. Aeolian sand (Qe)

Wind-blown sands cover vast areas, particularly in Map Sheets SDS 2531/2532, 2431/2432,
2331/2332 and 2231. These slightly reddish, non-consolidated sand layers form superficial
sheets, generally a few metres in thickness (Fig. 9.46). They have been formed by ablation of
the Internal Dunes, located further to the south.

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Fig. 9.46. Slightly reddish

aeolian sand, which covers a
flat landscape of the size of
3000 km2 on the SW side of
the Limpopo river, north of the
Massingir village (0383545/
7431609).

9.7.3. Fluvial terrace gravel and sand (Qt)

This type of deposits can be seen along the Save River (Fig. 9.47) near Zimuala, Mahave and
Jofane (SDS 2134). The fluvial terraces are formed by dark brown to blackish, fine- to
medium-grained, argillaceous sands with a high clay content. In places, the fluvial terraces
have been eroded by ongoing river erosion.
In SDS 2433, three varieties of this unit have been recognised: (1) a ferruginous
sandstone, forming the base of part of the sandy plains and minor elevations in the valleys of
the Limpopo and Changane rivers, (2) a calcareous sandstone, conglomeratic in places,
localised on the right bank of Nhangul Lagoon, and (3) a calcareous medium-grained
sandstone, at the base of the internal dunes near Chibuto.

Fig. 9.47. General overview

of fluvial terrace in southern
bank of Save river, along road
from Jofane to Zinave villages.
The fluvial terrace is some
three meters thick (0691828/
7669903).

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9.7.4. Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi)

Eluvial floodplain mud deposits cover very large areas with a flat morphology, situated at a
lower elevation with respect to surrounding higher ground formed by the mud-arenaceous
floodplains (Fig. 9.48A). These terrains have a very low permeability due to the high clay
content and, consequently, these areas are frequently flooded and covered with lagoons and
swamps that persist for long time after rainfall (Fig. 9.48B). It is assumed that the origin of
these floodplains is linked with the development of small and shallow sea channels between
the eluvial clayey sand floodplains.
Eluvial floodplain mud deposits occupy a small portion in the SE corner of SDS 2033
and almost three quarters of SDS 2034. In the latter map sheet, south of Divinhe village, these
deposits form vast, flat areas, in places covered by salt crusts (Fig. 9.48D), which is collected
by the local population for home use. Together with occurrences in SDS 2133 and 2134, these
deposits represent vast argillaceous areas that may be flooded by marine water (Fig. 9.48B).

A B

C D

Fig. 9.48. (A) Eluvial floodplain mud deposit with characteristic sparse vegetation and flat morphology
(0677399/7340985), (B) Example of a swamp kept in an eluvial floodplain mud deposit (0638744/7311259).
Depression may be due to formation of solution-collapse cavity in carbonate deposit underneath, (C) Same
location as B with detail of the same exposure, showing shrinkage cracks in mud layer, (D) Eluvial floodplain
mud deposit. Salt crust has formed due to capillary action (0694917/ 7685665).

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In SDS 2233 and 2234, eluvial floodplain mud deposits are found in a multitude of
small depressions, measuring one to four km in diameter, with the higher ground occupied by
eluvial floodplain clayey sand deposits. It is postulated here that the unconsolidated mud
deposits are draped over solution-collapse cavities in underlying carbonates. The distribution
of these karst features thus allows estimating the extent of shallow subcropping carbonate
units. Elsewhere in the same Map Sheets the distribution of eluvial floodplain mud deposits is
clearly controlled by neotectonic rift development.
The area covered by SDS 2333 is almost entirely mantled by dark-coloured eluvial
floodplain mud deposits. Similarly in SDS 2433 they present fine yellowish periodically
inundated sands. In SDS 2434 these floodplains are characterised by the absence of relief,
presence of argillaceous material, which is the cause of the numerous small lakes found in the
region. In this Map Sheet the eluvial deposits are bordering the internal dunes and the sandy
plains along their western contact.

9.7.5. Colluvium (Qc)

In the LOT 3 area (this Map Explanation) colluvial deposits are distributed within SDS
2032/2033. They have not been recognised in the field, but are supposedly deposited in the
tectonic depressions existing in the area. Colluvial deposits are formed by debris of the
Proterozoic rocks and Karoo volcanics, and from other Phanerozoic terrains. It is believed
that most of these deposits are not mappable at the current map scale.

9.7.6. Raised beach sediment/Coastal sand(stone) (Qcs)

Raised beach sediments (Coastal Sandstones) or ‘Beach Rocks’ are lithified rocks, composed
of fossiliferous, unsorted, occasionally cross-bedded arenaceous material with a calcareous
matrix. Recent fossils (Ostrea sp.), particularly concentrated in the upper part of the unit,
demonstrate their Quaternary (Early Holocene-Pleistocene) age.
This type of deposit is found south of parallel 20° S (this Map Explanation) as
discontinuous narrow exposures along the present coastline (SDS 2034 and 2135) up to the
South African border, at Ponta do Ouro beach.
Coastal sandstones are exposed along the sea shore in SDS 2034 in a large outcrop,
showing some lamination and massive bedding, and trending 345°/5° NE (Figs. 9.51C and
9.51D). The same rock has been encountered at Vilankulos beach (SDS 2135), in an area
close to the old hotel building, as pinkish to light brown-creamy (when fresh; Fig. 9.49A),
fine- to medium-grained beach rock, with and a large proportion of quartz grains disseminated
in a carbonate-rich matrix. Bioturbation is observed in places (Fig. 9.49B). At Ligogo Sol
beach, Coastal Sandstone forms a coastal barrier (Fig. 9.50).

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A B

Fig. 9.49. ‘Beach Rock’ at Vilanculos beach. (A) Weathered versus fresh appearance of sand framework
completely cemented by calcite, (B) Remnant of aeolian high-angle cross-bedding (arrow) and abundant, cm-
scale bioturbation.

Fig. 9.50. Coastal Sandstone

bar (near surf) and recent
beach sands (lower part of
picture). Judging from colour,
the younger beach sand in this
location is largely derived
from erosion of older coastal
sandstone. Ligogo Sol beach
(0746194/ 7319085).

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A B

C D

Fig. 9.51. (A) Outcrop of Coastal Sandstones trending N15°W, occurring at the Nova Sofala beach. (0686116/
7772051), (B) Detail of same outcrop (0686116/ 7772051), (C) Outcrop of Coastal Sandstones ‘Beach Rocks’
trending approximately N-S/5-7°E, occurring at the Vilankulos beach (0739866/ 7567345). (D) In the right photo
a detail of the outcrop is shown (0739866/ 7567345).

Similar rocks are exposed further to the south along the beach up till the coastal dunes.
The latter may show a certain amount of consolidation (Figs. 9.52A and 9.52B).
Other outcrops of Beach Rock are exposed southwards of Ponta de S. Sebastião up to
the Map Sheet limit (SDS 2235), at the Barra Falsa and Pomene areas (Observation points
26274-05, 26275-05, 26276-05), in SDS 2335 and a large area in SDS 2434. Locally, beach
sands present a fine-grain size, white colour, enrichment in quartz (up to 95%) and a small
heavy minerals fraction, a calcareous matrix. Fossils are frequently found. A coarse grain size
is found in other locations.

Age
Lithification and small tilt angles (a few degrees) suggest that a certain time has passed since
their deposition. This, together with their fossil content, suggests an Early Holocene to
Pleistocene age. It should be realized that the formation of ‘Beach Rock’ was a secondary
lithification event, related to (post-glacial) drowning of older aeolian and beach sand deposits.
As such ‘Beach Rock’ is not a lithostratigraphic entity, but rather a genetic entity.

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A B

Fig. 9.52. (A) Outcrop of weathered coastal subhorizontal sandstones beds, trending approximately N-S.
(0739962/ 7565232), (B) The photograph shows the lower part of the consolidated dune, above the coastal
sandstones outcrop. (0739962/ 7565232).

9.7.7. Lacustrine Limestone (Qll)

This unit is composed of generally hard or soft, occasionally weathered, fossiliferous fresh
water limestones (Figs. 9.53A and 9.53B). They are found within six of the Map Sheets of the
area covered by this Map Explanation, particularly SDS 2234 and 2334, where they occupy
vast areas. In SDS 2135 Lacustrine Limestones occur along the Govuro river in small outcrops.
The rock is dense, hard and porous or light and friable, with fossils of thin-shelled gastropods,
suggesting a low-energy, fresh water deposition.

A B

Fig. 9.53. (A) Small outcrop of thin layer of lacustrine limestones resting on top of internal dune sands
(040693333/7310776), (B) Small, disaggregated outcrops of lacustrine limestones (0620848/7521956). Scale
bar is 10 cm.

Similar limestones are found in SDS 2234 as a thin layer on top of reddish aeolian
sand of Internal Dunes. Small exposures are also found in a restricted area in the central part
of SDS 2334 (Funhalouro Graben), SDS 2235 (Govuro river) and SDS 2334.

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In SDS 2335, there occur calcareous tuffs. These are rocks of recent deposition that
can be seen almost everywhere along the low course of the Pedras river. In certain places they
form a thin cover. Small and scattered deposits are located in vast areas in SDS 2434. They
are never thick and drape older deposits as a mantle.

9.7.8. Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps)

An extensive eluvial clayey sand cover formed during the Pleistocene due to normal erosion
processes acting on sandstone units, specially the ones of the Mazamba Formation*. The unit
covers large areas in the SE and northwest corners of SDS 2033 and 2034 where this type of
deposit is found intimately associated with eluvial floodplain mud deposits. These sandy plain
deposits are also found in the northern part of SDS 2133, as well as in the central part of SDS
2134.
This floodplain unit refers to a widespread deposit of loose clay and sand without dune
features or any remarkable relief (Fig. 9.54). Sometimes, the presence of argillaceous material
causes retention of water during long periods, leading to the formation of numerous and
usually small and shallow lakes (e.g., SDS 2135). Sand grains in clayey material are generally
of aeolian origin. The grains are spherical or rounded, showing dull feature, a results of the
wearing caused by the wind action.

A B

Fig. 9.54. (A) Eluvial flood plain clayey sand

deposit, showing flat landscape and silica sand cover
and open shrub vegetation (0738016/7419685), (B)
Same, note the dense vegetation characteristic for this
type of terrains (0616123/7536859), (C) The eluvial
floodplain clayey sand deposits are very permeable
and host relative dense vegetation.

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9.7.9. Alluvial mud of fluvial-marine origin (Qst)

Along some littoral areas, marine deposits of mud are found. They have high clay contents,
are dark grey to black in colour and are deposited by frequent seawater floods.

9.7.10. Alluvium, sand, silt, gravel (Qa)

Recent alluvial deposits underlie featureless flat lands (Fig. 9.55) and are composed of sand,
silt and gravels and related to fluvial depositional processes. When deposited by running
water, they generally show grano-classification with conglomerates at the base, fining
upwards into sandy and argillaceous deposits. Mass flow deposits, on the other hand,
including alluvial fans and ‘wash-out’ deposits may show only incipient or no grano-
classification.

Fig. 9.55. General view of a typical

alluvial plain in southern
Mozambique.

Alluvial deposits also include deltaic deposits, which occur in all Map Sheets
constituting the area covered by this Map Explanation. Deltaic deposits are found near the
mouth of large rivers and their tributaries and form vast plains cut by an irregular
hydrographic network. Alternating beds of clay and sand are found in depth (Fig. 9.56).
Along rivers they form banks and shoals due to the natural meandering behaviour of rivers in
flat terrains.
Due to the relative fertility of these alluvial deposits they are frequently used for
agriculture. As such, sugar cane farms are located along both banks of Incomáti river, close to
Xinavane town (Fig. 9.57). Rice, vegetables and other cultures are grown close to the Chókwè
town, in the alluvial plain of Limpopo river. These are alluvial deposits with high clay
contents, showing dark grey to black colours. On the other hand, alluvial deposits of the Save
river have higher sand contents close to its mouth. River bank sand is used for building
purposes in Nova Mambone region. In Sheet 2033 alluvial deposits are practically absent and
in Sheet 2034 they follow towards the east the alluvial floodplain mud deposits trending NW-
SE.

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Fig. 9.56. Alternating beds of clays

and sands generally found under the
alluvial deposits.

Alluvial recent argillaceous and arenaceous deposits are found along the principal
rivers and their tributaries (SDS 2133, 2134, e.g., Save River), in inter-dune valleys (SDS
2135 and 2235), along the Aluíze and Inhambazul rivers and in an N-S elongated strip inside
the Funhalouro Graben (Fig. 9.58) (SDS 2233 and 2234), along the Changane River (SDS
2334) and the lower parts of the extensive alluvial basins of the Incomáti and Limpopo Rivers
(SDS 2532, 2533 and 2534). In a few places argillaceous alluvial deposits cover lacustrine
limestones (SDS 2233 and 2234).

Fig. 9.57. Cultivated alluvial plain

west of town of Magude in southern
Mozambique (0484419/ 7228400).

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Fig. 9.58. Example of alluvial

deposits occurring in a rift-type
graben structure (SDS 2233).

9.7.11. Internal dune (Qdi)

These dunes are composed of reddish, brownish and yellowish aeolian sands consolidated by
vegetation (Fig. 9.59). The dunes are located inland, generally not far from the present
shoreline, but are not part of the present active dune system. The morphological pattern,
comprising alternating longitudinal dunes and elongated lakes, has preserved the orientation
of the original palaeo-dune system. The elongated hills are not derived from dune migration,
but rather from consecutive dune formation along a migrating shoreline. This is confirmed by
the existence of many small lakes and lagoons with salty water (Fig. 9.60), which means that
these intra-dune depressions are regarded as abandoned sea channels. In the area covered by
SDS 2533/2534, near Macia town, internal dunes attain a height of ~ 100 m. Elsewhere, these
rocks form imposing cliffs like ‘Ponto dos tres Marianes’ opposite the city of Maputo (Fig.
9.61).

Fig. 9.59. Entrance to sand quarry

showing fine- to medium-grained
red sands of Internal Dune
Formation*. Surface is fixed by
typical vegetation. (0502248/
7228509).

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Fig. 9.60. Intra-dunes lagoon with

salty water lake. Internal longitudinal
dunes with roughly N-S and NE-SW
orientation occur in almost all areas
discussed in this Map Explanation
east of meridian 34° E, with no
interruption until parallel 23° S, from
where the dunes extend towards west
and south, occurring practically in all
the remaining areas covered by this
Map Explanation.

Fig. 9.61 Cliffs of Pleistocene

Internal Dunes at ‘Ponto dos tres
Marianes’ opposite city of Maputo.
View towards the east. The beach
itself contains remnants of ‘Beach
Rock’.

The Internal Dunes are composed of reddish fine- to medium-grained silica sands. As
usual in aeolian deposits, the sand grains are rounded and relatively equigranular. Palm tree,
cashew nut and mango tree plantations normally occupy these dunes.

Age
According to fossils of Gerithium, Tapes and Tellina found in similar sands in Inhambane,
southern Mozambique, the age of the internal dunes is intra-Pleistocene. Migration of the
shoreline denotes a regressive movement.

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9.7.12. Coastal sand dune and beach sand (Qd)

All along the littoral area recent aeolian and marine sands have been deposited (Fig. 9.62).
These generally unconsolidated sands originate from the combined action of fluvial supply
and erosional factors such as wind, sea waves, tidal and along-shore currents. Unlike the red
and brown colours of the Pleistocene Internal Dunes, the recent dunes have white to light grey
to yellowish colours.

Fig. 9.62. General view of Recent

Coastal Dunes and Beach Sands.
(0746194/ 7319085)

Coastal dunes are widespread south of 20° S. North of parallel 21° S coastal dunes are
not high (Fig. 9.63) to become more prominent south of parallel 22° S. In SDS 2235
migratory dunes can be observed. Where covered by vegetation, recent dunes show
consolidated portions as, for example, in the coastal strip between Chidenguele and Quissico
towns (Fig. 9.64).

Fig. 9.63. Small coastal dunes occurring north of parallel 21° S. (0727664/7825264).

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Dunes in SDS 2533/2534, composed of yellowish white sand, younger than the
internal dunes, were observed in many spots advancing over older deposits. These dunes also
attain heights of about 100 m. Coastal dunes near Bilene beach are consolidated in part.

A B

Fig. 9.64. (A) Recent Coastal Dunes. Due to vegetation these dunes are largely consolidated
(0746194/7319085), (B) Examples of well-vegetated coastal dunes in the southern Mozambique coastal
region, south of 24° S.

Active coastal dunes derive from elutriation of beach sands and the selection of sand
grain sizes is a function of the prevailing wind velocities. Due to prolonged winnowing sand
grains are generally well rounded.
Beach sands are generally whitish to light grey to cream-coloured (Fig. 9.65). Heavy
minerals occur very often in the coastal beach and dunes sands (Fig. 9.66), sometimes with
economic importance. Relevant concentrations of heavy minerals have been found along the
seashore in SDS 2434, 2435, and 2533.

Fig. 9.65. View of littoral beach

sands at Morrungulo beach with
white silica sands (0755003/
7428627).

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A B

Fig. 9.66. (A) Heavy minerals concentrations – by winnowing – in coastal beach (0683205/ 7261634), (B)
Heavy minerals concentrations in beach sands of the Morrungulo beach area. (0755003/ 7428627). Scale bar is
10 cm.

9.7.13. Pebble-bearing debris (Mantos de Cascalheiras) (Qp)

Vast gravel horizons – resembling pebble-bearing debris – up to several metres in thickness

can be found in topographically elevated horizons in many locations in the area covered by
this Map Explanation. Pebbles are composed of different lithologies, comprising vein quartz,
quartzite, and volcanic rocks. The generally well-rounded pebbles are up to 15 cm in
diameter. Gravels are mainly pebble supported and the matrix has been affected by strong
lateritisation (Fig. 9.67). Gravel mantles (Mantos de Cascalheiras) are notably exposed in
Chilembe and Maputo map sheets (SDS 2431/2432 and 2531/2531). In both locations (NW
and SW of the town of Magude) these gravel horizons rest on top of Jofane conglomeratic
sandstones (TeJco) and are covered by aeolian sands (Qe). However, these gravel mantles and
horizons are not shown as own polygons in the maps.

Fig. 9.67. Gravel mantle in chocolate-

brown, lateritic matrix on the top of a
hill. NE of the Sabie village
(0439948/ 7213505). GPS is 14 cm
long.

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The genesis and age of these gravel mantles is not clear. They either represent an
episode of deposition of coarse clastics (high energy environment) in a sequence that is
otherwise characterised by more quiet conditions. A more plausible explanation is that these
gravel layers formed by progressive weathering and lateritisation of the top of the Jofane
Formation*, including the reworked (?) Conglomeratic Sandstone Member (TeJco). As such,
pebbles and matrix represent an eluvial concentration of insoluble components. The gravel
mantles are thus a product of soil formation and, strictly speaking, a soil unit. Similar gravel
beds have been observed on top of the Sena Formation*. The above interpretation implies a
gradational transition between gravel mantle and underlying formations.
Minor deposits of pebble-bearing debris occur also in lowland areas in the northern
part of SDS 2034/2035.

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CHAPTER 10

STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM

10.1. INTRODUCTION
The vast majority of the rocks in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) have
been deposited after the Pan-African Orogeny (Neoproterozoic-Cambrian) and have not
suffered penetrative deformation and metamorphism. Precambrian basement is restricted to
the Espungabera/Chibabava Map Sheet (SDS 2032/2033) and its structural and metamorphic
development will be discussed in Section 10.2.
Phanerozoic cover rocks underlie the remainder of the area discussed in this Map
Explanation (Volume 1). These have been conveniently divided into the syn-rift Karoo
Supergroup and a number of loosely grouped lithologies deposited or emplaced during
development of the syn-drift/syn-rift East Africa Rift System (EARS). These rocks have not
been affected by dynamo-thermal (or regional) metamorphism or penetrative deformation.
Episodic and repeated brittle deformation is, however, widespread. It played, together with
thermal subsidence, sediment loading and eustatic sea level fluctuations, a major role in the
development of the Mozambique Basin.

10.2. METAMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE

PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT
10.2.1. Introduction

The crystalline basement of Mozambique is essentially formed by collision and amalgamation

of three lithospheric plates or terranes during the Pan-African Orogeny (750 –550 Ma). Each
terrane is characterised by its specific and individual geodynamic development prior to the
Pan-African Orogeny. These lithospheric plates have been called West Gondwana, East
Gondwana and South Gondwana Terrane, respectively (Map Explanation, Volume 2, Section
5.6; GTK Consortium, 2006b).
The basement in the Espungabera/Chibabava Map Sheet (SDS 2032/2033) constitutes
a small part of the South Gondwana Terrane, bounded in the north by the Sanangoè Shear
Zone (SSZ) and its westward continuation in the Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara Belt. The South
Gondwana Terrane can be divided into an Archaean nucleus and Proterozoic marginal fold
belts. The Archaean nucleus is known as Kalahari Craton, which comprises the Kaapvaal and
Zimbabwe Cratons and the Limpopo Mobile Belt in between. To the east the crystalline
basement disappears underneath the Phanerozoic cover. The eastern margin of the Kalahari
Craton supposedly coincides with the Lebombo and Nuanetzi-Sabi monoclines.
The South Gondwana Terrane in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume
1) comprises the Archaean Kalahari Craton (not exposed), autochthonous Proterozoic
Umkondo Supergroup, late- or post-Umkondo dolerites and microgabbro dykes and folded
and thrusted sheets of the Gairezi Formation* and the Báruè Complex. Only rocks of the latter
two units have been affected by metamorphism and penetrative deformation during the
Grenville and Pan-African Orogenic Cycles, respectively.

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10.2.2. Grenville Orogenic Cycle

The Grenville Orogenic Cycle (GOC), at about 1.1 – 1.0 Ga, is a worldwide orogenic system
responsible for the formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent. The Kibaran Belt, the Sinclair
Province and Namaqua-Natal Belt along the western and southern margin of the Kalahari
Craton are manifestations of the GOC on the African continent. The Choma-Kalamo Block
and the Irumide Belt are exposed north of the Zimbabwe Craton in Zambia.
Along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton west-directed thrusting of the Báruè
Complex produced amphibolite-grade metamorphism with the local development of kyanite,
sillimanite, garnet and staurolite, together with the emplacement of early- to syn-kinematic
granitoids and widespread migmatisation. Thrusting produced duplex textures with alternating
slices of Archaean craton and Proterozoic rocks and the development of a penetrative
cleavage S1, sub-parallel to the sedimentary bedding.
Rocks of the parautochthonous Gairezi Group suffered the same type of
metamorphism and deformation. But whereas the allochthonous Báruè Complex has a
doubtful age and origin, the Gairezi Group metasedimentary succession originated at ~ 2.04
Ga in a elongated trough along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton.

10.2.3. Pan-African Orogenic Cycle

Pan-African deformation along the eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton is manifested by
development of a N-S directed shear zone and a second phase of migmatisation. The early
migmatic layering S1, parallel to the gneissic layering, developed during D1/M1 is overprinted
by a younger foliation S2. S2 is discordant to S1 and composed of ~ N-S directed vertical
lenses, typically 2 – 3 cm and > 10 cm in length. In mafic N-S trending dykes the same
deformation is show by strong deformation along their margins and equally directed
leucosomes. Elsewhere shallowly dipping S1 fabrics are overprinted by N-S vertical shear
zones. Shear sense indicators are sparse and suggest sinistral displacements (Manhiça et al.
2001). S1 and S2 are related to the ~ 1100 Ma accretion and ~ 500 Ma Pan-African
overprinting of the Mozambique Belt.

10.3. MOZAMBIQUE BASIN

10.3.1. Introduction

The Mozambique Basin overlies a passive continental margin formed in two stages:
• Karoo Rift Event: Crustal extension during the Karoo Event (Late Carboniferous
to Early Jurassic) with development of intracratonic grabens and sag basins and
terminating with emplacement Early Jurassic Karoo Large Igneous Province
(KLIP).
• Drift Phase: Unconstrained continental spreading and dispersal with drift
dominating in the Early and Middle Cretaceous and thermal sagging in the Tertiary
(Coster et al. 1989).

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10.3.2. Karoo Rift Event

The Karoo Rift Event can be divided into the Gondwana Rifting Phase and (Late
Carboniferous-Triassic) and Gondwana Final Phase (Early-Middle Jurassic) (Salman and
Abdullah, 1995). The Gondwana Rifting Phase is characterised by tectonic fracturing along
weakness zones of Archaean and younger age. As such, the E-W trending Middle Zambezi
Graben corresponds with the Zambezi-Lufulian-Damara belt, a Pan-African suture between
the Kalahari Craton (South Gondwana) and Congo/Central Africa Craton (West Gondwana).
In the same way the Limpopo Karoo and Okavango dyke swarm overlie or are emplaced into
a weakness zone between the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons. During the Gondwana Final
Phase fracturing continued, resulting in break-up of the Gondwana Supercontinent and the
emplacement of the Karoo Large Igneous Province at 180 – 195 Ma.
The intersection of the N-S trending Lebombo monocline with the ENE-trending Sabi
monocline and the WNW-trending Okavango dyke swarm is recognised as a Karoo ‘triple
junction’ (Botha and de Wit, 1996; Moore and Larkin, 2001). These three linear features are
inherited from Pan-African, Earlier Proterozoic and Archaean weakness zones
(www.hartrao.ac.za/inkaba/docs).

10.3.3. Post-Karoo Major Tectonic Events

Salman and Abdullah (1995) divide this cycle into three phases: (1). Gondwana Break-Up
Phase, (2) Stabilisation Phase and (3) Neo-rifting Phase. The latter corresponds to an
acceleration in the development of the East African Rift System, of which the initiation
already took place during the Gondwana Cycle (Fig.10.1). Major tectonic phases identified by
the GTK Consortium include:
• Incipient rifting in combination with emplacement of alkaline volcanic rocks along
rift borders, generally in small intrusives, pipes, ring structures, circular massifs
and dykes in the Early-Middle Cretaceous. In the Tete area (SDS 1632, 1633 and
1634), Cretaceous NW-SE directed differential vertical tectonism was superposed
on the E-W trending Mid-Zambezi Karoo Graben and resulted in formation of the
upper Lupata and Luia-Cansana Rivers Graben and a central horst block composed
of crystalline basement of the Báruè Complex. Initial transgression with deposits of
continental facies (e.g., the red beds of the Lupata, Sena, Maputo Formations*) and
shallow-marine deposits (e.g., Lower Domo and Sena Formations*).
• During the Middle to Late Cretaceous period the interior of the continent was
uplifted by an estimated 1000 m. This caused tensile stresses and triggered
continued graben development and concurrent sedimentation in the Mozambique
Basin. Deepening of grabens culminated in the Maastrichtian and accommodated
thick sequences of shaly marine sediments. Outside the grabens sediments are of
various lithologies and they are much thinner or completely absent. On seismic
data the seaward extension of both Lower and Upper Cretaceous gradually become
thinner and discontinuous towards the E and SE. In this direction continental crust
is juxtaposed with oceanic crust of Cretaceous age.

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Fig. 10.1. Rift structures affecting the floor of the Mozambique Basin during the upper part of the Early Cretaceous.
Development of a conjugate set of rift structures with N-S and WSW-ENE trends separated by Horst blocks or domes.
Highs: A=Pande-Temane High, B=Nhachengue-Domo High, C=Zandamela High, D=Southern Uplift, E=Balane High
and F=Xai-Xai Horst. Grabens: G=Palmeira Graben, H=Natal Graben, I=Limpopo Graben, J=Mazenga (Funhalouro)
Graben system, K=Inhambane Graben and L=Chissenge Graben. Left: Initial stage. Right: Mature stage. Adapted from
ENH data, Maputo 2005.

• During the Oligocene the African continent rose substantially and was tilted to the
West. In Mozambique, graben faults became reactivated. The end of this largely
erosive event left a peneplain with just a little accommodation space in the eastern
half. Here shallow platform carbonates started to accumulate while large delta
complexes grew in the NE, filling the Lower Zambezi depression with clastic
breakdown products from the West.
• Towards the Late Miocene a major upheaval of 600 m or more affected the entire
area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1).
• During the latest Pliocene uplift, the Karoo basalts of the Lesotho Drakensberg
reached their present heights of 2500 to 3000 m (www.kzn.org.za/kzn/121.xml).
This uplift is also manifested by raised Beach Rock cliffs all around the S and SE
coasts of Africa and demonstrates that mega-uplift is still taking place. At the same
time, new graben-faults are initiated or reactivated and affect deposition of
Quaternary deposits.

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10.3.4. Principal Structural Elements in the Mozambique Basin

The western margin of the Mozambique Basin is defined by the Lebombo monocline, the
northwest margin is formed by the Nuanetsi–Sabi Monocline (Fig.10.2). Together with the
Zoutpansberg Graben in South Africa these elements define a triple point. The margin of the
basin towards north is defined by the Angoche volcanic zone.

Fig. 10.2. Left: Location of seismic profile in offshore Xai-Xai Graben. Right: Enlarged picture of Xai-Xai
Graben showing splaying in multiple sub-basins of higher Order. Based on ENH data.

The present structural framework of the Mozambique Basin is composed of a mosaic

of approximately N-S elongated grabens and smaller horst-like plateaus, in places intersected
by poorly defined NE-SW faults (Fig.10.3). Entirely based on subsurface data, a number of
highs, in fact plateaus, are recognised from N to S. These include the Balane High, the
‘Southern Uplift’ and the Xai-Xai horst (flanking the large Limpopo Graben). Within the
Limpopo Graben is a small NW-SE horst. In the eastern regions one finds from S to N: the
Zandamela high separated from the more northerly Nhachengue-Domo High by the SW-NE
oriented narrow Inhambane graben. These entities are limited to the west by the large
Mazanga-Funhalouro Graben system north- and eastwards of this are the Pande-Temane High
(the site of gas fields). Most of these highs and grabens bear little relevance to surface
geological outcrops, but constitute the framework for hydrocarbon prospectivity.

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Well Xai-Xai-W-1,
just reached
volcanics Thinned , draping
Upper Cretaceous
Rift shoulder outside Grabens

Rift-

BaseCheringo
Top
ma (Eocene)
Jurassic

Fig. 10.3. SW-NE profile over the Xai-Xai Graben. Outside Grabens: Thinned (or condensed) parallel
Cretaceous successions. Grabens down-faulted to –1500 m. Multi-stage faults > 1st post-volcanics, > 2nd re-
activation base Upper Cretaceous: rotation + tilting > 3rd stage: Graben sag + post-Eocene border faults
(slightly adapted from ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000).

Most N-S and NW-SE oriented Mesozoic Grabens have easterly dipping tilt-blocks
and several grabens open towards the south. Because of down-faulting and block tilting
towards the east, there is a strong assymetry in most grabens. The major graben faults are
locally intersected and slightly offset by sinistral NW-SE oriented faults. Some of the grabens
may have resulted from trans-tensional movements since early constrained spreading,
followed by Mozambique Channel spreading and later uplift of the African continent, must
have resulted in lateral movements as well. In the east, kilometre-thick Lower Cretaceous
marine sequences occur in grabens, known from seismic and deep well data. These thick fills
likely account for some of the observed magnetic highs. The more landward (westerly) graben
fills consist in their lower part of coarse, unsorted and immature volcanogenic and igneous
products derived from the hinterland. Grabens distinguished from north to south are the
Changani Graben and Limpopo Graben extending into the Palmeira Graben. The reactivated
segments of the Limpopo Graben consists of the Chidenguele Graben and the offshore part as
Xai-Xai Graben.
The interpretation of this profile shows that there was vertical extensional faulting just
after deposition of the latest Jurassic volcanics, resulting in graben infill of conformable strata
during the Early Cretaceous. Towards the Middle Late Cretaceous a second stage of faulting
took place that involved reactivation of earlier faults. It caused large-scale block rotation and
locally strong inversion within the main Graben itself. This Graben-interior now consists of
fault terraces and faults that splay upwards and fault downwards to the east. The wrench-fault

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like splays and local inversions seem to indicate trans-pressional movements as well. The
Graben is bordered to the W and E by two main graben-bounding faults, the latter were still
active during Early Palaeocene. The Upper Cretaceous-Palaeocene sequence represents the
thermal sag stage. Note that the horsts, in fact just plateaus, have a strongly reduced (or
condensed) Cretaceous succession that just ‘drapes’ the volcanics.
From subsurface data it is known that graben-sequences show large differences from
one graben to another and to horst and plateau sequences. In the Pande district the interval
Inharime- to Jofane Formation* is 500 m thick, the interval Upper Grudja-Base Inharime is
1150 m and the Turonian (of which the equivalent is outcropping in the Maputo Province) is
found at 2600 m. Wells Zandamela and Sunray 2 and 4 have thin Cretaceous successions that
rests on Karoo volcanics. These wells are associated with highs or plateaus and form a large
contrast with graben-wells like Nhacengue-1, Domo-1 and Palmeira-1 that all have very thick
Lower Cretaceous successions.
A major fault system with a NE-SW orientation occurs along the line Inhambane-
Magude. This fault was also identified as a gravity hinge line (ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000) and
is exactly parallel to the Pleistocene mega-dune ridges of Xai-Xai Province. Surface
expressions of this fault system exist just north of Magude, although fault offsets are difficult
to capture. Another NE-SW fault system appears, parallel to and just south of the Save River
and supposedly separates the Cheringoma plateau in the north form the region south of the
Save River. Another discontinuity could exist north of Mapulanguene where the N-S
vergence of the Pequeno Libombos changes to NNW-SSE, turning parallel to the Limpopo
drainage system. Coincidentally further to the North, towards Massingir, the surface
Cretaceous is no longer in contact with the Jurassic.
Much younger is the Middle Miocene Lake Niassa rift extending southwards as the
Chire and Urema Graben. Some grabens, easily identifiable from relief-shaded SRTM16
images, transect Quarternary sediments, and have dextral E-W offsets, indicating that they are
still active.

10.3.5. Basin Modelling

Maturity curves of organic material in several deep wells point to paucity of maturation due to
episodic uplift and thermal pulses. In some cases two km uplift and erosion during the
Oligocene and Late Miocene can be deduced from such curves. Exact timing is still a problem
and needs to be resolved using a combination of fission track analysis and vitrinite reflection
data (ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000). The maturity history is of importance for the timing of
hydrocarbon migration. The present local thermal gradient is less then 3ºC/100 m but could
have been higher during the Cretaceous. Gas discovered to date is derived from mature source
rocks in the Lower Domo and Maputo Formations*. The top oil-window is presently at 3 to 5
km depth, the gas window at 5 km.

16
LOT3 : component 2, annex 3, phase II (2004) by E.M. Schetselaar.

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Fig. 10.4. Burial diagram of a well in the offshore part of the Xai-Xai Graben (after ECL Ltd. and ENH,
2000).

It is the maturity uncertainty that most of all hampers the generation of future gas
prospects (ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000). In well Sunray-7, maximum maturity was reached in
the (pre-uplift) Early Tertiary. In the Pande area, maturation was reached only recently and no
uplift seems required here. The sequence in well Nhachengue-1 is believed to have suffered 2
km of Early Tertiary erosion. In several other wells at least 1000 m uplift took place
somewhere between the latest Cretaceous and Eocene (ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000). These
above observations are in line with the multiple unconformities and hiatuses observed in most
deep wells. Just outside the main Xai-Xai Graben (Fig. 10.2 and 10.3) more than 2 km burial
was reached in the Oligocene-Miocene, but this still was insufficient for the Cretaceous
succession to reach maturity for hydrocarbon expulsion.
With the exception of the younger second-order grabens, onshore continental
Mozambique is covered with a conformable, but thin sequence of Cretaceous to Tertiary
strata. Nearly half of that is represented by Miocene and younger deposits. This indicates that
Mozambique’s onshore continental margin hosted limited space to accommodate sediments.

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With exception of the second-order grabens, the Mozambique Basin was rather a by-pass
ramp than it was a real sediment basin (Fig.10.5).

Fig. 10.5. Hypothetical passive continental margin with synthetic and antithetic listric faults. Together these
faults cause the development of a monocline with progressive deepening and tilting to the east. The onshore
part of the basin has hardly any accomodation space to host hydrocarbon deposits. Active zone, with structural
traps, is present in the near ooshore part of the basin (after Maerten and Maerten, 2006).

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CHAPTER 11

GEODYNAMICIC EVOLUTION

11.1. INTRODUCTION
The regional geology of Africa has been briefly summarised in Section 5.4. The principles of
geodynamics and continental crust formation – Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles,
Superplumes – have been sketched in Section 5.5. In its simplest form it can be argued that
Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and basins filled by undeformed sediments and
associated igneous rocks of Neoproterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and
Cretaceous-Quaternary age. With the conclusion of the Pan-African Orogeny, the African
continent is largely cratonised. Younger fold belts (with penetrative deformation) formed
during the Hercynian (Middle Palaeozoic) and Alpine (Cretaceous-Tertiary) Orogenies are
restricted to the Mauritides and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest, the Cape Fold Belt in
the south and the Kabylia-Rif-Betic orocline (or Gibraltar Arc) around the westernmost part
of the Mediterranean. Africa’s major structural-metamorphic-igneous domains – the ‘building
blocks’ – have been summarised in Table 5.2. They reflect the geodynamic evolution of
Africa in terms of successive and episodic periods of crustal growth during phases of
compression – plate collision and amalgamation, eventually leading to the formation of a
Supercontinent – and phases of crustal extension – periods of rifting, continental break-up,
continental drift and dispersion.
The crystalline basement of Mozambique belongs three major ‘building blocks’ or
terranes that collided and amalgamated during the Pan-African Orogeny (Map Explanation,
Volume 2; GTK Consortium, 2006b). Each terrane has been affected by a specific and
individual geodynamic development prior to the Pan-African Orogeny.

11.2. CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT

11.2.1. Introduction

The ‘crystalline basement’ in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) is
restricted to the Espungabera/Chibabava Map Sheet (SDS 2032/2033). It belongs to a single
pre-Pan African lithospheric fragment: the South Gondwana Terrane. The latter comprises a
nucleus composed of the Archaean Kalahari Craton, surrounded by Proterozoic fold belts of
which the lithologies are incorporated into the Gairezi and Báruè Groups. The rocks of the
Archaean Kalahari Craton are not exposed in SDS 2032/2033 but underlie the autochthonous
volcano-sedimentary sequence of the Umkondo Group.
For a detailed discussion on the geodynamic evolution of the crystalline basement of
Mozambique, in particular the part located within the South Gondwana Terrane, the reader is
referred to Map Explanation, Volume 2 (GTK Consortium, 2006b). Major geodynamic events
affecting the crystalline basement are (1) the prolonged and complex geodynamic
development of the Archaean Kalahari Craton (3.5 – 2.5 Ga), (2) the Palaeoproterozoic
extension of the Kalahari Craton (~ 2.0 – 1.7 Ga), (3) pre-Kibaran Mesoproterozoic extension

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(~ 1350 – 1250 Ma), (4) Mesoproterozoic Kibaran/Irumide/Grenvillian collision/

amalgamation and the formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent (~ 1.1 Ga), (5) Rodinia break-
up and dispersion (0.9 – 0.8 Ga) followed by (6) the Neoproterozoic Pan-African Orogeny
and re-assembly of the crustal plates in the Gondwana Supercontinent. Post-Pan-African
extension is expressed by (7) Karoo rifting (late Carboniferous to early Jurassic) and (8) Neo-
Tethys drifting (late Jurassic /early Cretaceous to Recent), the latter coeval with the dispersal
of Gondwana and development of the still active East African Rift System.

11.2.2. Archaean Crustal Growth of the Kalahari Craton

The Kalahari Craton comprises the Kaapvaal and the Zimbabwe Cratons with the Archaean
(~ 2.6 Ga) Limpopo Belt in between.
The Kaapvaal Craton is considerably older than the Zimbabwe Craton. The oldest
preserved rocks, with an age of 3.6 to 3.37 Ga, are found south of the Barberton greenstone
belt in South Africa and Swaziland (Eglington and Armstrong, 2004). Subsequent scattered
crust formation took place in the southeastern, eastern and northeastern parts of the Craton
prior to being ‘stitched’ together by the widespread emplacement of granitoids at ~ 3.25 Ga
and ~ 3.1 Ga. Cratonisation was sufficiently advanced to support major intracratonic
sedimentary basins such as the Dominion, Witwatersrand and Pongola basins by ~ 3.0 Ga.
Basin formation was followed by extensive Ventersdorp volcanism and coeval granitoid
magmatism throughout the Craton (Eglington and Armstrong, 2004).
In the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002) emplacement of TTG
gneisses, 3.55 to 3.35 Ga in age (e.g., Horstwood et al. 1999) and associated Sebakwian
greenstones, manifest the earliest dated collisional event. Subsequent accretion added
greenstones of the ~ 2.9 to 2.8 Ga Belingwean/ Lower Bulawayan, the ~ 2.7 to ~ 2.64 Ga
Upper Bulawayan and the ~ 2.6 Ga metasedimentary Shamvaian (Wilson et al. 1995). Each
sequence was accompanied by the emplacement of TTG suite granitoids assembled in the
~2.9 to 2.8 Ga Chingezi, ~ 2.7 Ga Sesombi, ~ 2.65 Wedza and ~2.6 Ga Chilimanzi Suites,
respectively (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996). Stabilisation of the central Zimbabwe
craton was thus achieved shortly after ~ 2.6 Ga (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996) as
demonstrated by the emplacement of the Great Dyke (ultra-)mafic layered suite at ~ 2575 Ma
(Oberthür et al. 2002).

11.2.3. Palaeoproterozoic Extension of the Kalahari Craton

Crustal extension of the Kaapvaal Craton is manifested by development of the widespread

Transvaal Supergroup, terminated with the extrusion of the Rooiberg felsites and the
emplacement of the Bushveld layered intrusive suite at ~ 2.06 Ga (Eglington and Armstrong,
2004). The Limpopo Belt experienced transpression at ~ 2.0 Ga and was affected by complex
transpressional/transtensional forces between 2.0 and 1.7 Ga. McCourt et al. (2001) correlate
the latter event with, e.g., deposition of Palaeoproterozoic continental Waterberg basin
sedimentary and associated volcanic rocks. Extension in the Zimbabwe Craton is evidenced
by U-Pb geochronology yielding minimum ages of ~ 2.04 Ga for the metasedimentary units
of the Gairezi and Rushinga Grou (GTK Consortium, 2006b). The protoliths of these units
have been deposited in troughs along the eastern and northern margin of the Zimbabwe
Craton.

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Post-Umkondo N-S directed dolerites dated at 1783±51 Ma (Sm-Nd) could possibly

be related to the same event. It is possible that these dolerites intersect the undeformed
sedimentary sequence of the Umkondo Group. This could mean a Palaeoproterozoic age of
the Umkondo Group. Alternatively, a Mesoproterozoic age has been proposed (Sections 6.2.4
and 6.3.4).

11.2.4. Palaeoproterozoic Orogeny

Palaeoproterozoic orogenesis is not expressed in the area covered by this Map Explanation
(Volume 1). Along the western boundary of the Kalahari Craton, however, several fold belts
including the Kheiss Belt, Okwa Gneiss and Magondi Belt manifest extensive crustal
collision and amalgamation. It further involved transpressional events in the Limpopo Belt
(see above) and, further a field, outside the Kalahari realm, tectogenesis in the Richtersveld
Terrain and the Rehoboth Arc.

11.2.5. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran Extension

In the South Gondwana Terrane crustal extension is only expressed by juvenile oceanic crust
encountered in the Chewore Inliers, a group of isolated metamorphosed basement inliers
located in the Zambezi Rift Valley of northern Zimbabwe (Johnson and Oliver, 2004).
Different lithotectonic terranes have been recognised, including the Ophiolite Terranes or
Chewore Ophiolite, dated at 1393±22 Ma.

11.2.6. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent

The Grenville Orogenic Cycle (GOC), at about 1.1 – 1.0 Ga, is a worldwide orogenic system
responsible for the formation of Rodinia. The Kibaran Belt, the Sinclair Province and
Namaqua-Natal Belt along the western and southern margin of the Kalahari Craton express
the GOC on the African continent. On reconstruction of Gondwana, the Mozambique Belt in
southern Mozambique forms part of a high-grade metamorphic belt stretching from at least
Namaqualand through Natal (South Africa), through the Falkland Islands, Haag Nunatacks
(West Antarctica), through the Maud Province of Western Dronning Maud Land (Grantham
et al. 1988, 1997; Groenewald et al. 1991; Jacobs et al. 1993). This fold belt is believed to
have formed through collision and amalgamation of mostly juvenile crust onto the southern
and eastern margins of the Kalahari Craton during the formation of the Rodinia
Supercontinent (Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al. 1997; Wareham et al. 1998).
The Mozambique Belt along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton comprises
the ~ 2.0 Ga supracrustals of the Gairezi Groups and ~ 1100 Ma intrusive granitoids as well
as mafic intrusives and supracrustal migmatic gneisses of uncertain age of the Báruè
Complex17. The grade of metamorphism increases from west to east, from the low grade of
the Zimbabwe Craton (as demonstrated by the supracrustals of the Macequece and
M’Beza/Vengo Formations* of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt) to the high-grade of the

17
Inherited zircons have ages of ~ 1.83 Ga, 2.03 Ga and 2.50 Ga. The inherited zircons may indicate that the
granite has a sedimentary precursor or, alternatively, inherited the zircons from the neighbouring quartzites.

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Mozambique Belt, as demonstrated by two phases of deformation and two generations of

anatectic migmatisation (Manhiça et al. 2001).
Post-Umkondo dolerite dykes (constituting one or two generations, Sections 6.2.4,
6.3.3 and 6.3.4) have invaded both the lithologies of the Zimbabwe Craton and the
Mozambique Belt and, consequently, provide a link between both domains. The dykes show
progressive metamorphism from west to east. Dykes in the west still show a fine-grained
igneous texture, although plagioclase is partly saussuritised and pyroxene is partly replaced
by chlorite. Towards the east a metamorphic garnet-bearing paragenesis developed
manifesting amphibolite-facies conditions (Manhiça et al. 2001).
Migmatic gneisses show two phases of migmatisation. An early migmatic layering S1,
parallel to the gneissic layering, developed during D1/M1. A younger foliation S2 is discordant
to S1 and is composed of ~ N-S directed vertical lenses, typically 2 – 3 cm and > 10 cm in
length. In mafic N-S trending dykes the same deformation is show by strong deformation
along their margins and equally directed leucosomes. Elsewhere shallowly dipping S1 fabrics
are overprinted by N-S vertical shear zones. Shear sense indicators are sparse and suggest
sinistral displacements (Manhiça et al. 2001). S1 and S2 are related to the ~ 1100 Ma accretion
and ~ 500 Ma Pan-African overprinting of the Mozambique Belt.
The ~ 1100 Ma accretion has been interpreted to manifest a convergent margin setting
in which magmatic arc calc-alkaline rocks collided with the Kalahari Craton along its eastern
and southern margins (Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al. 1995, 2003; Wareham et al. 1998)
during the GOC. Whereas the thin-skinned Gairezi tectonic units have a parautochthonous
origin, the tectonic units that constitute the Báruè Complex are allochthonous thrust masses,
supposedly derived from Antarctica. The suture between the Kalahari Craton and Antarctica
is not known.
A-type megacrystic granitoids have been emplaced during the terminal stages of the
orogenic phase (e.g., in Natal, Namaqualand and megacrystic orthogneisses east of Chimoio,
SDS 1933) and often preserve Rapakivi textures and charnockitic mineralogy (Jacobs et al.
1993). These intrusives are related to a sinistral transpressional setting along the eastern and
southern margins of the Kalahari Craton. This apparently was a diachronous event.
Consequently, crystallisation ages decrease from north, with orthogneisses in the Chimoio
area yielding ages of > 1100 Ma (mean 207Pb/206Pb crystallisation age of 1112±18 Ma), to
south through Antarctica to Natal with U-Pb SHRIMP ages of 1093±6 Ma in Sverdrupfella
(Grantham and Armstrong, unpubl. data,), 1088±10 Ma in North Kirwanveggen (Harris,
1999) and 1070 to 1030 in Natal (B. Eglington, pers. comm. in Manhiça et al. 2001).

11.2.7. Post-Rodinia Break-up (Neoproterozoic)

Post-Rodinia break-up is not visible in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1).

11.2.8. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovician)

Consumption of the Mozambique Ocean can be correlated with the Pan-African assembly of
East and West Gondwana (Fig. 11.1). In the ~ 1100 Ma Proterozoic fold belts along the
eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton the Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (PAOC) is
expressed by thermal reactivation and metamorphic overprinting followed by cooling through
the ~ 350° C at ~ 553 Ma and ~ 468 Ma. The younger ages are confined to a N-S directed

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zone of strong shear that coincides with the eastern border of exposed Archaean rocks of the
Zimbabwe Craton.
Alternatively, this zone of maximum shear can be viewed as suture between East and
West Gondwana (cf. Jacobs and Thomas, 2004; Fig. 11.1). Manhiça et al. (2001) emphasised,
however, the absence of ophiolites and calc-alkaline igneous rocks that can be related to a
magmatic arc above a subduction zone having an age of ~ 850 – 750 Ma. Consequently, these
authors conclude that accretion of the Mozambique Belt to the Kalahari Craton and
amalgamation with Antarctica during the GOC was maintained after the break-up of Rodinia
but suffered repeated deformation and reactivation at ~ 550 Ma and 470 Ma during the Pan-
African Orogeny. The latter event involved the formation of N-S directed foliation with
neosomes, rehydration, retromorphism and migmatisation of the older rocks.

Fig. 11.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs and Thomas (2004). Key: ANS = Arabian-Nubian Shield;
EAAO = East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M = Madagascar; Da = Damaran; Z = Zambezi Belt.

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11.3. MOZAMBIQUE BASIN

11.3.1. Introduction

The Mozambique Basin overlies a passive continental margin formed in two stages:
• Karoo Rift Phase: Basin development was initiated during the Karoo Rift Event
(late Carboniferous to early Jurassic). It heralded the break-up of Pangea into a
northern continental mass Laurasia and a southern continental mass Gondwana
with the Tethys Ocean in between. In Mozambique it gave rise to an extending
volcanic platform during the Jurassic with development of rift structures.
• Neo-Tethys drift/rift phase: Unconstrained spreading with major basin
development commenced in the late Jurassic(?)/ early Cretaceous and lasted till the
Tertiary, involving the dispersal of Gondwana and the creation of the Indian and
South Atlantic oceanic basins. Brittle deformation during both phases is frequently
superposed on older, episodically rejuvenated weakness zones in the crystalline
basement (basement tectonics). A thermal sag basin development in the Tertiary.

11.3.2. Karoo Rift Phase

The huge amounts of volcanic rocks in the Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi monoclines are part
of the much larger Karoo Large Igneous Province (KLIP), which was emplaced in
southeastern Africa (Main Karoo basin in South Africa, Okavango dyke swarm in Botswana),
in Antarctica (e.g., Queen Maud Land) and in oceanic basalt plateaus in the Indian Ocean
(Explora Wedge, Andenes Escarpment) in Jurassic times (195 – 178 Ma), peaking around 183
Ma (Duncan et al. 1997) although others (e.g., Fitch and Miller, 1984) assume two major
periods of flood basalt production at 193±5 Ma and 178±5 Ma, respectively. The area
presently covered by Karoo volcanics amounts to 140 000 km². These are only the remnants
left behind after prolonged erosion or subsequent burial. The original lavas probably covered
some 2 million km² (Cox, 1970, 1972). The lavas are generally flat lying save in the Lebombo
and Sabi monoclines where angles up to 64° have been measured. On seismic sections, the
latter constitutes an eastward dipping monocline or flexure with complex fault structures.
Further eastwards, the Lebombo tilted volcanic sequence is mantled by an on-lapping (sub-)
horizontal Cretaceous and younger cover. The subsurface continuation of the Lebombo
monocline constitutes so-called proto-oceanic crust and forms the basement of the
Mozambique Basin (Oil and Gas, July 2001).
The intersection of the N-S to NNW-SSE trending Lebombo monocline with the ENE-
WSW to NE-SW trending Nuanetsi-Sabi monocline and the WNW-trending Okavango dyke
swarm is recognised as a Karroo triple junction (Botha and deWit, 1996; More and Larkin,
2001) sensu Burke and Dewey (1973). These three linear features are inherited from or
controlled by Pan-African and older weakness zones. The Okavango dyke swarm spatially
coincides with the Archaean Limpopo Mobile Belt, a zone affected by Early Proterozoic
transpressional and transtensional faulting, and relatively weak when compared to the stable
cratons to the north and the south. The Lebombo and Nuanetsi-Sabi monoclines can be
considered as large volcanic fissure-rifts that mark the eastern margin of the rising Kaapvaal
and Zimbabwe Cratons. Their location coincides with an important geodynamic break
between thick Archaean lithospheric upper mantle and modern lithospheric upper mantle of

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normal thickness. The fact that the Lebombo terminates at the southern end of the Kaapvaal
craton is therefore not coincidental.
Incipient rifting in the Lebombo monocline is characterised by ultra-potassic
volcanism as represented by Mashikiri nephelinites, picritic and high-(Ti,Zr) basaltic lavas
(Reid et al. 1997). Later on, as expected, the volcanics obtained a bimodal composition with
tholeiitic ‘within-plate’ basalts and rhyolites. The basalts (e.g., Sabie River Basalt Formation)
were generated by adiabatic decompression of upper mantle followed by underplating at the
boundary between upper mantle and lower crust. The quantity of rhyolites (> 30 000 km³) is
far larger than expected. The δ18O value of Lebombo rhyolites is lower than usual (6.5‰),
averaging around 5.6‰, with the lowest value being ~ 4.4‰. Cleverly et al. (1984)
concluded that the rhyolites were produced by partial melting of underplated Karoo-age
basalts at or near the base of the crust and not by re-melting of lower crust. The oxygen
isotope data suggest circulation of meteoric water to deep levels (10 – 15 km) as a
consequence of brittle fracturing of the crust at the time of gabbro underplating. Continued
decompression and melting of mainly juvenile underplated gabbro in the presence of meteoric
water produced the vast amounts of rhyolite magmas (Harris and Erlank, 1992).

11.3.3. Neo-Tethys Drift/Rift Phase

The Mozambique Basin covers an area of 185 000 km² onshore and some 100 000 km2
offshore down to the 500 m isobath. From deep wells (Fig. 11.2) five major depositional
sequences, separated from each other by angular unconformities and periods of non-
deposition or erosion, have been recognised and incorporated in a basin-wide stratigraphic
framework (Coster et al. 1989):
• Incipient Rift Phase/Early to Middle Cretaceous Transgression: Terrestrial to
marine deposition (Sequence 1), interrupted by Neocomian and Mid-Cretaceous
(Aptian) unconformities and volcanism of the Chilwa Alkaline Province.
• Continued Late Cretaceous transgression with mainly full marine conditions:
deposition of Domo Formation* and basin-wide intra-Senonian unconformity
(Sequence 2).
• Sequence 3: Lower and Upper Grudja Formation: Early Palaeocene unconformity
• Sequence 4: Cheringoma Formation. Late Eocene and the Intra-Oligocene
unconformity
• Sequence 5: Oligocene–Present ‘deltaic formations in the North, erosion and
redeposition products elsewhere (ref. 26).

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Fig. 11.2. Location of on- and offshore wells for hydrocarbon exploration (after Rusk, Bertagne and Associates and
TGS-NOPEC).

Early to Middle Cretaceous Incipient Rift Volcanism and Transgression

Post-Karroo basin development commenced with a new phase of rifting and volcanism as
manifested by the mixed volcano-sedimentary Lupata Group. The volcanic rocks (phonolites
and rhyolites with minor basalt) have alkaline affinities, are enriched in potassium and partly
quartz-undersaturated. Together with a number of carbonatite bodies and dyke swarms of
alkaline, granophyre or dolerite composition they are attributed to the Chilwa Alkaline

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Province defined by Bloomfield (1968). Volcanic activity is concentrated at Lupata Gorge

and Monte Dómuè dome (Tete and Tambara Map Sheets, SDS 1633 and 1634, Map
Explanation, Volume 2; GTK Consortium, 2006b) and along newly formed graben-bounding
faults as seen on seismic profiles (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). Sena sandstones are intruded
by pipes of olivine nephelinite. K-Ar dating from the 1960’s yields ages ranging from 130 Ma
to 106±7 Ma, i.e., Early to Middle Cretaceous (Gough et al. 1964; Flores, 1964; Vail, 1964,
1965).
During the middle Cretaceous period the interior of the continent was uplifted by an
estimated 1000 m. Over the adjacent Mozambique continent margin of plateau volcanics, this
caused tensile stresses and triggered graben formation and concurrent sedimentation.
Deepening grabens accommodated thick sequences of shaly marine sediments. Outside
grabens sediments are composed of different lithologies, are much thinner or completely
absent. On seismic data the seaward extension of both Lower and Upper Cretaceous gradually
thins and become discontinuous towards the East and South-East. In this direction continent
crust becomes oceanic crust of Cretaceous age.
From seismic reflection data there is also evidence for young basaltic intrusions in the
Oligocene and Miocene sedimentary units on the southern Mozambique Ridge. This is
suggestive of deformation even within the last few thousand years (Anahita et al. 2002). Early
Cenomanian to Late Aptian rifting with an E–W spreading centre was also identified in
northern Natal on the basis of magnetic anomalies and deep-sea drilling that found weathered
basalt overlain by volcanic ash (Anahita et al. 2002). Spreading amounted to ~ 170 km of N-S
extension between the continental Mozambique Ridge (i.e., the Limpopo plain) and
Antarctica, largely resolves the overlap that existed in pre-rift reconstructions between the
latter zones (Anahita et al. 2002)
The Albian – Cenomanian (and older?) transgression results in sedimentary sequences
of highly variable compositions, manifesting different facies:
• Sena Formation* with continental ‘red beds’ and coarse arkosic deposits in the
north and northwest and paralic and marine shales in the east.
• Lower Domo Formation* in the east with deep marine, shale-dominated sediments.
• Maputo Formation* in the south with clastic marine strata.

Red Bed deposits, attributed to the Sena Formation* and Tchazica Basal Sandstone
Formation* (Lupata Group) and associated volcanics herald the start of the development of
the Mozambique Basin during the Early Cretaceous (Barremian or older?). These attain their
maximum thicknesses in the Palmeira-, Chidunguela and Changani grabens (Figs. 9.2, 9.3 and
9.4). In the N-S directed Mazenga and Founhalouro rifts (Inhambane province) Early
Cretaceous deposition varies along the axes of the rifts and amounts to ~ 1000 m in Mazanga.
The Cretaceous transgression in this part of the basin took place over strongly altered
(?)Karoo volcanics. Bio-stratigraphic dating of the marine Cretaceous sediments was locally
facilitated by the presence of ammonite faunas, which, because of their rapid rate of
evolution, allowed to establish biozones of as little as half a million years.
The Lower Domo shale manifests the first transgressive cycle and consists of dark,
marine claystone and siltstone with bands of arkosic sandstone. The unit is 250 to 1500 m
thick, with 400 m in Domo-1 and less than 250 m in Zandamela-1. Eastward this unit grades
into continental slope- and continental rise sediments of the Sena Formation*.

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The ‘Domo sandstone’ is the basal part of the second transgressive cycle (Late
Cenomanian- Turonian) and has outcrops in the most southern region18. Time-wise it
corresponds with the Boane sandstones. In the Southern part of the Mozambique Basin the
Domo Formation* attains its maximum thickness in the grabens (800 m in Sunray-1), towards
the North of 23ºS the Cenomanian marine Domo thins and is gradually replaced by
continental Sena in the Zambezi delta depression (Pinna and Marteau, 1987).
The Maputo Formation* reflects coastal to open marine conditions with deposition of
conglomeratic sandstone and clayey to glauconitic marlstone. Its Barremian to Albian/Aptian
deposition was limited to the southern Mozambique. Conglomeratic intervals near its base
have been interpreted as a basal regression surface that advanced from the SE towards the N
over deeply weathered Karroo basalts. Some 8 km NNW of Catuane, greenish grey-brown,
tuffaceous and pebbly sandstones were observed containing volcanogenic epiclasts. This
sandstone is overlain by fine- to medium-grained sandstone, bearing molluscs and frequent
ammonites, corresponding to the Jofane transgression.
The Sena Formation* reflects the continental facies of basin subsidence. The Sena
Formation* is present over large areas of the central-western and northern part of the
Mozambique Basin. Laterally, this unit changes into the red beds of the Maputo Formation*
(in the south) or into the Lower Domo Formation* (in the east). The Sena Formation* is
characterised by arkosic, medium- to coarse-grained sandstone and conglomerates. Pebbles
are composed of granite, gneiss, quartzite, and, sometimes, rhyolites and alkaline lavas
derived from the crystalline basement and Karoo volcanics (Lächelt, 2004). Pollen analysis
from drill core between 1685 and 2987 meters of depth indicate an Albian-Turonian age for
the Sena Sandstones (Gondwana, 2006).
In the eastern part of the Mozambique Basin, the Sena Formation* has been
recognised in well and seismic data and is mentioned to attain a thickness of 2000 m in the
Zambezi delta depression (Pinna and Marteau, 1987). In southeastern Zimbabwe, palaeo-current
directions are consistently to the south and ESE (Moore and Larkin, 2001). Continental
sandstones and conglomerates of the Sena Formation* were deposited at the inner margin of
the modern coastal plain (Fig. 11.3). Marine sediments were deposited on the outer margin,
with the main depositional basin in the vicinity of the mouth of the modern Save River, where
the sequence exceeds 1.5 km in the subsurface (Moore and Larkin, 2001).

Fig. 11.3. West-East sketch over the southernmost part of Mozambique (~ 80 km), to illustrate that late tilting
and uplift of the African continent resulted in multiple stages of erosion, sedimentation and re-sedimentation.
The vertical stratigraphic order contains multiple hiatuses.

18
No locality mentioned.

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The Sena Formation*, the Elefantes / Singuedeze Formation* and the South African
Malonga Formation19 consist all of irregularly bedded units of coarse sandstone with pebble-
streaks and massive sandy conglomerates in places alternating with pedogenitically-altered
siltstone intervals.

Campanian-Maastrichtian Regression
The Maputo, Domo and Sena Formations* have been deposited during the large and
prolonged Senonian transgression. These are discordantly overlain by shallow marine clastics
in the subsurface that are referred to as Lower Grudja Formation*, dated as Campanian-
Maastrichtian (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). The combined Upper Domo shale and Lower
Grudja are widespread in the central part of the basin where the Grudja attains 1100 – 1200 m
in thickness. The Lower Grudja represents the first marine facies in the Zambezi graben
(Pinna and Marteau, 1987).
Upper Cretaceous rocks occur west of the Inhaminga horst and along both sides of the
Búzi River. In the southern part of the basin the Lower Grudja is absent from elevated horsts
and plateaus because of erosion during the Maastrichtian-early Palaeocene. The Senonian20
transgression just covers the Inhaminga horst and Búzi plateaus. The Grudja Formation* was
elevated in the Vilankulos-Inhambane area. It deepened around the Save River mouth. In the
subsurface going eastwards, sand intercalations disappear and gradually give way to deeper
water, shaly and silty deposits. These shales are overlying the east-dipping, continental
palaeo-slope.
The Cretaceous sedimentation corresponds to a set of tectonic events affecting the
basement and the Karoo cover, verified by the opening of the Indian Ocean. This distensive
tectonics resulted in the creation of troughs and grabens, separated by ridges and horsts, and
by an important subsidence of certain portions of the continental margin. So, the deposits
thicknesses and the influence of the debris deposition are important, even for the marine
deposits.
The stratigraphic framework of the Mozambique Basin consists of four erosion-
bounded depositional cycles, internally complicated by minor sequence boundaries (Chapter
9):
• Drift Mega-sequence 1: Lupata and Sena Red Beds, Maputo Formation*.
Initiation of the Early to Middle Cretaceous transgression occurring earlier in the
southern portion of basin (= Maputo Formation*) – shallow marine sandstones and
limestones.
• Sequence 2: Domo: major Mid Cretaceous drowning of shelf. Lower Domo and
regressive Domo sandstone. This section thins southwards. To the West Domo
grades into continental slope facies where fan complexes are wide spread. Upper
Domo Formation is overall regressive, dark grey, marine clay and glauconitic
sandstone and siltstone (600 – 650 m). Towards the South this package becomes
condensed or is even removed over highs (intra-Senonian unconformity).

19
The stratigraphic/genetic relations of the Sena and other similar looking ‘red’ formations of coarse sandstone
and conglomerate is not consistent and need improvement
20
Senonian: Late Cretaceous period between Coniacian and Tertiary.

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• Sequence 3: Grudja Formation – infill of basin by clastics, then when clastic input
is diminished > switch to carbonates in the Early Tertiary. In places this formation
is removed during the Early Eocene unconformity. The Upper Grudja is laterally
continuous but is eroded away in the southern portion of basin. Late Eocene
flooding results in nummulitic and reefal limestones of the regressive Cheringoma
Formation.
• Sequence 4: are shallow shelf mixed carbonate / clastic deposists of the Miocene
Inharrime Formation., Temane Formation and Late Miocene Jofane Formation.
The Late Miocene unconformity is strongly erosive. These shelf deposits are
broken by a seaward prograding delta sequence in the wider Zambezi depression,
offshore and below the self-break passing into slope turbidites.

The subsurface sedimentary sequence strongly differs from the surface and near
surface sediments in Mozambique.
• The Middle Miocene Jofane Formation (Lower Miocene) consists of limestone
being on the average 220 m thick, sandy limestone, sandstone.
• Early Temane Formation; anhydrite, 140 m shaly dolomite, sandstone and
limestone.
• Early Miocene Inharrime Formation are red beds interbedded with dolomite and
limestone, 160 m thick
• Eocene Cheringoma nummulitic limstone and glauconitic sandstone and marl, 140
m.thick
• Lower Eocene/ Upper Paleocene; Upper Grudja; marl intercalated with glauconitic
sandstone and limestone, 490 m thick.
• Upper Cretaceous Lower Grudja, clay with interbeds of glauconitic sand, 830m
thick.
• Middle/ Upper Cretaceous, Upper Domo Formation mostly consists of shale, 625m
sitting at 2000 – 2500 m depth.
• Middle/ Early Cretaceous Lower Domo, 95 m thick, consists of quartz-sand
interbedded with dark shale (95 m thick at 2700 m). The continental equivalent of
Lower Domo is the Sena Formation. consisting of arkosic sandstone, red and grey
clay and intercalations of limestone and minor anhydrite.

Palaeocene passive continental margin

Towards the end of the Cretaceous the Mozambique Basin becomes a true, passive
continental margin. During the Palaeocene-Eocene and Oligocene-Neogene two sedimentary
cycles took place. The Palaeocene-Eocene period saw very little detrital influx and is
dominated by marine limestones. The unconformity-bounded Upper Grudja formation* is
dated as of Palaeocene-Lower Eocene age (Lächelt, 2004). This Formation* ranges from 300
– 400 m in thickness and is dominated by glauconitic sandstones, siltstone and marl
interbedded with minor limestone. These deposits reflect a shallow water shelf, eastwards
deepening to continental slope.

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Eocene Transgression
Eocene marine limestones of the Cheringoma Formation* are exposed over ~ 50 km along the
Búzi River towards the west and then towards the SSE. Similar rocks crop out extensively in
the karstic Cheringoma plateau, where the formation is about 70 m thick and rests
discordantly on the Palaeocene Grudja Formation. At the Save River mouth the marl-
limestone sequence attains 130 – 160 m to increase to 500 m at the Zambezi River mouth
(Lächelt, 2004). South of the Save River, the Cheringoma Formation* is restricted to a sub-
basin between Inhambane and Pomene that was isolated from an uplifted area between
Pomene and Vilanculo. The rock facies at the Cheringoma type-locality is interpreted as a
shallow marine, high-energy region within the photic zone. Eastward and towards deeper
offshore areas of the carbonate ramp (Fig. 11.4), these limestones grade into marly limestone
and calcareous marlstone.
In the extreme south, along the Maputo River, the Eocene is represented by the
Salamanga Formation* that discordantly overlies the Cretaceous Maputo Formation*. The 3 –
5° E-dipping Salamanga Formation* with a thickness ranging from 11 m in the SW to 56 m
towards the NE, is composed of heterogeneous layers comprising sandy limestone and
calcareous sandstone with bioclastic limestones.
Detailed well correlation and seismic interpretation identified three transgressive reef
levels in the Zambezi Delta depression with Palaeocene, early Eocene and middle late Eocene
ages. These reef barriers represent back-stepping shelf edge build-ups separating inner reef-
shoals from outer, open shelf environments (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). Most limestones of
the Cheringoma and Salamanga Formations* represent deposits from the inner-reef shoals.

Fig. 11.4. Possible analogue of Eocene carbonate ramp depicting shelf-edge reefal build-ups that protect an
inner, back-barrier shelf with deposition of extensive carbonate grainstone or oolithic shoals (e.g., Cheringoma
and Jofane limestones). In more quiet, low-energy parts of the lagoon carbonate mud or micrite may be
deposited. The seaward side of the shelf-edge gives way to sub-marine canyons and feeder channels (known
from drill holes in the Zambezi Delta depression) for turbidite deposits beyond the continental break (adapted
and simplified from www.dst.unito.it/bacheca).

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Late Eocene regression and Oligocene erosive event

From the late Eocene continuing throughout the Oligocene a eustatic sea level fall occurred.
In the upper Oligocene this regression accelerated as a response to a drastic rise of the African
continent. This resulted almost everywhere in the Mozambique Basin in erosion, except for a
small evaporite basin near the mouth of the Save River. South of this small evaporite basin
deposition of marine sediments continues, reaching a thickness of 900 m in well Domo-1.
Oligocene deposits are only sub-outcropping in the offshore Zambezi Delta depression
where clastic weathering products have been derived form the western inlands and
accumulated in the large delta-complexes of the combined Zambezi, Búzi and Punge Rivers
(Pinna et al. 1987), a process that continued throughout the Neogene and Quaternary. Since
supply rates exceed subsidence, delta-platform progradation has been established (Fig. 11.5).
This can be observed as large-scale clinoforms in seismic data, in places incised by large-
scale channels (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). These stacked deltaic strata attain a thickness of
1000 m in well Zambezi-1 (Pinna et al. 1987). It appears that the palaeo-Zambezi River is the
principal transporting agent for clastic erosion products, while in the palaeo-delta complex of
Limpopo River deposition were restricted to the sub-aerial delta plain. The latter indicates that
the Limpopo River was no longer a major fairway for sediments to the Natal basin.

West East

Late Miocene-
Pliocene Delta

Palaeocene-early
Miocene Grudja
Fm

Fig. 11.5. Palaeogene-Neogene period in Mozambique. Episodes of incision in the western reaches of the Basin.

Lower and Middle Miocene transgression

The main Oligocene regressive event was followed by a gradual transgression. In the vast
area between the Zambezi and Limpopo palaeo-deltas, very shallow, restricted marine to
lagoonal deposits mark the early phase of the transgression. This lower Miocene consists of
beds of red dolomite, red clay and silt/sandstone with local intercalations of anhydrite. This
100 to 350 m thick succession, referred to as Inharrime Formation* (Salman and Abdullah,
1995), unconformably covers the Cheringoma Formation*.

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Subsequently, a small evaporite basin developed in the central part near the mouth of
the Save River. The latter, referred to as Temane Formation*, further comprises dark-grey
marly claystones and siltstones with intercalations of gypsum-bearing limestone and minor
sands, totalling 200 m thickness in the subsurface of the Temane-Pande area (Pinna and
Marteau, 1978). The Temane Formation* may pass gradually into the Inharrime Formation*.
The transgression culminated towards the end of lower Miocene and led to shallow
marine and coastal sedimentation passing westwards into continental sedimentation (Table
11.1). The most extensive Miocene deposition occurred in the east and is represented by
calcarenitic and bioclastic limestones of the Jofane Formation* extending from Inhambane all
the way northwards to the Save River (Pinna and Marteau, 1978). Together with the
Inharrime and Temane Formations*, the Jofane Formation* grades westwards into continental
clastics, attributed to the Divinhe Formation* (Mamad, 2005).

Table 11.1. Neogene stratigraphy.

Pliocene – Marrumbene Fm*

Combined clastic
Post- Early Miocene – Chicolane Fm* (sandy, gres and conglomerate) equivalent in the
Early Miocene -- Jofane Fm* West is called
- Upper Member; Calcarios de Urrungas Divinhe Fm*
- Lower Member; Gressoso do Cabe
Temane Fm* - near Save mouth, local evaporite
Inharimhe Fm* - restricted, lagoonal

Oligocene -- uplift and abrupt regression, erosion and initiation of coarse clastic delta
deposition in the larger Zambezi delta depression; continuing all
through Neogene.

The marine Middle Miocene succession of the Jofane Formation* mostly occurs in
coastal zones south of Save River where it reaches 150 – 180 m in thickness (Pinna and
Marteau, 1978). These mostly subhorizontally bedded limestones overlie the Temane
evaporite (Salman and Abdullah, 1995). The best outcrops are present near Urrungos and
Jofane around the Save River. An abundant microfauna includes echinoderms, gastropods,
molluscs and crustaceans and an assemblage of 13 species indicated as of Lower Miocene age
(Barrocoso, 1968).
The Oligocene – Lower Miocene in deep subsurface wells is largely marine, in
Zandamela3 and Domo3 it becomes more euxinic /lagoonal and finally evaporitic in the
Temane and Mambone wells.

Late Miocene unconformity and Pliocene transgression

The late Miocene to Pliocene was a period of uplift, strong weathering and erosion and
resulted in a major basin-wide unconformity (Beernaert, 1987). This is demonstrated, e.g., by
well Nhachangue-1 where all previously deposited Miocene is removed. The basal
conglomerate of the Pliocene is erosion resistant and covers discordantly the Pliocene
pediplain. In an E-W transect from Bela Vista to Rio Changalane, the Pliocene basal
conglomerate progressively overlies first the Upper Eocene then Lower Cretaceous and
Jurassic. This incoherent basal conglomerate descends from +140 m above sea level near Rio

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dos Elefantes to + 2 m at Bela Vista. Along the Rio Uaneteze this conglomerate descends
from +140 to +35 m over 60 km distance. Its quartzite pebbles are derived from the Kaapvaal
and/or Zimbabwe Cratons. Guide fossils of the Pliocene transgression are giant Ostrea shells
(Beernaert, 1987).
By creating maps of porosity-removed sediment thickness from Quaternary delta
deposits, one can calculate sediment load as a function of time and, in this way, reconstruct
what rock volumes were eroded from the continent (Moore and Larkin, 2001).
Various red, coarse sandstones, usually with a basal conglomerate of less than one m
thick overlie the Pliocene marine rocks. Examples comprise Santaca hill (Salamanga) and
Estevel hill (Boane). Both sequences attain some 30 m thickness (Beernaert, 1987). Near the
railway bridge in Boane, early Cretaceous outcrops are unconformably covered by a basal
boulder layer (Fig. 11.6), overlain by red ferruginous sandstones and attaining 30 m in
thickness21. The decimetre-sized boulders are composed of 70% rhyolite and 30% basalt and
are set in a coarse, red, iron oxide-coated sand matrix (Beernaert, 1987).

Miocene Conglomerate

Fig. 11.6. Exposures of ferruginous silt- and sandstones of the Paleocene Maputo Formation* near the Boane
railway bridge. The deposit shows loadcast and diagenetic concretionary features and secondary mottling due
to reduction by plant roots. Miocene conglomerates, showing channelling (arrow), overlie the deposit. Parts of
the sand-sized matrix consist of sand showing clear quartz grains. Rounded boulders are of volcanic origin,
i.e., rhyolitic or basaltic in composition. The high degree of rounding of the boulders may indicate
considerable transport or reworking. Pebbles and boulders are not imbricated, but display an overall fining
upward.

21
Stratigraphic and genetic relations are yet not sufficiently defined due to an overall similarity of coarse
ferruginous sandy and conglomeratic deposits.

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The Pliocene transgression is manifested by the Magude Formation*, which consists

of a 20 m thick succession of limestone, marly to sandy marl and vaguely cross-bedded, very
fine ferruginous to slightly calcareous sands to gravel and occurs over a vast area SW of the
Uaneteze River forming isolated hills and in the river valleys of the Incomati River. A type
section is mentioned to exist some 4.5 km West of Magude and south of 25º S along the Rio
Elefantes to Limpopo up to ‘Aldeia de Baragem’.
Unlike the early Miocene Jofane Formation*, Upper Miocene and Pliocene strata on
the Cheringoma Plateau are dominantly continental. These deposits, that unconformably
overlie the Urrungos limestones, are known as Inhaminga Purple Sandstone Formation and
the Mazamba Sandstone Formation. The best outcrops for Inhaminga Purple Sandstones are
situated at the Massamba River, about 25 km SW of Inhaminga.
The ~ 150 m thick Mazamba (Sandstone) Formation* overlies the Inhaminga Purple
Sandstones and consists of poorly cemented, brown-yellowish, medium- to coarse-grained
arkosic sandstones with occasional conglomerate lenses. The principal outcrops occur along
the upper reaches of the Massamba River about 25 km SW of Inhaminga and in a large part of
the Cheringoma Plateau. A similar unit, in the past referred to as Chicolane Formation22, was
found further south on both sides of the Save River.
Another Pliocene marine deposit is the 10 – 20 m thick Morrumbene Formation23*.
Marine Pliocene strata along the Rio Uaneteze include the Tembe or Santaga Fomations
(Beernaert, 1987).

Pleistocene and Holocene

During the late Cainozoic rapid uplift (or lowering of sea level) is marked by development of
headway river-canyons that occur in Mozambique near Cahora Bassa and in southern Africa
at various localities. Canyon development coincides with periods of increased sediment
transport to the offshore (Moore and Larkin, 2001). The Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene
consist essentially of reworked and winnowed weathering products.
The Pleistocene consists of red and consolidated, mostly slightly eroded dune sands.
These deep-red, iron-coated sands are underlying Maputo City, and form the present
elevations or hills around Macia, Marracuene and Maputo City. In places these aeolian sands
accumulated into huge dunes with a wavelength of some 4 km. Trains of such dunes define
large palaeo-coastline ridges in the area between Xai-Xai and Morrumbene (Fig. 11.7). These
ridges, visible from remote images, mark the consecutive positions of a SSE-ward migrating
coastline during the Pleistocene period. It means that these coastlines are not only the result of
migrating dunes, but also adjustment of a static, aeolian coastal barrier complex that became
uplifted (Fig. 11.8).

22
Several recurring outcrops consisting of poorly sorted, immature, coarse and conglomeratic sandstones with
variegated reddish colours, are all suspected to represent one redeposition product occurring over vast areas.
These are the Mazamba Fm, the Magude Fm and the Chicolane Fm. and many outcrops along the Limpopo ,
Uaneteze and Elefantes rivers.
23
This single occurrence of this non-exclusive lithology does not warrant the use of a ‘formation’ as a mappable
unit.

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Sedimentolo

Fig. 11.7. Field aspects of ENE-WSW running Pleistocene mega-dune ridges in Xai-Xai Province. These
ridges are easily discernable from relief-shaded SRTM images. Arrows indicate position and direction of view
of photographs. Right-upper: road intersecting the mega-dune ridges. Right-below: Large lagoons near
Inharrime in-between the Pleistocene dune ridges (green arrow).

Fig. 11.8. Panoramic view towards the east over the Rio Incomati valley at Marracuene. In foreground are
weathered and partly eroded Pleistocene dunes. The Incomati River presumably follows the outlines of the
Palmeira Graben.

The Holocene (post-glacial) transgression first drowned the foot of the outer
Pleistocene dunes that subsequently became altered and cemented within the shallow marine
realm (Fig. 11.9). These rocks appear as medium-grained very calcareous sandstones with
remnants of high-angle aeolian cross-bedding, later burrowed by marine in-fauna.
Subsequently, these deposits have been uplifted and exposed. This resulted in what is called
beach sandstone or ‘beach rock’, exposed as a wave abrasion platform on many beaches in
Mozambique (and SE South Africa). Most of the Holocene consists of recent alluvium and
inland- and coastal dunes.

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Fig. 11.9. Coastal Sandstone

or Beach Rock beds, with
average thickness of 50 cm,
overlain by recent aeolian
dunes in back ground.

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CHAPTER 12

MINERAL RESOURCES

12.1. INTRODUCTION
Mozambique has a large and diverse, unexploited mineral resources potential. Despite this
mineral wealth, commercial mining has played a relatively minor role in the development of
the country’s economy. The situation is changing now mainly due to production of natural gas
and the development of world-class coal and ‘black sand’ deposits. The planned production of
gold, rare earth minerals and tantalite from pegmatites and industrial minerals will further
increase the contribution from the extractive industry. The main reasons for the low utilisation
of the country’s mineral resources have been, amongst others, an incomplete geological
database and weak infrastructure – lack of transport and energy supply – which hampers
exploitation of resources. Lack of internal and external venture capital has further contributed
to a slow development of an industry-scale mineral sector.
Irrespective the above, artisanal miners and prospectors have played an important role
in the local economy, especially at the village level. Their activities have resulted in
identification and exploitation of deposits of gold, gemstones and construction materials.
Gold in greenstone belts E of Lake Niassa in northern Mozambique was first found and
panned by local prospectors. The majority of gemstones in the Alto Ligonha pegmatite field
are still mined by local artisanal miners.
To utilize the nation’s mineral wealth, the National Directorate of Geology (DNG),
with support of private mining companies and bilateral and multilateral missions has carried
out significant exploration work during the past decades. This has led to the discovery of
important deposits of coal, heavy mineral sands, gold, tantalum-niobium, phosphates and
dimension stone as well as aggregate, clay and gravel. Several of these deposits are currently
in a development stage. Mineral resource development, in a manner that is mutually attractive
and beneficial for the foreign investor and for the Government of Mozambique, has been
made a national economic priority.
As a consequence of increased geological knowledge, facilitated by the activities of
the Mineral Resources Management Capacity Building Project, investments in Mozambique’s
mineral potential by leading international and regional mining companies is already
increasing. Global mining houses are expected to invest in exploration for energy minerals
(hydrocarbons, coal and uranium), for titanium and zirconium in heavy mineral sands, for
gold, diamonds and other gemstones, for agro-minerals lime and phosphate and for tantalum,
fluorite and other industrial minerals. Production of construction material could benefit a lot
from local investments and enterprises.
The Archaean Mutare-Manica Greenstone Belt hosts high potential for gold, copper,
nickel, asbestos and iron ore resources. Lode and placer gold deposits have been mined for
decades in this region. Small industrial-grade bauxite deposits are mined at Moriangane near
Manica. Other areas with bauxite occurrences and further potential are Monte Salambidua in
Tete Province and Monte Mauze in Zambezia Province.

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Metasediments of the Proterozoic Gairezi and Umkondo Groups along the frontier
with Zimbabwe host showings of iron, copper and limestone. Graphite is found in Proterozoic
gneisses and schists, often in the proximity of limestones, as small disseminations or as
narrow veins and small lenses. In northeastern Mozambique, near Alto Ligonha, pegmatites
host significant tantalum resources in association with subordinate columbium, antimony and
bismuth as well as lithium minerals, industrial and gem quality beryl and quartz, mica and
feldspar. Tantalum and niobium are the most important resource with immediate mining
potential. World-class coal deposits occur in the lower part of the Karoo Supergroup. The Rio
de Janeiro-based CVRD is involved in a major steam coal and coking coal project near
Moatize, expected to start production in 2009. These deposits are among the biggest and most
important mineral resources of Mozambique in addition to extensive world class heavy
mineral ‘black sand’ deposits along the coast in dunes and beach sands.
Fluorite occurs in Mesozoic fractures in association with the Karoo and/or Cretaceous
rift evolution and in carbonatite intrusions, e.g. Monte Muambe, SE of Tete. Indications of
hydrocarbons are encountered in the Rovuma Basin in the north and the Mozambique Basin
in the south. This includes gas production from the Cretaceous Grudja Formation. Potential
for oil has been reported from the off-shore Mozambique Basin. The Eocene Cheringoma and
the Miocene Jofane Formations contain large resources of limestone, halite and gypsum.
The southern half of Mozambique, south of the 20th parallel (this Map Explanation), is
to a large extent covered by Phanerozoic rocks. The economically most potential mineral
resources of this area are the natural gas fields in Inhambane and the heavy mineral sands
along the coastal zone from Maputo to Inhambane. Industrial rocks and minerals represent
another important resource. These include materials such as crushed rhyolite and limestone in
Maputo Province, which, together with sand, gravel and various types of clay, are the
backbone of the growing construction industry. Possibilities for creating a stronger market for
good quality diatomite resources in Maputo and Gaza Province, replacing imported material,
should obviously be a priority. Most of the bentonite from Boane is exported without further
treatment. More marketing and product development are required in order to add value and
increase revenues. Resources of thermal water are abundant along the rift faults of the
mountain ridges in the western border area with South Africa and Zimbabwe. Demand for
good quality mineral water is steadily growing both for local consumption and for export. The
southernmost indications of coal in Karoo strata are in Espungabera (SDS 2032), close to the
Zimbabwe Border in Manica Province. Alluvial, micro-sized diamonds have been found in
the Limpopo and Singédzi rivers in Gaza Province, probably transported by the rivers from
the South African Kaapvaal Craton. Sedimentary deposits of phosphorite (0.7 – 3.1%P2O5)
are located near Magude, 85 km NNW from Maputo in calcarenites of the Jofane Formation*.
(TeJco). According to Manhiça (1991) the deposits are 25 – 50 m thick and have a glauconite
content of 50%. In addition there are reserves of bat guano in the Buzi area estimated by
Lächelt (1985) at 132 700 tonnes with 3.3% NO3, 3.9% P2O5 and 1.5% K2O.
A list of mineral occurrences within the area of this Map Explanation has been
extracted from the Mineral Occurrence Data Base compiled by the GTK Consortium. The
occurrences are listed based on primary commodity and size (App.12.1).

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12.2. INDUSTRIAL MINERALS

12.2.1. Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in Heavy Mineral Sands

Introduction
Based on its extensive heavy mineral sand (HMS) deposits located along most of its 2700 km
coastline Mozambique has the potential to become the world’s foremost producer of ilmenite
(for TiO2). A few major companies have recently been active in completing feasibility studies
on potential mining projects. The deposits occurring in the area of this map explanation are
briefly described below.

Chibuto
The Corridor Sands scheme (Fig. 12.1), at the mouth of the Limpopo River, about 190 km
north of Maputo and 50 km inland from the present coast line, close to the town of Chibuto in
the southern province of Gaza, was a major discovery in 1997. Australia's Western Mining
Corporation (WMC) took over exploration in 2000. The Chibuto deposit (SDS 2533,
554556/7272167) is one of the largest heavy mineral deposits in the world with an estimated
lifespan of well over a hundred years. It has a resource of at least 14 000 Mt of ilmenite-rich
sands at an average heavy mineral grade of 4.9% (MBendi statistics, 22.05.2006). WMC
reported in 2003 a measured resource of 1.765 Mt @ 4.14% ilmenite and an indicated
resource, containing 73 Mt of ilmenite (Fig. 12.1). The heavy mineral concentrations are
characterised by the absence of Cr-, V- and radioactive minerals and the thickness of heavy
mineral bearing (>2% HM) layers may be locally up to 70 m (Lächelt, 2004).

Fig. 12.1. Large sampling pit for pilot

testing, Chibuto HMS deposit
(‘Corridor Sands’).

Environmental approval for the project was granted in September 2002. WMC agreed
in 2003 to spend US$ 500 million on the mining project including infrastructure. The capacity
of the processing plant was designed for a production of up to 400 000 tpa of sulphate and
chloride titanium dioxide slag, with a by-product output of nearly 200 000 tpa of iron,
together with rutile and zircon. WMC, Southern Mining Corporation from Johannesburg, and

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the Industrial Development Corporation of South Africa were in 2004 involved in preparing
of a Bankable Feasibility Study.
In June 2005 BHP Billiton took over WMC and, consequently, the Chibuto heavy
mineral sands project. BHP Billiton is, however, also a 50% joint venture partner in the
Richards Bay Minerals (RBM) project in South Africa, with the other 50% owned by Rio
Tinto. RBM is one of the world’s largest titanium producers. The planned high production
level of Chibuto (eventually 1 Mt of titanium slag per year) could negatively affect titanium
prices thereby reducing the income from RBM. In addition the price of energy will be a key
question that has to be solved prior to the start-up decision, having in mind the current
shortage of energy in southern Africa.
The market outlook in June 2006 for titanium minerals continues to be positive, driven
by strong pigment demand especially in China. Industry analysts forecast tight ilmenite
markets to continue for the coming 2 – 3 years. Demand for zircon continues to be very strong
and prices have increased (currently US$ 700/t for premium grade).

Xai-Xai
Italian Aquater SPA started HMS exploration in the early 1980’s along the coast at Xai-Xai
near Chongoene (Aquater 1985). The company carried out follow-up exploration in 1997.
Recent exploration by Rio Tinto has concentrated on Map Sheet 2533 at Xai-Xai (Albanese,
2005). Rio Tinto Exploration delineated a significant HMS resource and work is ongoing
(Fig. 12.2).

Fig. 12.2. Subhorisontal heavy

mineral layers (black) in dune sand in
Xai-Xai (SDS 2533, 573724/
7223328).

The grade of heavy minerals in Xai-Xai is reported to be lower than in Chibuto

(Lächelt, 2004). Aquater (1985) reported a resource of 480 Mt grading 6% total heavy
minerals (THM). Measured mineral resources are reported at 189 Mt @4.3% THM, indicated
982Mt @ 2.6% THM and inferred 879Mt @2.9% THM. Rio Tinto acknowledged total
reserves of 186 Mt @ 4.4% THM, of which 59.6 Mt in the proved, 112.7 Mt in the probable
and 13.8 Mt in the possible category (RTZ, 2004). The deposit is said to contain 49 Mt of
THM concentrate with 66% of ilmenite, 0.4% of zircon and 0.5 – 0.7% rutile.

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Other ‘Black Sand’ prospects

Rio Tinto has carried out extensive exploration in Inhambane Province and reported
considerable ilmenite resources (RTZ, 2004). Other ilmenite occurrences in the province of
Inhambane are known at Mexecane (SDS 2235, 760779/7518850) and further to the south at
Tofo-Miramar (SDS 2335, 759688/7358192 and 754757/ 7367522). Other heavy mineral
concentrations are located along several coastal sections, starting from the north, at Inhassoro
(SDS 2135, 722834/7628368, 731286/7615324, 727888/7619061 and 734639/7607888). Still
further south along the coast heavy minerals have been located at Guiguane (SDS 2435,
745727/ 7336275) and at Jangamo (SDS 2435, 752043/ 7310310). Grass-roots exploration
around the Limpopo River estuary highlighted several prospects (SDS 2533, 562967/
7212760 and 553743/ 7216487). Heavy mineral concentrations are also found S of Maputo
(Ponta de Ouro, SDS, 2632486751E/ 7035709, Ponta Malongane, 486757/ 7030172,
Madejanine, 490054/ 7044938, Ponta Mamoli, 490057 /7041250N and Lagoa Piti at 490036/
7067089 and at 491712/7048639).

12.2.2. Bentonite

Bentonite occurs as a weathering product of rhyolites and rhyolitic tuffs of the Karoo
volcanics distributed in the Pequenos Libombos range. In Boane, a zone measuring ~ 2 km
long and 500 m wide with an average thickness of 6 m, has been calculated to contain 15 Mt
of bentonite (Lächelt, 2004). The Boane bentonite has a typical chemical composition of SiO2
73.8%, Al2O3 13.8%, Fe2O3 1.0%, TiO2 0.13%, CaO 1.73%, MgO 2.5%, K2O 0.12% and
Na2O 1.9% (Noticia Explicativa da Carta de Jazigos e Occurrencias Minerais, escala 1:2 000
000, 1974). Production of low-grade bentonite is ongoing in Boane. The estimated production
in 2005 of Na-treated bentonite was 547 tonnes, which is in line with the average production
during the last decade. The product is exported. A total of 17 380 tons of milled bentonite was
produced the same year, which is also in line with the production of previous years.
Bentonite has been found at various other locations over a distance of 40 – 60 km in
rhyolite ridges of the Pequenos Libombos and is mined in some places, such as Luzinada
(SDS 2632, 424394/ 7119062). The thickness of bentonite developed along Pequenos
Libombos ranges from a few metres to up to 20 m, depending apparently on the intensity of
weathering, which, in turn, is controlled by the density of fracture zones, which is higher in
volcanic glass and in rhyolites of a certain composition. The mineralogical composition of the
bentonite is given for fraction <0.063 mm (96% of the bentonite) containing montmorillonite
54%, cristobalite 35%, kaolinite 5%, calcite/dolomite 1 – 3%, quartz 2% and for fraction
>0.063 mm (only 4% of the bentonite) containing cristobalite 70%, calcite/dolomite 25% and
quartz 5 – 10% (Lächelt 2004).
The total reserves of the Boane-Pequeno Libombos bentonite deposits have been
estimated at 2.5 Mt in proven category and 4.2 Mt in probable category (Noticia Explicativa,
1995).

12.2.3. Diatomite

Diatomite or Kieselguhr has accumulated in many fluvial and lagoonal depressions between
Pleistocene dunes from Inhambane in the north to Matituine south of Maputo. The diatomite
was deposited in rivers, small lakes and ponds under brackish to fresh water conditions. The

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deposits are usually small with a maximum thickness of 1.5 – 2.5 m. The Boane and Manhiça
occurrences are best known. Contents of organic remnants in diatomite vary between 63 –
87%, the SiO2 content between 60 – 80% while the Fe content is less than 1%.

Manhiça
The diatomite occurrence can be accessed using a track that starts 6 km S of Manhiça town
and runs 11 km to the west. The main pit (the so-called Diane deposit, Fig. 12.3), in
production since 2005, is located on Map Sheet 2532 (463968/7193482). The horizontal
diatomite layer measures 60 x 50 m and is about 0.8 to 1.0 m thick at an average depth of 8 m
below the surface (Fig. 12.4). The local stratigraphy (from top to bottom) is Aeolian sand /
very sandy diatomite / diatomite / alluvial sand / duricrust / diatomite / very sandy diatomite /
alluvial sand. Estimated reserves are 1.5 Mt with an average bulk density of 0.32 g/cm³ and
grading 50% pure diatomite (Afonso and Marques, 1993). Alvor and Marina are additional
deposits in the same zone, currently not in production, containing estimated reserves 0.96 Mt
and 1.5 MT, respectively, with 50 – 77% pure diatomite. The Manhiça diatomite layers are
distributed over a surface area of 1100 km² (Cilek, 1989). The mineral resources are sufficient
for current demand. Diatomite is screened and split into various qualities on the spot and
exported by train to customers in South Africa. Diatomite is locally used as an additive to
cattle food in the fight against parasites and other sicknesses. For now, the real added value to
these products is still made abroad. Instead of utilizing this thoroughly studied and tested
domestic resource, commercial diatomite products are imported into Mozambique.
Between Magode and Chokwe, Gaza Province, diatomite has been deposited in the
southern margin of the East African Rift. Close to the village of Zimbene, diatomite is
outcropping around several water holes (Lagoa Ramo, SDS 2433, 509863/7245534, Fig. 12.5.
and at Maduaine, 511773/7249649). Further investigations are warranted to establish if there
is enough volume for commercial exploitation of diatomite. Another large diatomite domain,
measuring ~ 70 x 10 km, occurs ~ 100 km to the ENE (SDS 2434) around the Mafuiane
(639110/7284812) and Buana (642526/7284162) occurrences. No roads lead to this diatomite
domain although several tracks cut the area. Further fieldwork is required to establish its
commercial potential.

Fig. 12.3. Diane diatomite quarry in

Manhiça (SDS 2532, (463968/
7193482).

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Fig. 12.4. Diane quarry, exploiting a

1 metre thick diatomite layer (in the
middle of picture) Manhiça (SDS
2532, 463968/ 7193482).

Fig. 12.5. Diatomite can be observed

in anthills on otherwise flat landscape
covered by black soil around Lagoa
Ramo.

12.3. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

12.3.1. Aggregates

Karoo rhyolites provide good raw material for aggregate. The majority of active mining
licences for stone quarries are located around Maputo, where the economic activity is highest.
Stone quarries are concentrated in the districts of Namaacha, Boane, Matutuine and Moamba.
The raw materials in southern Mozambique serve the development corridors along the
National Road EN1, Maputo Corridor (Maputo-Ressano Garçia), National Road EN2
(Maputo-Namaacha), Lebombo Corridor (Boane-South African border) and also Limpopo-
Chibuto Development Zone.

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The quarried aggregate rocks are mostly rhyolites of the Lebombos Range. Rhyolite is
not weathering as easily as andesite and basalt from the same range and can be regarded as
good material for most road and other construction purposes. In the Moamba district a very
suitable fine-grained nepheline syenite is quarried by CMC for aggregate (Fig 12.6). CMC,
like other big construction companies (Tamega, Extramac, Riolitos, Probrita, ARA Sul and
MAM) is also active in the Namaacha-Boane belt. Table 12.1 lists the rhyolite quarries in
operation in Maputo Province in 2005.

Table 12.1. Aggregate rock quarries in operation in Maputo Province in 2005.

Quarry Name Map Sheet Coordinates
CMC 2632 428176E/7121877N
Tamega 2532 424318E/7145310N
Extramac 2632 424951E/7108576N
Riolitos 2632 422028E/7119151N
Probrita 2632 428363E/7123749N
ARA Sul 2632 423486E/7114906N
MAM 2632 413124E/7105831N
Agroareias 2632 435016E/7115962N
Solbrita 2632 431316E/7150467N

Fig. 12.6. Solbrita quarry in

porphyritic nepheline syenite (SDS
2632, 431316/ 7150467).
The aggregate from these sites is transported and used along the coast as far as Gaza
and Inhambane (EN1) where suitable aggregate rock has not been found. Occasionally,
aggregate for road rehabilitation is transported by trucks up to the Save River. Properly
constructed road pavement with aggregate layers, like sub-base, road base and wearing layer,
requires considerable amounts of stone material. Road transport of bulk aggregate over
hundreds of kilometres is expensive. Sea transport by barges would offer a much cheaper
alternative, whenever possible.
Inland in Gaza Province rhyolite is quarried at Massingir (Fig.12.7). Large rhyolite
blocks are transported over 28 km along a new gravel road to the Massingir dam construction
site where the blocks are used for earth wall protection of the irrigation dam in Rio dos
Elefantes.

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Fig. 12.7. Massingir quarry in

rhyolite. Large blocks are excavated
for protection of irrigation dam (SDS
2332, 431316/ 7150467).

In the coastal zones of Inhambane Province no hard silicate rocks are exposed. As an
alternative, several pits have been developed in limestone close to or along highway EN1.
These include artisanal quarries close to Massinga town (Fig. 12.8, in the village of
Mambadine (SDS 2335, 730479/ 7426499) and Chacane (Fig. 12.9., SDS 2435, 688814/
7318825). Limestone aggregate is used for construction of homes and local road maintenance.
Another three valid extraction licences for quarrying limestone are issued in theVilankulo
district.

Fig. 12.8. Artisanal aggregate quarry

in limestone in Mamba-dine village,
close to Massinga (SDS 2335;
730479/ 7426499).

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Fig. 12.9. Limestone for aggregates

quarried close to Chacane village
(SDS 2435; 688814/7318825).

12.3.2. Dimension Stone

Some of the Karoo rhyolites outcropping in the Maputo Province, have been quarried for
dimension stone, for example near Boane and Estevel (SDS 2632; 423291/ 7120403 and
428342/ 7122525, respectively) and near Ressano Garçia (SDS 2532; 416032/ 7169942). The
banding and folding in the light brown rhyolites can be very ornamental (Fig. 12.10). Block
size, however, in the fractured, dense rock can be problematic.

Fig. 12.10. Flow structure in rhyolite,

old dimension stone quarry known by
name Estevel.

12.3.3. Sand and Gravel

The availability of high quality sand and gravel close to Maputo and surroundings is only
satisfactory and not as good as for stone aggregate. Most of the visited extraction sites exploit
fine-grained flood-plain sand along the Umbelúzi (Boane area) and Incomati Rivers (Moamba
area, Uetimane deposits, SDS 2532, 426063/ 7177584). Sand from these locations is best
suited for mortar purposes and filling. Fine dune sand is excavated for the same use. Gravel of

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satisfactory quality is only found along the Umbelúzi River, near Goba town. Rather coarse
and well-graded sand is excavated at a site close to Moamba from the bottom of the Incomati
River. North of Moamba, towards Magude, gravel is found at several sites along the banks of
the Incomati River (Gaza Province). The pebbles in the gravel are in general limestone or
calcarenite. This means that such gravel does not fulfil the requirements of good, hard rock
aggregate.
In the southern part of Gaza Province sand and gravel deposits occur along the Rio do
Elefantes and the main Limpopo River. There are a large number of sand pits in the areas
covered by Map Sheets Chilembene-Chókwè (SDS 2432-2433) and Massingir (SDS 2332).
Rehabilitation of the Massingir dam (414026E/7355195N) has consumed a large quantity of
sand and gravel, which has been extracted extensively from the river valley at several
locations (414521/7355615, Fig. 12.11, 415412/ 7355783 Fig. 12.12. and 500981/ 7290707).
The deposits at Caniçado (SDS 2433, 501692/ 7290415) and Chipapa (515117/ 7277485) can
be mentioned as typical sand pits in the Limpopo river valley further to the south.

Fig. 12.11. Gravel pits close to

Massingir dam in the Limpopo River
valley.

Fig. 12.12. Gravel pits close to

Massingir dam in the Limpopo River
valley.

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12.3.4. Brick Clay

Brick clay is excavated close to Boane, on the eastern bank of the Umbelúzi River (SDS
2632, 438974/ 7119400). This deposit supplies clay for brick production to most of the brick
works in Maputo area. A dormant clay pit is located in Bela Vista, close to Maputo (467567/
7087364). A large number of small clay occurrences are known at Namaacha and
Maguiguane (408218/ 7129532 and 465343/ 7230259, respectively) along the valley of the
Inkomati River. Bricks are burned irregularly on demand for local housing construction (Fig.
12.13).

Fig. 12.13. Artisanal, small-scale

brick kiln in Magode, Inkomati River
valley (SDS 2532, 453157/ 7218915)

12.3.5. Limestone

Limestones of the Tertiary Salamanga Formation, south of Maputo, and the Cheringoma
Formation west of Beira along the Buzi River and in the type-locality north of Beira on the
Cheringoma plateau have high calcium carbonate contents. The Miocene Jofane Formation is
a second important accumulation of limestone. A large area with outcrops of limestone
extends from the Save River southwards to Inhambane. Limestone occurrences are also
known at Urrongas (SDS 2134, 694693/ 7588121).
Currently, limestone for cement production is quarried at Salamanga, ~ 60 km SSE
from Maputo (SDS 2632, 466180/ 7076273) where it is transported by rail and lorries to the
‘Cimentos de Moçambique’ plant in Matola over a distance of ~ 100 km. The plant produced
~ 380 000 tonnes of cement in 2004 (USGS database statistics). The Salamanga limestones
are of Tertiary age and exposed over a zone with a length of more than 10 km with a width of
1.5 – 2.0 km. The thickness of the limestone layer varies from 11 m in SW to 55 m in NE
with an average of 32 m (Figs. 12.14 and 12.15). A measured reserve of 1200 Mt and an
inferred reserve of 1200 Mt limestone of Portland cement quality has been reported (Diallo,
1979).

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Fig. 12.14. The Salamanga limestone

quarry (SDS 2632, 466180/
7076273).

Fig. 12.15. Ongoing production of

limestone for klinker at Salamanga
quarry, October 2005 (SDS 2632,
466180/ 7076273).

Tertiary (TeMl), somewhat sandy limestone is known at Mangulane, about 40 km NE

from Moamba in Maputo Province (SDS 2532, 440864/ 7197628, Figs. 12.16 and 12.17). The
rather large quarry was active in 1960’s with good road and railway connections. The
overburden above the limestone is 2 – 10 m thick and consists of gravel and sand. Removal of
large volumes of overburden prior to limestone quarrying was required, increasing
considerably the cost of operation.

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Fig. 12.16. Old Mangulane limestone

quarry, bush vegetation has taken
over (SDS 2532, 440864/ 7197628).

Fig. 12.17. Sandy limestone exposed in the

Mangulane quarry (SDS 2532, 440864/ 7197628).

12.4. ENERGY MINERALS

12.4.1. Coal

The southernmost indications of coal seams in Mozambique are located in the Espungabera
sub-basin, near Zimbabwean border, along the M’Pote Pote River (SDS 2032, 451246/
7698588 and 452123/ 7698899). The Karoo sedimentary sequence in the Espungabera sub-
basin is superposed on the northern marginal zone of the Limpopo mobile belt. The
carbonaceous silt horizons along the M’Pote Pote River dip 5 – 10° S and attain a thickness of
4 – 6 m with coal seams up to 1 m thick (Fig.12.18 and 12.19). The productive series occurs
near the surface, but block faulting is common making the resource evaluation without
geophysics and drilling unreliable. The location of the Espungabera coalfields is, however,

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very remote, far from potential industrial users in Mozambique, resulting in low priority
ranking for the deposit. The riverbank outcrops, however, could be quarried for local
consumption as fuel.

Fig. 12.18. Coal bearing siltstone

layers outcropping along the dry river
channel of M’Pote Pote in
Espungabera. The hammer is 60 cm
long.

Fig. 12.19. Coal seams in siltstone in

M’Pote Pote streambed. The handle
of the hammer is 60 cm long.

12.5. HYDROCARBONS
12.5.1. Introduction

The delineation of sedimentary rocks in terms of reservoirs for oil and gas is of major
importance to Mozambique since hydrocarbons potentially generate large revenues in an
energy-hungry world, particularly since double digits economic growth in China and India.
The changing physical (infrastructure and novel deep-water technology) and political
environment (a welcoming Government) and high oil prices presently create favorable

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conditions for exploration. With just 72 wells (ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000), Mozambique is an
immature petroleum exploration region.

12.5.2. Natural Gas

Economic quantities of natural gas have been discovered at Pande (1961) and Temane (1967).
Sub-commercial gas was encountered at Búzi (1962) and Inhassoro was discovered in 2003
(Figs. 12.20 and 12.21). Commercial gas has been reported from several horizons in the
Lower Grudja in the central portion of the basin (e.g. Pande, Temane and Buzi), where the
reservoirs constitute shallow water shoals and bars (chenier) (Salman and Abdula, 1995).
From these gas fields some 65 % is producible over some 20 years. These gas reserves
(an equivalent of 325 BOE24) are sold to South Africa and constitute important revenues for
the Mozambican state. Gas price depends on deliverability constants and oil price. Since the
construction of a gas-infrastructure for export was recently, it now becomes of economic
importance to discover more gas in the larger Pande-Beira region.

Fig. 12.20. Gas in

Mozambique. The figure
shows major gas fields,
exploration blocks and pipe
line to South Africa. (adapted
from ENH).

Production of natural gas has risen twenty-fold in 2004 mainly due to the start up of
the Temane Gas Project in Inhambane (SDS 2135, 710846/7597396) in late 2003. The natural
gas production was close to 90 million GJ in 2005, compared to 50 million GJ in 2004 and to
2.5 million GJ in 2003. Natural gas is also produced from the Pande field, ~ 40 km NNW
from Temane (SDS 2134, 693508/7632432; Fig. 12.21). The gas fields have enough potential
for additional production if required (Yager, 2004). Target production is set to 120 MGJ
annually (personal info ENH, July 2006).

24
To compare gas and oil (but also coal) reserves, volumes are often expressed in BOE (barrels of oil
equivalent). This refers to the heat capacity: 1 bbl of oil is roughly equivalent to 6000 cf of gas.

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LOCATION OF THE PROSPECTS AND WELLS IN PANDE & TEMANE BLOCKS

Pande deep West G-10 (PS A)

Pande field G-6 (PPA) P-10 + 0.30 tcf
P-5 P-14 P-17
P-8 P-16 P-18
P-12 P-4 P-15
P-9 P-6
P-1 P-7 Pande deep East G-10 (PS A)
P-2 P-11
GN-1

P-13
Govuro NE G-10 (PSA)

Pande block (PSA)

Temane East G-9 (PPA)

T-7 T-13
I-5 + 0.20 tcf
Temane field G-9 (PPA) T-16 T-1 T-3 I-1 I-4

X-Section below
T-6 T-10 T-12
T-5 T-8 T-9 T-14
T-11 T-15 T-23 I-3

CPF
T-22
T-4
I-2
T-21

Temane G-8 (PSA) Inhassoro G-6 (PS A)

Temane block (PSA)

M-1

Co mpiled by: Paulino Greg ório

ENH
Fig. 12.21. Location of the gas fields of Pande and Temane (red) and Inhassoro (green) in the east of Temane
field (source: ENH).

12.5.3. Oil

To date, Mozambique is not a crude oil producer. Det Norske Oljeselskap (DNO) and
Petronas of Malaysia have carried out (2002 – 2003) off-shore exploration in Sofala Province
for petroleum (Yager, 2004). Exploration for oil is also ongoing in the Rovuma basin, further
north, close to Tanzania border. Preliminary results are encouraging (Pilskog et al. 2006).

12.5.4. Current Developments

Hydrocarbon exploration in central and northern Mozambique is focused on the Rovuma

sedimentary basin, together with the offshore Zambezi deltaic complex and the entire off-
shore, including the deep off-shore of the Mozambique Basin. Multi-petroleum systems
combined with mega-anticlinal structures endow this vast area with exploration potential.
These exploration targets have come within reach due to a strongly increased oil (and gas)
price, together with novel deep-water technologies, which have improved very quickly during
the past few years.
The highly prospective Rovuma Basin (Lainchburg and Edwards, 1999) in the
extreme NE of Mozambique measures some 30 000 km2 of which half is offshore. The basin,
for which a bidding-round for exploration licenses just closed in January 2006, is, like the
Mozambique Basin, a passive, syn-drift Mesozoic-Tertiary basin. The only well drilled so far
– Mocimboa-1 – dating back to 1986, has strong gas shows in sand horizons within interval
3291 – 3409, with 5 – 10 % porosity, Sw 40 to 60 %, RFT only recovered filtrate. Oil traces

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have also been found in thinly bedded limestones below 1715 m. Basin modeling indicated
that the Cenomanian is late mature (wet gas) and that the younger Cretaceous is in the oil
window. Earliest oil maturity was attained during the Lower Tertiary.
Recently, oil-presence has been firmly established in offshore Tanzania in Lower
Cretaceous Neocomian sandstones. Here, light oil that matches oil of surface seeps, was
extracted from cuttings at 3600 m of depth. A widespread source rock is suspected in the
Jurassic part of the succession25. These findings are of importance for Mozambique because
oil seeps are also known to exist in the Rovuma basin, located just a bit more to the south
(Fig.12.22).
Structural and/or stratigraphic prospects and leads have been identified in the larger
offshore Zambezi delta-complex. These are hosted by Palaeogene turbidite-fan and channel
deposits over Cheringoma rafts. Additionally, similar leads may exist in Miocene turbidites.
Source rocks are provided by the Lower Domo and Lupata marine shales. Drilling a deep
stratigraphic key well in the near future is planned.

Fig. 12.22. Hydrocarbons in Mozambique.

Principal licence areas for exploration and
production in southern and central Mozambique
(source: EAPC 2005, Jebco).

Further exploration is carried out in the producing Pande, Temane and Buzi gas field
areas. More prospects are likely to exist in the wider area. In Pande the Lower Grudja
sandstone reservoir zones are ~ 20m thick and have a combined gas pay of some 10m.
Reservoirs zones, denominated as G6 – G12, are multiple coarsening-upward units of shore-

25
Nyuni well results provides first hint of East African oil fairway. J. Beckman, Offshore, April 2005, pp. 36-39.

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face deposits of Upper Cretaceous age. The Pande field has 14 production wells and its
present gas production is close to 5 million m3/day. High production rates are related to high
permeability. Gas from the Temane field is hosted by the Lower Grudja G-9 sand horizon.
Both fields initially contained some 5 tcf26 gas (833 106 BOE) of which near to 80% is
recoverable. Areas adjacent to the known fields need to be appraised and could produce
additional reserves. The Temane-Pande-Buzi gas trend shows a specific structural pattern
when depicted by residual gravity anomaly data (from: AOA Geophysics).
Basin (temperature) modeling of the Mozambique Basin has been carried out using
information from some 20 wells. The majority of source rock samples recovered is of the gas-
prone kerogen type III. The Maputo Formation* and the Lower Domo shale Formation*
contain the best source rocks. From burial-diagrammes it can be concluded that several wells
have been subjected to kilometer-scale uplift. Stratigraphically, this is confirmed by a
multiple-unconformity dominated stratigraphic sequence. Supposedly, hydrocarbon deposits
have been generated and, subsequently, destroyed by erosion during uplift.
The vast coastal and offshore area between Mozambique, southern Tanzania,
Madagascar and the Comoros Islands is a highly unexplored region (Fig.12.23), 1½-times the
size of the North Sea basin. This frontier area of the Mozambique Channel incorporates nine
sub-basins with sedimentary series, ranging from 6 000 to 11 000 m in thickness, so far only
reconnoitered by some 22 exploration wells27. Along its periphery, oil and gas have been
discovered in two offshore gas fields in southern Tanzania, the Mozambique Pande-Temane
gas fields, the Bemolanga tar sands in Madagascar.

Fig. 12.23. Hydrocarbons in Mozambique. Map

shows (in yellow) Mozambique Channel, a frontier
area for hydrocarbon exploration (Rusk, Bertagne
and Associates and TGS-NOPEC, 2005).

26
Tcf = trillion cubic feet.
27
Rusk, Bertagne and Associates and TGS-NOPEC (2005): The Petroleum Geology and Geophysics of the
Mozambique Channel. Announcement Brochure.

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To date, 31 000 line-km of single and multi-channel 2D seismic data, including 2000
km of 98 fold CDP seismic data, was acquired during 2001. Analysis of these data shows
various structural leads and several petroleum systems are know to exists in the area.
Maturation/expulsion and migration of hydrocarbons into relation with the integrity of
potential traps/seals is probably the most uncertain issue at the moment.
For key reports and hydrocarbon database the reader is referred to the Instituto
Nacional de Petroleo and Empresa Nacional de Hidrocarbonetos de Moçambique (ENH):
• 27 seismic surveys retained in ENH archives (Fig. 12.22);
• 73 wells drilled since 1952 of which 20 wells in the Mozambique Basin
(Fig.12.24);
• 3 biostratigraphic data reports 1986, 1994 and 1997;
• Aeromagnetic data (>1km), 19 surveys;
• Gravity data, 5 surveys onshore (south of Beira) and 6 surveys offshore;
• Geochemical data Ro %, TAI, OI, HI, Tmax, S1, S2 and S3, OM1, OM2;
• 72 well summary sheets (no log), just stratigraphy;
• Synopsis of exploration wells;
• Field data summaries (most contained in ECL Ltd. and ENH, 2000).

Fig. 12.24. Overview of

onshore and offshore seismic
surveys in the Mozambique
Basin (source: Mamad, 2005).

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12.6. MINERAL POTENTIAL

In general, metallogenetic modeling, which is used in the evaluation of ore potential in a
certain area, is based on the assumption that geodynamics and processes forming
economically interesting mineral concentrations are intimately related. In other words, by
analysing the geodynamic evolution of a certain area, one can predict the deposit types that
have formed in the process. The formation of a metallic mineral deposit depends on four
fundamental factors: (1) a source of the metal(s), (2) mobilisation and transport of these
metal(s), (3) re-concentration of these metal(s) to ‘ore grade’ and (4) modification and
preservation of the deposit.
In Chapter 11 the geodynamic evolution of the area covered by this Map Explanation
has been outlined. In its simplest form it can be described as a succession of orogenic phases
(crustal compression) followed by phases of crustal extension. The following major phases
can be distinguished in the area of this description, Volume 1:
• Neo-Archaean (2.7–2.6 Ga) development of Utare-Manica and other greenstone
belts and associated emplacement of TTG suite(s) of Zimbabwe Craton;
• Palaeoproterozoic (2.0 Ga) extension of Zimbabwe Craton and development of
Gairezi and Rushinga (and Umkondo?) troughs;
• Pre-Kibaran extension (1.40 – 1.20 Ga) with emplacement of bi-modal magmatic
suites;
• Grenville Orogenic Cycle (1.10 – 1.00 Ga), emplacement of TTG suites; crustal
thickening with late-kinematic, anatectic granitoids;
• Post-Rodinia break-up (0.90 – 0.80 Ga), emplacement of bi-modal magmatic
suites;
• Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (750 – 450 Ma), emplacement of TTG suites and late-
kinematic, anatectic granitoids;
• Karoo rifting (late Carboniferous–Early Jurassic), deposition of a thick sequence of
clastic sediments and emplacement of associated alkaline and bi-modal volcanic
rocks in the Lebombos and Nuanetsi-Sabi Monoclines;
• Development East Africa Rift System (Cretaceous–Recent), emplacement of
alkaline magmatic rocks.
• Large areas of southern Mozambique are covered by Recent, Neogene, Palaeogene
and Cretaceous terrestrial and marine sediments.

During Karoo rifting coal seams were interlayered in thick sequences of clastic
sediments. Upper Karoo volcanism produced good aggregate rocks like rhyolites and basalts.
During rifting fractures were reactivated and zeolites and agates precipitated. In post Karoo
volcanic vents and rift fractures basic and alkaline rocks were intruded. Nepheline syenite and
carbonatite with possible resources of phosphorous, fluorite and iron, were often intruded as
bodies, veins and stockwork. During late Cretaceous weathering and sedimentation produced
heavy mineral sands, kaolin, bentonite, bauxite and laterite. During Tertiary closed bays,
lagoons and epicontinental basins were formed resulting in sedimentation of extensive
deposits of limestones such as the Jofane, Temane, Cheringoma and Salamanga Formations.
During the same period evaporates like gypsum, anhydrite and salt were formed. In lagoons

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layers of diatomite were settled. Due to oscillation in sea level further placer deposits with
ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite and kyanite were enriched. Large deposits of gravel and sand
were formed.

12.7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION

12.7.1. Basement

The Precambrian basement constitutes only a minor proportion of the area covered by this
Map Explanation (Volume 1). It includes only variously deformed and meta-morphosed
sediments of the Gairezi Group, flat-lying, undeformed and non- to anchi-metamorphic
sediments and volcanics of the Umkondo Group and mafic intrusive sills and dykes of the
post- or late-Umkondo mafic sills and dykes. It therefore suffices to mention only a those
phases in the geodynamic evolution of the basement relevant to the rocks actually present:
• The 2.0 Ga Gairezi extension;
• The Umkondo extension (at 2.0 Ga or 1.1 Ga), including emplacement of flood
basalts;

Basin development during phases of crustal extension may give rise to the
development of paleo-placer deposits at the base of the Gairezi or Umkondo Formations*.
Continued submergence may result in the development of a shallow continental platform or
rift-type basins. This, in combination with intensive weathering, may create conditions for the
formation of mineral deposits that form directly above the basement-cover unconformity.
These include unconformity-type uranium deposits, roll front-type uranium deposits, red bed-
type uranium (vanadium-copper) deposits, Pb-sandstone deposits, White Pine-type copper
deposits and Olympic Dam-type Cu-U-Au-Ag deposits.
The emplacement of flood basalts may potentially produce Noril’sk-type Ni-sulphide
and platinoid deposits.
The Umkondo succession is deposited on top of the Zimbabwe Craton and Limpopo
Mobile Belt. This signifies an a priori potential for diamondiferous kimberlites and lamproits.
Remobilisation of greenstone belt gold may produce structurally hosted gold deposits in
Umkondo country rocks.

12.7.2. Phanerozoic Cover

More than 90% of the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 1) is underlain by rocks
of the late Carboniferous to early Jurassic Karoo Supergroup and early Cretaceous (late
Jurassic?) and younger, mainly sedimentary rocks of the Mozambique Basin. Based on the
ideas presented above and the overview of mineral occurrences in the area covered by this
Map Explanation, the following recommendations for future exploration are forwarded:
• Economically, natural gas is the most important mineral product at present in
Mozambique. Additional resources can be expected in the Temane and Panda
fields in Inhambane. Also in Sofala Province, further to the north along the coast,
gas indications have been recorded (Divinhe 1 and Nemo 1). When required, gas
production can be increased from the existing fields. Oil has not yet been found
although some exploration has been carried out in the Inhaminga onshore block

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north of Beira and in an offshore block near the Zambezi Delta (Yager, 2005). In
June 2005 Sasol was awarded exploration licences (gas and petroleum) for offshore
blocks just east of the Pande-Temane gas fields. First phase of exploration is
expected to cost up to 7 MUS$ (Yager, 2005). Exploration in the deeper offshore,
including the Mozambique Channel, is supposedly coming within reach in the next
decade.
• Exploration drilling for gas has indicated large volumes of gypsym in the Temane
field. Gypsum is currently imported to Mozambique for the cement plants.
Exploration to investigate the extent and availability of gypsum is justified.
• The Corridor Sands heavy mineral project near Chibuto is closest to the start up
decision. Uncertainty of price development of titanium and electricity has delayed
decision-making. After the construction of the plant in Chibuto, the potential area
for heavy mineral resources will increase in Gaza and stretch along the Limpopo
River valley from the coast to Chókwè. The outlook for utilisation of the titanium
resources will depend heavily on global market trends and reliable domestic power
supply. The use of natural gas from Pande and Temane gas fields as a power
resource has been discussed. The full potentiality of the heavy mineral sands close
to Maputo, Marracuene-Limpopo estuary to the north and Ponta de Ouro-Lagoa
Piti zone to the south should be investigated. Also the coastal zone between
Limpopo River and Inhambane, as well as Inhassoro zone, further to the north,
have high HMS potential.
• The cement plant at Matola (Cimentos de Moçambique) utilises limestone from
Salamanga (Maputo, SDS 2632). The extension of limestone of suitable quality
should be studied. Exploration for marketable quality and volume of limestone in
the Miocene Jofane Formation*, between the Save River and Inhambane is
recommended close to the main roads (e.g. Urrongas, SDS 2134).
• The availability and quality of various construction materials (aggregates,
dimension stone and limestone) as well as clays close to development centres and
infrastructure corridors should be studied. Especially aggregate in Maputo area is
important and an evaluation of quality and volumes should be made. Also other
rock types than rhyolite and nepheline syenite might prove valuable.
• Bentonite weathering in Pequenos Libombos range around Boane should be further
evaluated. The rhyolites and rhyolitic tuff of the Karoo Supergroup form a quite
large potential area along the South African border.
• Market potential of diatomite should be studied including domestic consumption.
If the prognosis is positive, the volume and quality of the diatomite fields Manhiça,
Maputo, (SDS 2532), Lagoa Ramo (SDS 2433) and Mafuiane, in Gaza (SDS 2434)
require confirmation. Establishment of local enterprises should be encouraged
through training and investments.
• A few micro-diamonds have been found in alluvial sources in the river valley of
Limpopo and Rio dos Elefantes near Pafúri, in western Gaza. It is assumed that the
diamonds are coming from the diamond fields in South Africa and in Zimbabwe,
since the nearest known occurrences are located only 25 km from the border into
South Africa. Further exploration is justified, particularly in the area underlain by
the Umkondo Group.

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APPENDIX 12.1
App. 12.1. Mineral occurrences within the Volume 1 area, extract from the Mineral
Occurrence data Base.

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 APPENDIX 1

DEFINITIONS OF LITHO-STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

Bed: A bed (or beds) is the smallest litho-stratigraphic unit of sedimentary rocks. The
designation of a bed or a unit of beds as a formally-named litho-stratigraphic unit generally
should be limited to certain distinctive beds whose recognition is particularly useful (e.g.,
marker beds, guide horizons or a coal seam).

Member: A litho-stratigraphic unit of subordinate rank, comprising some specially developed

part of a Formation. It may be formally defined and named, informally named, or unnamed.
It is not necessarily mappable and a named member may extent from one Formation into
another. Laterally equivalent parts of a Formation that differ recognisably may be considered
members, e.g., the gravel and sand member of the ‘A’ Formation. A member combines a
lithologic name followed by the word ‘member’. It is higher in rank than a bed.

Formation: A mappable body of rock identified by lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic

position. Formation is the fundamental unit in litho-stratigraphic classification. It may
represent a short or a long time interval, may be composed of material of different sources,
and may include breaks in deposition. A Formation should possess some degree of internal
lithologic homogeneity or distinctive lithic features such as chemical or mineralogical
composition, texture, fossils (viewed as rock-forming fragments), or other organic contents
such as coal or oil shale. A Formation must be amenable to being mapped at the scale of
geological mapping practiced in the region when the Formation is proposed. Thickness is not
a determining factor. A Formation name normally consists of a geographic name followed by
a descriptive geologic term (usually the dominant rock type) or by the word ‘Formation’ in
case the lithology is so variable that no single term is appropriate.

Group: A litho-stratigraphic unit consisting partly or entirely of named formations. A group

name combines a geographic name with the term ‘group’, and no lithic designation is
included, e.g., Umkondo Group.

Supergroup: A formal assemblage of related or superimposed groups, or of groups and

Formations, e.g., Karoo Supergroup. The term should not be misused for ‘Series’.

Complex: A large-scale field association or assemblage of different rocks of any age or

origin, having structural relations so intricately involved or otherwise complicated that the
rocks cannot be readily differentiated in mapping, e.g., a volcanic complex, an igneous
complex, a metamorphic complex or a basement complex (see also ‘Ophiolite Complex).
Alternatively, complex is defined as a lithodemic unit that consist of a mixture of rocks of
two or more genetic classes, i.e., igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic, with or without
highly complicated structures.

Suite: A suite comprises (1) two or more related, named intrusive igneous rock units or
metamorphic units that have significant lithological features in common, or (2) an igneous or
metamorphic unit that consists of several (related) rock types and which cannot therefore be
satisfactorily named using a single lithological designation. Suites should only be used to
group together rock bodies closely associated in space, time and origin. In igneous bodies
showing systematic and rhythmic layering, the term ‘Igneous Suite’ is to be preferred over
‘Igneous Complex’.

In the legend pertaining to the geological maps produced by the Consortium, litho-
stratigraphic units are grouped in four ranks, i.e., member, formation, group and supergroup.
‘Complex’ and ‘Suite’ have for practical reasons given the same position as ‘Supergroup’.
 APPENDIX 2

AGE RESULTS,
MOZAMBIQUE PROJECT/LOT 3:
MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 1

Irmeli Mänttäri

Geological Survey of Finland

P.O.Box 96
FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland
 ANALYTICAL METHODS

Sm-Nd mineral dating

For Sm-Nd analyses handpicked mineral concentrates were washed ultrasonically in warm 6 N
HCl for 30 min, and rinsed several times in water. The samples (150-200 mg) were dissolved in
HF-HNO3 using Savillex screw cap teflon beakers for 48h. Mixed 149Sm-150Nd spike was added
to the sample prior the dissolution. After careful evaporation of fluorides the residue was
dissolved in 6N HCl and a clear solution was achieved. Sm and Nd were separated in two stages
using a conventional cation-exchange procedure (7 ml of AG50Wx8 ion exchange resin in a bed
of 12 cm length) and a modified version of the Teflon-HDEHP (hydrogen di-ethylhexyl
phosphate) method developed by Richard et al. (1976). The measurements have been made in a
dynamic mode on a VG SECTOR 54 mass-spectrometer using Ta-Re triple filaments.
143
Nd/144Nd ratio is normalized to 146Nd/144Nd=0.7219. The average value for La Jolla standard
is Nd/144Nd = 0.511850 ± 10 (std, 50 measurements since 2002). The Sm/Nd ratio of the spike
143

was calibrated against the Caltech mixed Sm/Nd standard (Wasserburg et al, 1981). Based on
duplicated analyses the error in 147Sm/144Nd is estimated to be 0.4%. Initial 143Nd/144Nd and ε
were calculated with the following parameters: λ147Sm=6.54x10-12a-1, 147Sm/144Nd=0.1966 and
143
Nd/144Nd=0.51264 for present CHUR. T-DM is calculated according to DePaolo (1981).
Measurement on the rock standard BCR-1 provided values: Sm=6.58 ppm, Nd=28.8 ppm
147
Sm/144Nd=0.1380, 143Nd/144Nd=0.51264±0.00002. The blank measured during analyses was:
30-100 pg for Sm and 100-300 pg for Nd. Programs by Ludwig (2003) have been used for age
calculations.

SHRIMP U-Pb mineral dating

For SHRIMP U-Pb dating, the selected zircon grains were mounted in epoxy resin together with
chips of the TEMORA (Middledale Gabbroic Diorite, New South Wales, Australia) and 91500
(Geostandard zircon) reference zircons. The grains were sectioned approximately in half and
polished. Cathode luminescence (CL) images were prepared for all zircons.
The U-Pb analyses of the zircons were made using SHRIMP-II ion microprobe at
Center of Isotopic Research, VSEGEI, St.Petersburg, Russia. Each analysis consisted of 5 scans
through the mass range, the spot diameter was ca. 20 µm, and primary beam current was about 4
nA. The data have been reduced in a manner similar to that described by Williams (1998, and
references therein), using the SQUID Excel Macro of Ludwig (2000). The Pb/U ratios have
been normalized relative to a value of 0.0668 for the 206Pb/238U ratio of the TEMORA reference
zircons, equivalent to an age of 416.75 Ma (Black and Kamo, 2003). The common lead
correction has been made using measured 204Pb and modern lead isotope composition (Stacey
and Kramer, 1975). Uncertainties given for individual analyses (Table 3) are at one σ level. The
concordia plots as well as the final age calculations were done using ISOPLOT/EX 3 (Ludwig,
2003). All the results are calculated at 2σ level with the ignored decay constant errors. The
uncertainties of the means of the Pb/U-standard calibrations (see table 3) are not included into
table errors but are included into final concordia age errors (not included into discordia intercept
ages). In figures, the data-point error ellipses as well as the error bars are 2σ.
 Sm-Nd MINERAL DATING

MOS-32 / 13888-04 dolerite/gabbro

Sample information

• Sample: dolerite/gabbro
• Field number: 13888-04
• Coordinates: 0491577 / 7758265

Sm-Nd results

The dolerite/gabbro sample Mos-32 / 13888-04 contains abundant pyroxene and plagioclase for
Sm-Nd isochron dating with whole-rock powder. Pyroxene in the sample Mos-32 is fresh, fairly
transparent and greenish-grey. Plagioclase ranges from clear colourless to slightly turbid white.
The results of the Sm-Nd analyses are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1. These reveal
relatively high level on REE in plagioclase. The isotopic data on minerals and whole rock give
an age of 1102±52 Ma. The initial ratio (ε) is –7.3, and suggests major involvement of older
LREE-enriched material in the genesis of this rock. Summary of results is in Table 3.

0,5130
MOS-32/13888-04
Age = 1102 ± 52 Ma
MSWD = 2.1
0,5126

143
Nd pyroxe
0,5122
144
Nd

0,5118
whole rock
plagioclase

0,5114
0,11 0,13 0,15 0,17 0,19 0,21 0,23 0,25
147 144
Sm/ Nd

Fig. 1. Sm-Nd data for dolerite sample MOS-32.

Table 1. Sm-Nd data for sample Mos-32.

Sample Sm Nd 147
Sm/144Nd 143
Nd/144Nd 2 sm T (Ma) eps(T)
Analysed
mineral (ppm) (ppm)

MOS-32
(13888-04)
whole-rock 3.57 16.50 0.1307 0.511777 0.00002 1102 -7.6
pyroxene 1.52 4.61 0.1993 0.512285 0.00002 1102 -7.3
plagioclase 1.82 8.92 0.1233 0.511744 0.00002 1102 -7.2
 SHRIMP U-Pb DATING

MOS-35/ 1744.1-05 nepheline syenite

Sample information

• Nepheline syenite
• Coordinates x = 36L 0431268, y = 7150433
• The rock is younger than Karoo, being about 100 Ma old.

Zircon description

The nepheline syenite sample MOS-35 / 1744.1-05 yielded only twenty-eight zircon
grains. Of these, 14 somewhat larger and 9 very tiny have similar outlook (dark brown,
euhedral to subhedral and translucent). The other five grains have mixed outlook.

U-Pb age results

In CL-images, most zircons show either oscillatory or longitudinal magmatic zoning

(Fig. 2). Few grains have complex internal structures but because of the limited total
number of analyses available, analyses were not done on these zircons.
A total of 12 zircon domains were dated from nepheline syenite sample MOS-35 /
1744.1-05 (Table 2). The U-Pb isotopic data from zoned zircon domains are mostly
discordant and have moderate U concentrations. Four Neoarchaean (one possibly
Palaeoproterozic ?) zircons with ages of ca. 2.8 and 2.5 Ga are clearly inherited. Of
these, the three ca. 2.5 Ga zircons have similar internal structures in Cl images (Fig. 2).
Analyses from the remaining eight zircon domains plot on a same discordia line with an
upper intercept age of 1750 ± 33 Ma (Fig.3).
The age of 1750±33 Ma seems to be a magmatic age but according to field
evidence the syenite should be younger than the Karoo magmatism (ca. 180 Ma).
Further evidence of the inherited origin of the zircons is the very small number (28) of
them. Therefore, it is considered that all the found zircons are inherited either from
magmatic or sedimentary source.
 100 µm
MOS-35.2.1 MOS-35.5.1
1.75 Ga 1.75 Ga

MOS-35.9.1 MOS-35.3.1
MOS-35.6.1 2.5 Ga 2.5 Ga
2.5 Ga

Fig. 2. Selected CL images from zircons, MOS-35 / 1744.1-05 nepheline syenite. The spot analysis sites,
analysis numbers, as well as the age groups are indicated.

0,8
MOS-35 / 1744.1-05 nepheline syenite

3000
0,6

2600
Pb/238U

Clearly inherited zircons

2200 (dotted ellipses):
0,4 ca. 2.5 and 2.8 Ga
1800
206

1400
Also inherited zircons?
0,2 1000 Intercepts at
1750 ± 33 & 382 ± 160 Ma
MSWD = 0.84; n=8
0,0
0 4 8 12 16 20
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 3. Concordia diagram showing zircon ion microprobe U-Pb isotopic data for nepheline syenite MOS-
35 / 17441-05.
Table 2. Ion microprobe U-Pb age data on zircons, Mozambiquean rock sample MOS-35.

(1) (1) %
232 206 207 238 207 207 206 error
% ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- U Pb* Pb* Pb*
Spot Name Dated zircon domain 206 ±1s ±1s ±% ±% ±% ±% corre-
PbC U Th /238U 206
Pb* /238U /206Pb cor- 206
/ Pb* 206
/ Pb* 235
/ U 238
/ U
lation
Age Age dant
MOS-35 /
17441-05 nepheline syenite
MOS-35.1.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhedral grain 0.72 458 413 0.93 92.1 1346 17 1680 64 25 4.305 1.4 0.1031 3.5 3.301 3.8 0.2323 1.4 0.38
MOS-35.2.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhedral grain 0.08 801 920 1.19 243.7 1954 17 1814 32 -7 2.824 1.0 0.1109 1.7 5.415 2.0 0.3541 1.0 0.49
MOS-35.3.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhedral grain 1.04 645 26 0.04 272.9 2558 22 2492 32 -3 2.053 1.0 0.1635 1.9 10.982 2.2 0.4871 1.0 0.47
MOS-35.4.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhedral grain --- 478 757 1.64 131.7 1797 17 1731 31 -4 3.111 1.1 0.1060 1.7 4.697 2.0 0.3214 1.1 0.54
MOS-35.5.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhedral grain 0.72 390 437 1.16 93.9 1583 19 1696 54 7 3.593 1.3 0.1039 2.9 3.989 3.2 0.2783 1.3 0.41
MOS-35.6.1 zoned. CL-medium. euhedral grain 0.00 274 30 0.11 106.1 2398 27 2465 23 3 2.220 1.3 0.1609 1.4 9.994 1.9 0.4506 1.3 0.70
MOS-35.7.1 zoned. CL-dark. euhedral grain 0.21 726 938 1.33 187.6 1691 14 1712 27 1 3.333 0.9 0.1049 1.5 4.337 1.7 0.3000 0.9 0.53
MOS-35.8.1 zoned. CL-medium/dark. euhderal grain 0.52 631 562 0.92 183.3 1868 14 1806 35 -3 2.974 0.9 0.1104 1.9 5.117 2.1 0.3362 0.9 0.40
MOS-35.9.1 zoned. CL-medium. euhedral grain 0.20 690 135 0.20 224.9 2071 16 2519 17 22 2.640 0.9 0.1661 1.0 8.676 1.3 0.3788 0.9 0.67
MOS-35.10.1 zoned. CL-dark. euhedral grain 0.41 466 155 0.34 63.4 943 39 1553 77 65 6.347 4.5 0.0963 4.1 2.092 6.1 0.1576 4.5 0.74
MOS-35.11.1 hazy zoning. CL-dark inner domain 0.61 496 390 0.81 35.4 511 55 1030 349 101 12.110 11.2 0.0736 17.3 0.838 20.6 0.0826 11.2 0.54
MOS-35.12.1 zoned. CL-bright core domain 0.13 158 169 1.11 81.3 3023 35 2793 27 -8 1.672 1.5 0.1960 1.6 16.163 2.2 0.5982 1.5 0.67
204
Errors are 1 sigma; Pbc and Pb* indicate the common and radiogenic lead portions. respectively. (1) Common Pb corrected using measured Pb. The rejected data are in italics.

2s error of mean in standard measurement (not included in above errors) is 0.70% for all data.

Table 3. Summary of the age results from the Mozambiquean rock samples.

Lab. Field Rock type U-Pb method Age Results Age type; number of fractions or zircons Interpretation Remarks
No. Number of the age
Mos-32 13888-04 ´Post-Umkondo´ dolerite Sm-Nd 1102±52 Ma Isochron age (plag+px+wr) Magmatic age Initial eNd = -7.3.

Mos-35 17441-05 Nepheline syenite SHRIMP U-Pb ? All inherited if the rock is really younger Only 28 zircons. Inherited: Four Archaean (2.5 and 2.8 Ga).
Younger than Karoo than Karoo magmatism intercept age 1750 ± 33 & 382 ± 160 Ma MSWD = 0.84;
n=8
 REFERENCES
Black, L.P., Kamo. S.L. etc. 2003. TEMORA 1: a new zircon standard for U-Pb
geochronology. Chem. Geol. 200. 155-170.
DePaolo, D.J. 1981. Neodymium isotopes in the Colorado Front Range and crust-
mantle evolution in the Proterozoic. Nature 291. 684-687.
Krogh, T.E. 1973. A low-contamination method for hydrothermal decomposition of U
and Pb for isotopic age determinations. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 37. 485-494.
Krogh, T.E. 1982. Improved accuracy of U-Pb zircon ages by the creation of more
concordant systems using an air abrasion technique. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46.
637-649.
Ludwig, K.R. 1993. PbDat 1.24 for MS-dos: A computer program for IBM-PC
Compatibles for processing raw Pb-U-Th isotope data. Version 1.07.
Ludwig, K.R. 2000. SQUID 1.00. A User's Manual; Berkeley Geochronology Center
Special Publication. No.2. 2455 Ridge Road. Berkeley. CA 94709. USA.
Ludwig, K.R. 2003. Isoplot/Ex 3.00. A geochronological toolkit for Microsoft Excel.
Berkeley Geochronology Center. Spec. publication No. 4.
Ludwig, K.R. 2003. Isoplot/Ex 3.00. A geochronological toolkit for Microsoft Excel.
Berkeley Geochronology Center. Spec. publication No. 4.
Mänttäri, I. 2005 (a). Age results. Mozambique project: part 1/2. Geological Survey of
Finland. unpublished report CK21.42/2005/2.
Mänttäri, I. 2005 (b). U-Pb age results. Mozambique project: part 2/2. Geological
Survey of Finland. unpublished report CK21.42/2005/3.
Richard, P., Shimizu, N. and Allègre, C.J. 1976. 143Nd/146Nd. a natural tracer: an
application to oceanic basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 31. 269-278.
Schärer, U. 1984. The effect of initial 230Th disequilibrium on young U---Pb ages: the
Makalu case. Himalaya. Earth Plan. Sci. Lett.. 67. 191-204.
Stacey, J.S. and Kramers, J.D. 1975. Approximation of terrestrial lead isotope evolution
by a two-stage model. Earth Plan. Sci. Lett. 26. 207-221.
Wasserburg, G.J., Jacobsen, S.B., DePaolo, D.J., McCulloch, M.T. and Wen, T. 1981.
Precise determination on Sm/Nd ratios. Sm and Nd isotopic abundances in standard
solutions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 45. 2311-2323.
Williams, I.S. 1998. U-Th-Pb Geochronology by Ion Microprobe. In: McKibben. M.A..
Shanks III. W.C. and Ridley, W.I. (eds). Applications of microanalytical techniques
to understanding mineralizing processes. Reviews in Economic Geology. 7. 1-35.
 Appendix 3

Chemical analyses of rocks

Table 1. Chemical compositions of igneous rocks from the Map Explanation, Volume 1 area1.

Formation Mashonaland Suite Umkondo Group Umbelúzi

Rock Dolerite- Dolerite- Dolerite- Dolerite- Dolerite- Basalt Basaltic Basaltic Basalt Trachy-
gabbro gabbro gabbro gabbro gabbro andesite andesite (dolerite?) dacite
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 wt% 53.5 52.9 54.1 53.4 53.4 50.5 54.8 56.8 48.3 67.6
TiO2 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.61 0.79 1.07 0.99 0.89 3.15 0.83
Al2O3 14.4 15.5 14.7 15.5 16.1 13.8 13.6 13.7 6.23 12.8
Fe2O3t 10.86 10.89 10.86 10.18 9.64 14.0 12.0 10.4 11.6 6.77
MnO 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.21 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.22
MgO 5.79 6.00 5.83 7.70 4.52 6.62 4.05 0.30 18.10 0.68
CaO 9.14 10.30 9.77 9.30 8.90 6.54 8.23 14.84 5.93 2.77
Na2O 1.74 2.16 2.15 1.86 2.48 2.50 2.21 0.01 1.15 3.67
K2O 1.19 0.92 1.11 0.88 1.52 0.95 1.57 0.08 2.56 3.76
P2O5 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.10 0.47 0.25
Total 97.60 99.67 99.55 99.67 97.58 96.26 97.74 97.26 97.61 99.35

S ppm 180 80 80 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
Cl 320 90 270 650 120 nd 70 80 nd nd
Sc 30 40 40 30 nd 40 30 30 nd nd
V 220 240 240 210 230 320 270 260 320 34
Cr 60 140 90 230 70 nd 30 40 1180 nd
Ni 100 80 140 160 50 100 70 nd 1050 nd
Cu 130 100 100 80 80 120 100 nd 140 nd
Zn 110 90 100 100 110 150 110 nd 120 186
Ga nd nd nd nd 30 nd 30 20 nd 28
Rb 50 40 50 40 70 40 90 nd 60 107
Sr 140 130 140 130 160 60 150 270 1160 197
Y 20 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 20 136
Zr 100 90 110 80 120 140 140 140 510 1063
Nb nd nd nd 10 nd nd nd 10 30 77
Ba 310 250 250 230 360 310 320 50 1090 1350
La nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 60 107
Ce 40 nd 40 nd 60 50 50 50 160 207
Th nd nd nd nd 20 nd nd nd nd 15

Sample Obs. no Easting Northing

1 13807 497604 7755550
2 13836 506242 7757593
3 13888 491577 7758265
4 13817 497250 7768589
5 24421 477198 7740905
6 24447 507841 7730008
7 24659 479893 7724664
8 24901 457743 7709403
9 24927 452993 7699392
10 23184 402172 7127735
Table 1. Continues

Formation Umbelúzi Movene

Rock Dacite Trachy- Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Basalt Basalt Basalt Basalt
dacite (microgranitic)
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20*
SiO2 wt% 64.2 62.8 73.6 67.6 68.7 69.1 50.0 52.05 50.29 49.92
TiO2 0.85 1.21 0.60 0.73 0.67 0.63 3.67 1.58 4.40 3.82
Al2O3 12.4 13.4 11.2 13.1 12.9 12.8 13.9 13.69 12.24 13.14
Fe2O3t 9.00 8.39 5.09 6.82 5.60 5.92 14.97 13.26 14.74 14.27
MnO 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.21 0.25 0.21 0.23
MgO 0.69 1.53 0.35 0.65 0.53 0.53 4.06 5.51 4.48 4.39
CaO 3.17 3.04 0.94 2.51 2.41 2.32 8.13 10.59 9.11 9.24
Na2O 2.81 3.78 3.35 3.62 2.99 3.53 2.81 2.63 2.52 2.68
K2O 3.90 4.12 3.81 4.07 4.76 4.23 1.21 0.29 1.31 0.99
P2O5 0.31 0.34 0.16 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.44 0.16 0.69 1.32
Total 97.50 98.76 99.22 99.47 98.87 99.36 99.39 100.01 99.99 100.00

S ppm 88 nd 520 nd 164 nd 106 nd nd nd

Cl nd 61 nd 61 nd nd nd nd nd nd
Sc nd nd nd nd nd nd 34 45 36 34
V 43 97 30 nd 36 nd 487 400 404 279
Cr nd nd nd nd nd nd 36 62 80 28
Ni nd nd nd nd nd nd 30 47 50 21
Cu nd 37 nd nd 55 nd 279 199 282 86
Zn 202 175 166 162 176 155 158 126 169 175
Ga 28 30 23 26 26 27 33 nd nd nd
Rb 114 106 113 113 124 124 28 12 29 30
Sr 199 280 113 208 190 181 371 170 263 320
Y 114 98 132 107 112 108 45 38 68 80
Zr 1066 982 1099 1081 1016 1114 279 113 374 460
Nb 76 69 79 75 84 75 20 13 34 39
Ba 1078 1342 3218 1221 1715 1196 523 164 336 519
La 97 94 113 98 123 104 nd 22 16 41
Ce 199 200 180 219 247 207 75 37 81 115
Th 12 13 13 17 16 16 nd 3 5 4

Sample Obs. no Easting Northing

11 23476-A 361577 7414939
12 23571 376439 7361656
13 17478 401822 7152039
14 23621 342890 7467720
15 23472 366027 7412481
16 23522 358099 7421612
17 23473 367891 7412946
18 19441 418269 7175937
19 19435 408155 7185158
20 23342 411494 7257363
Table 1. Continues

Formation Movene Rio Upper

Nhavúdez Karoo
Rock Basalt Basalt Quartz Quartz Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Basaltic Dolerite
latite latite andesite (or basalt)
21* 22* 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
SiO2 wt% 55.21 51.00 65.2 66.8 77.5 72.7 76.4 76.4 53.0 49.3
TiO2 1.85 3.93 0.53 0.36 0.33 0.39 0.21 0.19 1.28 5.18
Al2O3 12.69 12.46 15.7 15.2 11.7 13.2 12.3 12.0 14.0 13.2
Fe2O3t 12.87 14.63 4.41 4.11 2.25 3.81 2.21 2.37 11.1 13.12
MnO 0.22 0.26 0.13 0.11 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.14 0.15
MgO 4.33 4.30 1.59 1.19 0.07 0.24 0.04 0.06 6.12 5.65
CaO 8.73 8.75 2.46 2.18 0.46 0.52 0.20 0.26 6.96 9.40
Na2O 2.86 2.60 5.14 5.12 2.67 2.71 2.57 2.77 3.91 2.08
K2O 0.99 1.09 4.24 4.39 4.42 5.24 5.47 5.45 0.49 0.85
P2O5 0.23 0.99 0.12 0.08 0.04 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.13 0.60
Total 99.98 100.01 99.51 99.54 99.46 98.92 99.42 99.54 97.14 99.52

S nd nd nd nd nd 520 nd nd nd nd
Cl nd nd 250 240 129 77 nd nd nd 77
Sc 44 39 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
V 381 255 70 40 nd nd nd nd 260 442
Cr 16 12 nd nd nd nd nd nd 220 115
Ni 28 20 30 nd nd nd nd nd 130 110
Cu 245 56 20 nd nd nd nd nd 60 153
Zn 147 193 200 222 57 161 48 100 120 145
Ga nd nd 50 48 30 31 28 40 20 31
Rb 42 34 410 465 153 182 192 210 10 17
Sr 134 372 160 106 51 107 20 20 220 980
Y 72 90 0 162 106 130 101 0 0 43
Zr 315 796 460 474 476 767 450 390 90 440
Nb 35 53 0 313 76 116 118 0 nd 19
Ba 369 812 260 167 690 2693 466 420 140 380
La 40 55 60 58 116 178 nd nd nd 34
Ce 93 152 160 145 220 298 113 240 nd 98
Th 7 5 30 38 17 20 22 20 nd nd

Sample Obs. no Easting Northing

21 17397-B1 417399 7047351
22 19443 413976 7176600
23 MZM 3.1.05 428131 7123596
24 23213 428363 7123749
25 23147 427827 7085816
26 17438 423881 7099640
27 23194-A 422028 7119151
28 MZM 3.2.05 428189 7121897
29 24781 473912 7708061
30 23602 351766 7412661
Table 1. Continues

Formation Upper Karoo Pessene Pessene

Rock Dolerite Dolerite Alkaline Nepheline

lava syenite
31 32 33 34

SiO2 wt% 51.7 47.8 48.65 52.0

TiO2 3.19 2.16 2.93 0.85
Al2O3 12.9 16.4 15.65 19.9
Fe2O3t 15.25 14.27 11.39 6.02
MnO 0.20 0.14 0.37 0.38
MgO 3.22 4.32 3.47 0.41
CaO 7.18 10.02 8.11 2.45
Na2O 2.90 2.57 5.89 8.29
K2O 1.99 0.33 2.28 6.19
P2O5 0.99 0.41 1.27 0.11
Total 99.52 98.42 100.01 96.61

S ppm 436 nd nd 160

Cl nd 62 nd 213
Sc 34 33 6 nd
V 283 340 nd 60
Cr nd 166 22 nd
Ni nd 114 nd nd
Cu 330 219 nd nd
Zn 183 152 290 249
Ga 27 26 nd 35
Rb 48 11 75 168
Sr 355 395 1977 3127
Y 72 46 82 65
Zr 598 270 1618 1440
Nb 45 27 348 363
Ba 679 313 1262 2447
La 62 34 274 186
Ce 154 74 540 276
Th nd nd 36 26

Sample Obs. no Easting Northing

31 23476-B 361577 7414939
32 23642 430808 7113337
33 19445-A 430758 7157784
34 17441 431268 7150430

1
XRF analyses are made in the Chemical laboratory of GSF except samples 19-23,
which are analysed in the laboratory of the Department of Geology at the University of
Helsinki. nd = not determined or not detected, * = iron as FeOt
Table 2. Chemical compositions of sedimentary rocks from the Map Explanation, Volume 1 area1.

Formation Urrongas Boane Mapai

Member Limestone Basal
limestone
Rock Impure Impure Impure
limestone limestone limestone
1 2 3
SiO2 wt% 32.3 25.8 14.6
TiO2 0.07 0.33 0.16
Al2O3 0.68 4.95 2.49
Fe2O3t 0.62 1.92 0.97
MnO 0.14 0.08 0.04
MgO 13.80 2.38 17.80
CaO 21.50 34.06 25.74
Na2O nd 0.20 0.53
K2O 0.16 0.95 0.23
P2O5 nd 0.01 nd
Total 69.26 70.67 62.55

S ppm 612 170 286

Cl 111 867 <60
Sc <30 36 <30
V <30 37 56
Cr 31 <30 34
Ni <20 22 36
Cu <20 <20 <20
Zn <20 28 32
Rb <10 48 11
Sr 117 125 784
Y <7 19 <7
Zr 52 170 30
Nb <7 8 <7
Ba 122 239 840
La <30 <30 <30
Ce <30 38 <30
Th <10 <10 <10

C 8.22 7.48 10.1

Sample Obs. no Easting Northing

1 23412 449858 7248572
2 23456 426412 7085565
3 23625 345392 7458524

1
XRF analyses are made in the Chemical laboratory of G SF.
Detection limits; Na2O (0.067 wt%), P 2O5 (0.014 wt%), and for other chemical elements as "<".
 Appendix 4

Microprobe analysis of minerals

Table 1. Microprobe analysis of minerals from rocks of the Volume 1 area1).

Sample 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4
Cpx Pl Bt Cpx Bt Pl Opx Cpx Pl Bt Cpx Opx
SiO2 52.32 49.37 35.01 52.54 36.99 52.81 55.10 52.63 48.70 37.18 52.10 53.55
TiO2 0.26 0.04 4.70 0.23 4.70 0.06 0.11 0.26 0.00 3.50 0.29 0.08
Al2O3 1.74 30.92 13.41 1.80 12.96 29.29 1.31 1.78 31.54 12.58 1.73 0.76
FeOt 8.17 0.68 24.15 9.78 17.88 0.16 11.65 8.70 0.38 19.69 10.13 15.25
MnO 0.22 0.02 0.08 0.25 0.04 0.00 0.23 0.21 0.00 0.13 0.29 0.38
MgO 17.74 0.10 8.20 16.85 12.06 0.01 28.37 17.44 0.00 12.31 16.99 25.59
CaO 18.07 14.50 0.04 17.53 0.02 11.81 2.28 17.79 14.90 0.00 17.30 3.05
Na2O 0.11 3.13 0.01 0.06 0.00 4.49 0.00 0.09 2.98 0.04 0.15 0.00
K2O 0.01 0.16 9.27 0.00 9.31 0.20 0.02 0.00 0.12 9.29 0.00 0.00
P2O5 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.25 0.16 0.00 0.24 0.03
SrO 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
BaO 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
F 0.11 0.05 0.40 0.13 0.37 0.02 nd nd nd 0.08 nd nd
Total 98.79 99.06 95.56 99.28 94.40 98.95 99.07 99.13 98.77 94.79 99.23 98.71

Sample 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 8
Pl Fe-augite Alb Cpx Pl_1 Pl_2 Pl Cpx Cpx Cpx Pl Pl
SiO2 49.90 49.14 67.20 50.62 54.98 52.37 50.27 51.20 49.98 50.21 53.34 55.34
TiO2 0.00 0.47 0.02 1.14 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.93 1.06 1.31 0.12 0.13
Al2O3 30.31 1.40 19.85 2.31 27.60 29.27 30.82 1.38 1.87 2.69 28.87 27.07
FeOt 0.50 20.30 0.01 10.18 0.70 0.70 0.57 13.77 13.11 9.38 0.75 0.92
MnO 0.00 0.75 0.02 0.25 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.32 0.46 0.27 0.01 0.02
MgO 0.00 9.64 0.01 15.49 0.08 0.09 0.05 14.79 12.08 14.34 0.06 0.09
CaO 14.04 16.23 0.54 18.00 10.49 12.30 13.80 16.46 20.10 20.07 11.74 9.97
Na2O 3.41 0.26 10.38 0.19 5.28 4.20 3.24 0.17 0.19 0.23 4.66 5.23
K2O 0.13 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.45 0.27 0.19 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.32 0.69
P2O5 0.17 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.06
SrO 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.06 0.14 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.10
BaO 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.07
F nd 0.20 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.03 0.05
Total 98.45 98.49 98.23 98.38 99.82 99.45 99.23 99.28 99.09 98.65 100.03 99.75

Sample Formation Rock Obs. no

1 Umkondo Dolerite-gabbro 13636
2 Umkondo Dolerite-gabbro 13978
3 Umkondo Dolerite-gabbro 13817
4 Umkondo Dolerite-gabbro 13888
5 Umbeluzi Dacite 23476-A
6 Umbeluzi Dacite 23488
7 Movene Basalt 23487
8 Movene Basalt 23473
9 Umbeluzi Diabase 23476-B
Table 1. Continues

Sample 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12
Cpx Ilm Pl Cpx Ilm Pl Ti-Aug Cpx Aeg.aug? Aeg.aug? Amp Kfs
SiO2 49.42 0.26 53.20 51.78 0.11 51.12 47.54 48.50 49.25 49.72 49.30 63.84
TiO2 1.41 24.03 0.15 1.38 47.41 0.07 2.10 1.70 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.03
Al2O3 2.38 1.78 28.34 2.35 0.00 28.55 3.88 2.72 1.05 1.40 0.44 18.39
FeOt 15.87 65.32 0.81 7.57 48.45 0.71 13.00 14.42 18.84 16.49 23.04 0.04
MnO 0.38 0.71 0.02 0.15 0.84 0.01 0.30 0.35 1.42 1.30 1.50 0.02
MgO 13.72 0.02 0.04 16.91 0.03 0.16 11.97 12.03 5.27 7.05 2.80 0.00
CaO 15.27 0.10 11.57 19.00 0.37 13.54 19.48 18.65 18.98 20.07 14.60 0.03
Na2O 0.18 0.00 4.54 0.18 0.00 3.73 0.32 0.29 2.42 1.81 4.64 0.10
K2O 0.10 0.02 0.35 0.00 0.02 0.23 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 16.59
P2O5 0.05 0.02 nd nd nd 0.01 0.07 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03
SrO 0.02 0.03 0.27 nd nd nd nd nd 0.30 0.20 0.33 0.00
BaO 0.04 0.20 0.04 0.03 0.63 nd nd nd 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.19
F 0.17 0.32 0.00 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.03
Total 99.01 92.73 99.32 99.38 97.97 98.15 98.75 98.82 98.23 98.69 97.28 99.29

Sample 12 12 12 12
Ne Cpx Anl Anl
SiO2 42.39 49.75 48.37 51.57
TiO2 0.00 0.97 0.05 0.00
Al2O3 33.36 1.96 27.78 29.63
FeOt 0.84 11.90 0.10 0.09
MnO 0.00 0.85 0.01 0.00
MgO 0.01 9.95 0.01 0.00
CaO 0.06 21.84 0.01 0.03
Na2O 15.80 1.28 15.56 15.09
K2O 6.68 0.03 0.09 0.12
P2O5 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00
SrO 0.00 0.20 0.03 0.03
BaO 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.03
F 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.01
Total 99.22 98.83 92.08 96.60

Sample Formation Rock Obs. no

10 Umbeluzi Diabase (basalt?) 23602
11 Movene Diabase (basalt?) 23642
12 Karoo Nepheline syenite 17441

Mineral abbreviations:
Pl = Plagioclase
Alb = Albite
Kfs = K-feldspar
Cpx = Clinopyroxene
Opx = Orthopyroxene
Aug = Augite
Bt = Biotite
Ilm = Ilmenite
1)
Anl = Analcite Analyses are made by Cameca Camebax SX100 microprobe in the Chemical
Ne = nepheline laboratory of GTK. nd = not detected/ not determined.
Amp = Amphibole
Aeg.aug = Aegirine augite
 Appendix 5

The sedimentary profile at the Massingir village

SEDIMENTARY PROFILE : Baragem de
MASSINGIR - Paleogene Mapai Formation.

Sedimentary symbols largely come from the International

Association of Sedimentologists (I.A.S.)

Horizon of dm-large, bored bivalves. Ostrea biostrome

Locally 5%, 1 to 5 cm large pebbles. Very clayey siltstone, even
light-grey, occasional sand grains, locally interbedded with 1-15
cm thick, dark-grey clay. Lagoon

Even light-grey very clayey marlstone with some fine sand

admixed, locally intercalated with 1-15 cm thick, dark-grey
claybeds.

5cm thick oyster bank (dm shells). Passage from high energy
fore-reef, reef and back-reef (below) into lagoon (above).
Coarse skeletal grainstone to boundstone (85%), and 15%
medium sized-sand, light yellow brown, locally clusters of 1-3
cm-large pebbles. Gastropods. Larger shells are bored and in
life position.

Clear-cut, most vertical cm-size burrows. Lower shore-face

Light-grey, evenly laminated siltstone, locally some ripple-cross-

bedding.

30 cm: interlaminated silt-to-very fine sandstone with clay,

glauconitic, light grey. 5 cm-thick oyster bank (Exogyra)
consisting of completely preserved oyster shells.. Mottled
yellow-brown to grey (tidal lagoon?)
Dm-bivalves in life-position, bored, overlain by 10 cm of pure,
very coarse skeletal grainstone to framestone. Passing from
biostrome into high energy fore-reef (2x). Very fossiliferous.
Dm-large nautilae. Isolated (winnowed) extra-basinal boulders.

Deformed clay flasers, loose transported shells (mm), turritella

type gastropods. Low-energy restricted, possible (tidal)
lagoon

35 cm : very fossiliferous skeletal grainstone. Fore-reef

Massive, grey-brown sandstone of medium grainsize, well

sorted, glauconitic, black minerals and mica. Dm to m-scale
loadcast Bar in upper shoreface

Dispersed dm-sized boulders.

Pink pale-red limestone with 15% medium to coarse grained

sand, some glauconite. Pebbles are polymict, rounded and
range between 1 -12 cm. Upper shoreface and entry

Coarse skeletal debris, shale rip-ups. Very abrupt lower contact.

Tidal entry

Cream-brown, massive silty marlstone.

Overlying is a reddened, continental sequence of poorly sorted,
pebbly sandstones and sandy conglomerates that represent
coarse braided-channel deposits and altered/calcretised
interchannel sandy-siltstones.

4,5 m conglomerate, either grey-white or red, coarse sandy

matrix, unsorted but well rounded pebbles to dm-sized boulders.
Some 4 m higher-up vague meter-scale low-angle beds.
Inplaces the lower contact is scouring and/or caused reworking
of underlying calcareous sandstone. Prograding fan-delta !.

Major event, base-level rise in source area to the West, a large

hiatus is expected at this level (Oligocene/Miocene ?).

Light-grey to white, medium to crs. sandstone, mod. sorted,

dispersed boulders up to 30 cm diameter. Tidal inlet?

Light greyish

Gastropods, low to high angle cross-bedding (cm-dm) to South

& West, locally mottled.

Marly siltstone, light grey to yellow, slightly mm-bedded.

Most indurated beds are light-grey to yellow and calcareous.

Tidal flat ?
Yellowish brown, laminated

Indurated bed is laminated and yellowish-brown

Slightly pink-grey mottled. No structures Lagoon

Low-angle, dm- to meter planar sets dip to West. Due to

boudinage or slump and concretion-formation there are lateral
thickness changes in the hard, yellowish beds. These beds have
clay pebbles at their base. Slope instability along tidal inlet
channel?

Silty to marly interval, vague dm-scale bedded by alternation of

clay, silty-clay and marl.
Yellowish beds that stand-out are affected by boudinage or
slump and preferential calcareous cemention.
Slope instability, lower shoreface and off-shore

Dm to meter-scale boudinage of ‘sand’ beds. These appear as

light grey-yellowish, silty marlstone, preferentially cemented by
carbonate. Isolated, delicate (mm) shells. Slope instability

Irregular

Encircled numbers refer to photographs

 PART 2

Photos taken of the Massingir Profile shown in Part 1. Figures 1-5 are from location UTM36,
0413397/7358616, and Figures 6-15 are from location UTM36, 0413615/ 7359264. Scale bar
is 8 cm.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2a.

Fig. 2b.
Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.

Fig. 10a.

Fig. 10b.
Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.

Fig. 15a.

Fig. 15b.
Fig. 16.
VOLUME 1, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class Primary_Comm Subsid_1 Subsid_2 Size_category Size_class Status Mining_method Map_symbol
1 436 Espungabera Coal I 452123 7698899 2032 Manica Coal Organic C Small 1 Showing 121
2 438 507 Espungabera Coal II 451246 7698588 2032 Manica Coal Clastic sediment C Small 1 Showing 121
3 484 564 Luzinada II 424394 7119062 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CB Large 3 active mine 144
4 711 598/L/98 claim 424600 7120900 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Residual/Surficial CB Medium 2 Prospect 144
5 480 563,3 Pequenos Libombos 423302 7118554 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcex CB Small 1 active mine 144
6 457 565 Umbelúzi 438974 7119400 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CP CS Large 3 active mine 121
7 458 568 Bela Vista 467567 7087364 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Medium 2 prospect 121
8 460 528 Inharrime 706058 7290748 2435 Inhambane Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 prospect 121
9 459 523 Mutemba 738974 7338240 2435 Inhambane Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 closed mine 121
10 463 558 Namaacha 408218 7129532 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 prospect 121
11 461 540 Xai-Xai clay I 566637 7230394 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 prospect Open pit 121
12 462 544 Xai-Xai clay II 565563 7228717 2533 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Small 1 prospect 121
13 464 543 Maguiguane 465334 7230259 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Occurrence 0 showing 121
14 465 546 Maolela 453157 7218915 2532 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CS Occurrence 0 showing 121
Base metal
15 507 504 Espungabera Cu 500000 7720272 2033 Manica (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Volcex Cu Occurrence 0 showing 166
16 450 559 Maputo 453274 7129770 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Cy CF CK Small 1 active mine 166
17 510 510 Pande 693508 7632432 2134 Inhambane gas Clastic sediment G Medium 2 prospect 163
18 515 514 Temane 710846 7597396 2135 Inhambane gas Clastic sediment G Medium 2 prospect 163
19 502 506 Divinhe 1 681067 7714666 2034 Sofala gas Clastic sediment G Occurrence 0 showing 163
20 501 503 Nemo 1 727480 7730319 2035 Sofala gas Clastic sediment G Occurrence 0 showing 163
21 485 Luzinada gem 424323 7114871 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral hydrothermal vein/breccia GA Occurrence 0 showing 133
22 445 512,1 Inhassoro Gypsum 714801 7609095 2135 Inhambane Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Gy Occurrence 0 showing 121
23 444 505 Marropanhe 680557 7713775 2034 Sofala Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Gy Occurrence 0 showing 121
25 488 561 Boane 433268 7125995 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Small 1 prospect 145
26 487 550 Manhiça 463968 7193482 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Small 1 Active mine Open pit 145
27 491 531,1 Buana 643485 7284141 2434 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
28 495 538 Lagoa Ramo 509863 7245534 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
29 494 536 Maduaine 511773 7249649 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
30 490 531,2 Mafuiane 641812 7286008 2434 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
31 489 530 Malucuve 661254 7287636 2434 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
32 492 532 Maticuane 632487 7282401 2434 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
33 493 535 Nhaliquene 607861 7262314 2434 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Ki Occurrence 0 showing 145
34 453 549 Mangulane 440864 7197628 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls St Large 3 Closed mine Open pit 121
35 700 570 Salamanga 466180 7076273 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 166
36 454 509 Búzi Limestone 616089 7681133 2034 Sofala Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls Occurrence 0 showing 121
37 456 542 Magude 460109 7234504 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls QB St Occurrence 0 showing 121
38 455 515 Urrongas 694693 7588121 2134 Inhambane Industrial mineral Chemical sediment Ls Occurrence 0 showing 121
39 476 563,1 Boane 423291 7120403 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcex M St Medium 2 closed mine 166
40 479 562 Estevel 428342 7122525 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcex M CB St Small 1 active mine 166
41 477 552 Ressano Garcia 416032 7169942 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcex M CB Small 1 prospect 166
42 483 520 Homoíne 720668 7360693 2335 Inhambane Industrial mineral Clastic sediment M MQ Occurrence 0 showing 121
43 482 517 Morrumbene 737975 7380728 2335 Inhambane Industrial mineral Clastic sediment M Occurrence 0 showing 121
44 544 526 Inhanjela Lagoons 704563 7303688 2435 Inhambane oil Clastic sediment Oil Occurrence 0 showing 163
45 446 548 Magude P 440417 7211086 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Chemical sediment P glauconite Occurrence 0 showing 121
46 447 513 Vilankulos 696556 7599173 2134 Inhambane Industrial mineral Organic Pg Small 1 prospect 148
47 448 502 Chibabava 567865 7755187 2033 Sofala Industrial mineral Organic Pg Occurrence 0 showing 148
48 467 527,1 Caniçado 501692 7290415 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB St Medium 2 prospect Open pit 145
49 706 Uetimane 426063 7177584 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Medium 2 145
50 468 519 Chibotane 418535 7362150 2332 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145

1
VOLUME 1, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Primary_
Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class Comm Subsid_1 Subsid_2 Size_category Size_class Status Mining_method Map_symbol
51 471 533 Chipapa 515117 7277485 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect Open pit 145
52 542 524,1 Estivane I 459352 7332795 2432 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB St Small 1 prospect 145
53 469 521 Marenquele 410075 7358413 2332 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145
54 470 522 Marenquele-Cantina 427037 7358509 2332 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145
55 472 534 Massavasse 523609 7273786 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145
56 473 537 Xai-Xai sand 569018 7247801 2433 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145
57 547 52,27 Xinavane 496626 7292263 2432 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Small 1 prospect 145
58 474 524,2 Estivane II 463594 7330969 2432 Gaza Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB St Occurrence 0 showing 145
59 466 555 Marracuene silica II 463233 7148661 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QG Small 1 closed mine 145
60 704 Joaco_Moamba 415873 7167115 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Acid-intermed. volcanics RM Medium 2 Closed mine Open pit 148
61 424 569 Bela Vista 466743 7085512 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcanic St glauconite MQ Large 3 Prospect 166
62 695 Agroareias 435016 7115962 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Clastic sediment St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 121
63 1130 ARA Sul quarry 423486 7114906 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rock St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
64 1135 CMC quarry 428176 7121877 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
65 1132 Extramac quarry 424951 7108576 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rocks St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
66 699 Libombos 424040 7114807 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral Extrusive rock St Medium 2 Closed mine Open pit 148
67 1131 MAM quarry 413124 7105831 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rock St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
68 1136 noname 423241 7118106 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rock St Medium 2 Closed mine Open pit 139
69 1134 Probrita quarry 428363 7123749 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rocks St Medium 2 Active mine 139
70 1133 Riolitos quarry 422028 7119151 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rocks St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
71 1137 Tamega quarry 424318 7145310 2532 Maputo Industrial mineral Volcanic rock St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 139
72 733 noname 414117 7107659 2632 Maputo Industrial mineral volcanic rock St Unknown 0 Closed mine 139
24 433 Chibuto 554556 7272167 2533 Caza Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Large 3 Dev.Prospect Open pit 124
73 390 Xai-Xai Ti 575622 7223769 2533 Gaza Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Large 3 Prospect 124
74 519 525,2 Guiguane 745727 7336275 2435 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
75 520 525,1 Jangamo 752043 7310310 2435 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
76 526 547,1 Limpopo I 553743 7216487 2533 Gaza Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
77 527 547,2 Limpopo II 562967 7212760 2533 Gaza Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
78 516 516 Mexecane 760779 7518850 2235 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
79 517 518,1 Tofo-Miramar I 754757 7367522 2335 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
80 518 518,2 Tofo-Miramar II 759688 7358192 2335 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Medium 2 prospect 124
81 525 539,1 Chidenguele I 622832 7240038 2434 Gaza Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
82 524 539,2 Chidenguele II 619476 7241918 2434 Gaza Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
83 512 511,1 Inhassoro I 727888 7619061 2135 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
84 511 511,2 Inhassoro II 722834 7628368 2135 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
85 513 512,2 Inhassoro III 731286 7615324 2135 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
86 514 512,3 Inhassoro IV 734639 7607888 2135 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
87 533 571,1 Lagoa Piti I 490036 7067089 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
88 534 571,2 Lagoa Piti II 491712 7048639 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
89 531 572,1 Madejanine 490054 7044938 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
90 523 541 Massano 402448 7234704 2532 Gaza Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
91 529 573,1 Ponta Malongane 486751 7035709 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
92 530 573,2 Ponta do Ouro 486757 7030172 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
93 532 572,2 Ponta Mamoli 490057 7041250 2632 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 showing 124
94 522 529,1 Ponta Závora I 727936 7284869 2435 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
95 521 529,2 Ponta Závora II 723045 7296028 2435 Inhambane Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Small 1 prospect 124
96 391 545 Chongoene 573092 7221934 2533 Gaza Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Unknown 0 Prospect Open pit 145

2
VOLUME 1, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Primary_
Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class Comm Subsid_1 Subsid_2 Size_category Size_class Status Mining_method Map_symbol
97 539 554 Marracuene 468234 7153813 2532 Maputo Ferrous(Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Clastic sediment Ti Zr Occurrence 0 showing 124
98 508 508 Massangana 484402 7687064 2032 Manica water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Large 3 prospect 147
99 536 566 Goba 1 & 3 411712 7107404 2632 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Medium 2 prospect 124
100 535 567 Goba 2 411762 7100017 2632 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Medium 2 prospect 124
101 537 557 Fonte de Montemor 398205 7129458 2531 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Small 1 prospect 124
102 538 560 Fontes Ferrão 409573 7127515 2532 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Small 1 prospect 147
103 540 553 Moamba 424688 7168399 2532 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Small 1 prospect 147
104 548 556 Quinta Hermínia 461608 7135334 2532 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Small 1 prospect 147
105 541 551 Ressano Garcia water 397779 7184833 2531 Maputo water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Small 1 prospect 147
106 504 499,1 Lucite 1 513939 7782980 2033 Manica water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Occurrence 0 showing 147
107 505 499,2 Lucite 2 514818 7782979 2033 Manica water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Occurrence 0 showing 147
108 503 501 Macune 559180 7758904 2033 Sofala water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Occurrence 0 showing 147
109 506 500 Mechenézi 510445 7762698 2033 Manica water hydrothermal vein/breccia TW Occurrence 0 showing 147