Steel - 06-Prof. Zahid Siddiqi PDF

Prof. Dr. Zahid A.
Siddiqi
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
When a load tends to squeeze or shorten a
member, the stresses produced are said to be
compressive in nature and the member is called a
compression member (Figure 3.1).
Examples are struts (short compression members
without chances of buckling), eccentrically loaded
columns, top chords of trusses, bracing members,
compression flanges of beams and members that
are subjected simultaneously to bending and
compressive loads.
Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi
P
There are two significant differences
between the behavior of tension and
compression members, as under:
1. The tensile loads tend to hold
a member straight even if the
member is not initially in one line
and is subjected to simultaneous
bending moments.
P
In contrast, the compressive loads tend to bend
the member out of the plane of the loads due to
imperfections, simultaneous bending moment or
even without all of these.
Tests on majority of practical columns show that

they will fail at axial stresses well below the
elastic limit of the column material because of
their tendency to buckle (which is a sudden
lateral bending due to a critical compressive
force).
For these reasons, the strength of compression
members is reduced in relation to the danger of
buckling depending on length of column, end
conditions and cross-sectional dimensions.
The longer a column becomes for the same cross-

section the greater is its tendency to buckle and
the smaller is the load it will support.
When the length of a compression member
increases relative to its cross-section, it may
buckle at a lower load.
After buckling the load cannot be sustained and
the load capacity nearly approaches zero.
The condition of a column at its critical buckling
load is that of an unstable equilibrium as shown in
Figure 3.2.
(a) Stable (b) Neutral (c) Unstable
Figure 3.2. Types of Equilibrium States.
In the first case, the restoring forces are greater

than the forces tending to upset the system.
Due to an infinitesimal small displacement
consistent with the boundary conditions or due to
small imperfection of a column, a moment is
produced in a column trying to bend it.
At the same time, due to stress in the material,

restoring forces are also developed to bring the
column back to its original shape.
If restoring force is greater than the upsetting
moment, the system is stable but if restoring force
is lesser than the upsetting moment, the system
is unstable.
Right at the transition point when restoring force
is exactly equal to the upsetting moment, we get
neutral equilibrium.
The force associated with this condition is the
critical or buckling load.
2. The presence of rivet or bolt holes in tension

members reduces the area available for resisting
loads; but in compression members the rivets or
bolts are assumed to fill the holes and the entire
gross area is available for resisting load.
CONCENTRICALLY AND ECCENTRICALLY

LOADED COLUMNS
The ideal type of load on a column is a concentric
load and the member subjected to this type of load
is called concentrically loaded column.
The load is distributed uniformly over the entire

cross-section with the center of gravity of the
loads coinciding with the center of gravity of the
columns.
Due to load patterns, the live load on slabs and
beams may not be concentrically transferred to
interior columns.
Similarly, the dead and live loads transferred to
the exterior columns are, generally, having large
eccentricities, as the center of gravity of the loads
will usually fall well on the inner side of the
column.
In practice, majority of the columns are

eccentrically loaded compression members
Slight initial crookedness, eccentricity of loads, and

application of simultaneous transverse loads
produce significant bending moments as the
product of high axial loads (P) multiplied with the
eccentricity, e.
This moment, P × e, facilitates buckling and
reduces the load carrying capacity.
Eccentricity, e, may be relatively smaller, but the
product (P × e) may be significantly larger.
P e P P
e P P
a) Initial b) Eccentric Load c)Simultaneous
Crookedness Transverse Load
The AISC Code of Standard Practice specifies an

acceptable upper limit on the out-of-plumbness and
initial crookedness equal to the length of the
member divided by 500 (equal to 0.002, AISC C2-
2b-3).
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a
member after it has been formed into a finished
product.
These are always present in a member even
without the application of loads.
The magnitudes of these stresses are

considerably high and, in some cases, are
comparable to the yield stresses (refer to Figure
3.4).
The causes of presence of residual stresses are
as under:
1. Uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling

of structural shapes produces thermal stresses,
which are permanently stored in members.
The thicker parts cool at the end, and try to shorten
in length.
While doing so they produce compressive
stresses in the other parts of the section and
tension in them.
Overall magnitude of this tension and
compression remain equal for equilibrium.
In I-shape sections, after hot rolling, the thick
junction of flange to web cools more slowly than the
web and flange tips.
Consequently, compressive residual stress exists at
flange tips and at mid-depth of the web (the regions
that cool fastest), while tensile residual stress exists
in the flange and the web at the regions where they
join.
(C) (C)
80 to 95 MPa (T)
80 to 95 MPa
83 to 93 MPa ≈ 0.3Fy for A36
(C)
(T)
80 to 95 MPa
(T)
a)Rolled Shapes
84 MPa (C) 140 MPa (C)
140 MPa (T) 280 MPa (T)

140 MPa
(C)
240 MPa
(T)
Weld
Weld
b)Welded Shapes
2. Cold bending of members beyond their

elastic limit produce residual stresses and strains
within the members.
Similarly, during fabrication, if some member
having extra length is forced to fit between other
members, stresses are produced in the
associated members.
3. Punching of holes and cutting operations
during fabrication also produce residual stresses.
4. Welding also produces the stresses due to

uneven cooling after welding.
Welded part will cool at the end inviting other
parts to contract with it.
This produces compressive stresses in parts
away from welds and tensile stresses in parts
closer to welds.
SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

Single angle, double angle, tee, channel, W-
section, pipe, square tubing, and rectangular tubing
may be used as columns.
Four Angles Two Inward Two Outward Built-Up W - Section

Box Section Channels Box Channels Box Box With Cover
Section Section Plates
Built-Up Built-Up W And Channels

I−Section Rectangular Built-Up Section Built-Up I−Section
Box
Different combinations of these structural shapes

may also be employed for compression members
to get built-up sections as shown in Figure 3.5.
Built-up sections are better for columns because
the slenderness ratios in various directions may be
controlled to get nearly equal values in all the
directions.
This makes the column economical as far as the
material cost is concerned. However, the joining
and labor cost is generally higher for built-up
sections.
The total cost of these sections may become less

for greater lengths.
The joining of various elements of a built-up
section is usually performed by using lacing.
LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIO

The slenderness ratio of compression members
should preferably not exceed 200 (AISC E2).
This means that in exceptional cases, the limit
may be exceeded.
INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS
Local Instability A
B
During local instability, the
C
individual parts or plate
elements of cross-section
buckle without overall
buckling of the column.
Width/thickness ratio of
each part gives the
slenderness ratio (λ = b/t), Figure 3.6. Local Flange
Instability.
which controls the local
buckling.
Local buckling should never be allowed to occur

before the overall buckling of the member except
in few cases like web of a plate girder.
An unstiffened element is a projecting piece with

one free edge parallel to the direction of the
compressive force.
The example is half flange AB in Figure 3.6.
A stiffened element is supported along the two
edges parallel to the direction of the force.
The example is web AC in the same figure.
For unstiffened flange of figure, b is equal to half

width of flange (bf / 2) and t is equal to tf. Hence,
bf / 2tf ratio is used to find λ.
For stiffened web, h is the width of web and tw is
the thickness of web and the corresponding value
of λ or b/t ratio is h / tw, which controls web local
buckling.
Overall Instability
In case of overall instability, the column buckles as
a whole between the supports or the braces about
an axis whose corresponding slenderness ratio is
bigger.
Buckling
about
major
axis.
a)Buckling about
a)Buckling about minor axis
major axis
Figure - Buckling of a Column Without Intermediate Bracing

Bracing to
Buckling prevent major
about axis buckling,
minor connected to
axis lx1 stable
structures
lx2
Minor Axis
Bracing
Ly1
Ly2
Single angle sections may buckle about their weak

axis (z-axis, Figure 3.10).
Calculate Le / rz to check the slenderness ratio.
In general, all un-symmetric sections having non-
zero product moment of inertia (Ixy) have a weak
axis different from the y-axis.
Z
Z
Figure 3.10. Axis of Buckling For Single Angle Section.
Unsupported Length
It is the length of column between two consecutive

supports or braces denoted by Lux or Luy in the x
and y directions, respectively.
A different value of unsupported length may exist in
different directions and must be used to calculate
the corresponding slenderness ratios.
To calculate unsupported length of a column in a
particular direction, only the corresponding supports
and braces are to be considered neglecting the
bracing preventing buckling in the other direction.
Effective Length Of Column

The length of the column corresponding to one-
half sine wave of the buckled shape or the length
between two consecutive inflection points or
supports after buckling is called the effective
length.
BUCKLING OF STEEL COLUMNS
Buckling is the sudden lateral bending produced
by axial loads due to initial imperfection, out-of-
straightness, initial curvature, or bending produced
by simultaneous bending moments.
Chances of buckling are directly related with the
slenderness ratio KL/r and hence there are three
parameters affecting buckling.
1. Effective length factor (K), which depends on the
end conditions of the column.
2. Unbraced length of column (Lu), in strong
direction or in weak direction, whichever gives
more answer for KL/r.
3. Radius of gyration (r), which may be rx or ry
(strong and weak direction) for uniaxially or
biaxially symmetrical cross-sections and least
radius of gyration (rz) for un-symmetrical cross-
sections like angle sections.
Following points must be remembered to find the

critical slenderness ratio:
a. Buckling will take place about a direction for
which the corresponding slenderness ratio is
the maximum.
b. For unbraced compression members
consisting of angle section, the total length
and rz are used in the calculation of KL/r
ratio.
c. For steel braces, bracing is considered the
most effective if tension is produced in them
due to buckling.
d. Braces that provide resistance by bending

are less effective and braces having
compression are almost ineffective because
of their small x-sections and longer lengths.
e. The brace is considered effective if its other
end is connected to a stable structure,
which is not undergoing buckling
simultaneously with the braced member.
f. The braces are usually provided inclined to
main members of steel structures starting
from mid-spans to ends of the adjacent
columns.
g. Because bracing is most effective in

tension, it is usually provided on both sides
to prevent buckling on either side.
h. Bracing can be provided to prevent
buckling along weak axis. KL/r should be
calculated by using Ky, unbraced length
along weak axis and ry.
i. Bracing can also be provided to prevent
buckling along the strong axis. KL/r in this
case should be calculated by using Kx, the
unbraced length along strong axis and rx.
j. The end condition of a particular

unsupported length of a column at an
intermediate brace is considered a hinge.
The reason is that the rotation becomes free

at this point and only the lateral movement is
prevented.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (K)

This factor gives the ratio of length of half sine
wave of deflected shape after buckling to full-
unsupported length of column.
This depends upon the end conditions of the

column and the fact that whether sidesway is
permitted or not.
Greater the K-value, greater is the effective length
and slenderness ratio and hence smaller is the
buckling load.
K-value in case of no sidesway is between 0.5 and
1.0, whereas, in case of appreciable sidesway, it is
greater than or equal to 1.0
Le = K Lu
Sidesway
Any appreciable lateral or sideward movement of
top of a vertical column relative to its bottom is
called sidesway, sway or lateral drift.
If sidesway is possible, k-value increases by a
greater degree and column buckles at a lesser
load.
Sidesway in a frame takes place due to:-
a. Lengths of different columns are unequal.
b. When sections of columns have different cross-
sectional properties.
c. Loads are un-symmetrical.

d. Lateral loads are acting.
I
I 2I
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.11. Causes of Sidesway in a Building Frame.
Sidesway may be prevented in a frame by:

a. Providing shear or partition walls.
b. Fixing the top of frame with adjoining rigid

structures.
c. Provision of properly designed lift well or
shear walls in a building, which may act like
backbone of the structure reducing the
lateral deflections.
Shear wall is a structural wall that resists
shear forces resulting from the applied
transverse loads in its own plane and it
produces frame stability.
Provision of lateral bracing, which may be of

following two types:
i. Diagonal bracing, and
ii. Longitudinal bracing.
Unbraced frame is defined as the one in which the

resistance to lateral load is provided by the bending
resistance of frame members and their connections
without any additional bracing.
K-Factor For Columns Having Well

Defined End Conditions
Theoretical K=1.0
Le = L Practical K = 1.0 Theoretical K = 0.5
No Sidesway Le = KL Practical K = 0.65
No Sidesway
Inflection
Points
Theoretical K=1.0
Practical K = 1.2
Sidesway Present
Theoretical K = 0.7
Le = KL Practical K = 0.8
No Sidesway
Le = KL
Theoretical K=2.0
Practical K = 2.0
Theoretical K=2.0 Sidesway Present
Le = KL Practical K = 2.10
Sidesway Present
Partially Restrained Columns
Consider the example of column AB shown in

Figure 3.13.
The ends are not free to rotate and are also not
perfectly fixed.
Instead these ends are partially fixed with the fixity
determined by the ratio of relative flexural stiffness
of columns meeting at a joint to the flexural
stiffness of beams meeting at that joint.
∑ ( EI l) of columns
ψ or G at each end =
∑ ( EI l) of beams
Columns
A GA or ψA
A
Beams
B
B GB or ψB
Part-X
Column AB of Part-X
Figure 3.13. Partially restrained Columns.

K-Values For Truss And

Braced Frame Members
The effective length factor, K, is considered equal

to 1.0 for members of the trusses and braced frame
columns.
In case the value is to be used less than one for
frame columns, detailed buckling analysis is
required to be carried out and bracing is to be
designed accordingly.
ELASTIC BUCKLING LOAD

FOR LONG COLUMNS
P = Pcr
A
Buckled
Shape
L/2
umax.
C
D u L/2
y
B
P = Pcr
A column with pin connections on both ends is

considered for the basic derivation, as shown in
Figure 3.15.
The column has a length equal to L and is
subjected to an axial compressive load, P.
Buckling of the column occurs at a critical
compressive load, Pcr.
The lateral displacement for the buckled position at
a height y from the base is u. The bending
moment at this point D is:
M = Pcr × u (I)
This bending moment is function of the deflection

unlike the double integration method of structural
analysis where it is independent of deflection.
The equation of the elastic curve is given by the
Euler-Bernoulli Equation, which is the same as that
for a beam.
d2u
EI 2 = −M (II)
dy
d2u
or EI 2
+ Pcr u = 0
dy
d 2u Pcr
or 2 + u = 0 (III)
dy EI
Pcr
Let = C2 where C is constant (IV)
EI
d 2u
∴ 2 + C2 u = 0 (V)
dy
The solution of this differential equation is:
u = A cos (C × y) + B sin (C × y) (VI)
where, A and B are the constants of integration.
Boundary Condition No. 1:
At y = 0, u = 0
0 = A cos(0°) + B sin (0°) ⇒ A=0
∴ u = B sin (C × y) (VII)
Boundary Condition No. 2:
At y = L, u = 0
From Eq. VII: 0 = B sin (C L)
⇒ Either B = 0 or sin (C L) = 0 (VIII)
If B = 0, the equation becomes u = 0, giving un-
deflected condition. Only the second alternate is
left for the buckled case.
 Pcr 
sin (C L) = sin  L
 =0 (IX)
 EI 
sin θ = 0 for θ = 0, π, 2π, 3π, … (radians)

Or nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, … (X)
Pcr
Hence, from Eq. IX: L = nπ
EI
n 2π 2 EI
Pcr = (XI)
L2
The smallest value of Pcr is for n = 1, and is given
below:
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
(XII)
L
For other columns with different end conditions, we

have to replace L by the effective length, L e = K L.
π 2 EI
Pcr = (XIII)
(KL ) 2
π 2 E Ar 2
Pcr =
(KL )2
π 2EA
= = Fe A (XIV)
(K L r ) 2
π2E
and Fe = (XV)
( K L r )2
It is important to note that the buckling load

determined from Euler equation is independent of
strength of the steel used.
The most important factor on which this load
depends is the KL/r term called the slenderness
ratio.
Euler critical buckling load is inversely proportional
to the square of the slenderness ratio.
With increase in slenderness ratio, the buckling
strength of a column drastically reduces.
In the above equations:

KL
= slenderness ratio
r
Pcr = Euler’s critical elastic buckling load
and
Fe = Euler’s elastic critical buckling stress
Long compression members fail by elastic buckling

and short compression members may be loaded
until the material yield or perhaps even goes into
the strain-hardening range.
However, in the vast majority of usual situations

failure occurs by buckling after a portion of cross-
section has yielded.
This is known as inelastic buckling.
This variation in column behaviour with change of
slenderness ratio is shown in Figure 3.16.
E
where Rc = 4.71 F ≈ 133 for A36 steel.
y
Compression Yielding
Inelastic Buckling (Straight Line Or

D
Fy a Parabolic Line Is Assumed)
C
Euler’s Curve
(Elastic Buckling)
Fcr
B
0.4 Fy Elastic Buckling
Approximately
Rc 200
≈ 20 to 30 KL / r (R)
Intermediate Long Columns

Short Columns (KL / r)max
Columns
TYPES OF COLUMNS DEPENDING

ON BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
Elastic Critical Buckling Stress
The elastic critical buckling stress is defined as
under:
Fe = Elastic critical buckling (Euler) stress
π2E
= 2
 KL 
 
 r 
The critical slenderness ratio dividing the expected
elastic and the inelastic buckling is denoted by Rc
and is given below:
E
Rc = 4.71 F ≈ 133 for A36 steel
y
Long Columns
In long columns, elastic buckling is produced and
the deformations are recovered upon removal of
the load.
Further, the stresses produced due to elastic
buckling remains below the proportional limit.
The Euler formula is used to find strength of long
columns.
Long columns are defined as those columns for
which the slenderness ratio is greater than the
critical slenderness ratio, Rc.
No Buckling
φc Fy
C Inelastic Buckling
Maximum
Compressive
Stress (φc Fcr)
Elastic Buckling
Rc 200
≈ 20 to 30 KL / r
Intermediate Long Columns

Short Columns (KL / r)max
Columns
Short Columns
For very short columns, when the slenderness ratio

is less than 20 to 30, the failure stress will equal
the yield stress and no buckling occurs.
In practice, very few columns meet this condition.
For design, these are considered with the
intermediate columns subjected to the condition
that failure stress should not exceed the yield
stress.
Intermediate Columns
Intermediate columns buckle at a relatively higher load
(more strength) as compared with long columns.
The buckling is inelastic meaning that part of the
section becomes inelastic after bending due to
buckling.
The columns having slenderness ratio lesser than the
critical slenderness ratio (Rc) are considered as
intermediate columns, as shown in Figure 3.16.
COLUMN STRENGTH FORMULAS

The design compressive strength (φc Pn) and the
allowable compressive strength (Pn / Ωc) of
compression members, whose elements do not
exhibit elastic local instability (only compact and
non-compact sections), are given below:
φc = 0.90 (LRFD) : Pn = Fcr Ag

Ωc = 1.67 (ASD) : Pn = Fcr Ag
Fcr = critical or ultimate compressive strength
based on the limit state of flexural buckling
determined as under:
Elastic Buckling
When KL / r > Rc or Fe < 0.44Fy
Fcr = 0.877 Fe (AISC Formula E3-2)
where Fe is the Euler’s buckling stress and 0.877
is a factor to estimate the effect of out-of-
straightness of about 1/1500.
Inelastic Buckling and No Buckling

When KL / r ≤ Rc or Fe > 0.44Fy
 Fy

 0.658 Fe 
Fcr =   Fy (AISC Formula E3-3)
 
TYPES OF COLUMN SECTIONS

FOR LOCAL STABILITY
Compact Sections
A compact section is one that has sufficiently thick

elements so that it is capable of developing a fully
plastic stress distribution before buckling.
The term plastic means stressed throughout to the
yield stress.
For a compression member to be classified as

compact, its flanges must be continuously
connected to its web or webs and the width
thickness ratios of its compression elements may
not be greater than the limiting ratios λp give in
AISC Table B4.1 and reproduced in Table 3.1.
Element λp λp For A36
Un-stiffened: Defined only for −

flexure
Stiffened: Flanges of hollow E 31.8

sections subjected to 1.12
compression. Fy
Non-Compact Sections
A non-compact section is one for which the yield
stress can be reached in some but not all of its
compression elements just at the buckling stage.
It is not capable of reaching a fully plastic stress
distribution.
In AISC Table B4.1, the non-compact sections are
defined as those sections which have width-
thickness ratios greater than λp but not greater than
λr .
Values of limiting b/t ratios (λr) are given in Table
3.2.
Width- λr λr For A36

Thickness Steel
Ratio
Element
Unstiffened
1. Flanges of I-shaped sections in pure compression,
plates projecting from compression elements, outstanding
b E 15.9
0.56
legs of pairs of angles in continuous contact, and flanges t Fy
of channels in pure compression.
2. Legs of single angle struts, legs of double angle b E 12.8
struts with separators and other un-stiffened elements 0.45
supported along one edge. t Fy
3. Stems of tees. d 0.75
E 21.3
t Fy
4. Flanges of built-up I-sections with projecting plates b 0.64
kc E
18.1 kc
or angles. Fy
t
Width- λr λr For A36

Thickness Steel
Ratio
Element
Stiffened
1. Flanges of rectangular hollow sections of uniform b E 39.7
thickness used for uniform compression. 1.40
t Fy
2. Flexure in webs of doubly symmetric I-shaped sections
and channels. h E
5.70 161.8
tw Fy
3. Uniform compression in webs of doubly symmetric I-

shaped sections and uniform compression in all other b 1.49
E 42.3
stiffened elements. Fy
t
4. Circular hollow sections in axial compression.
D/t 0.11 (E / Fy) 88.6
Slender Compression Sections
These sections consist of elements having width-

thickness ratios greater than λr and will buckle
elastically before the yield stress is reached in any
part of the section.
A special design procedure for slender
compression sections is provided in Section E7 of
the AISC Specification.
However, it will not be covered in detail here.
Width Of Un-stiffened Elements

For un-stiffened elements, which are supported
along only one edge parallel to the direction of the
compression force, the width shall be taken as
follows:
a. For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the
width b is half the full nominal width (bf/2).
b. For legs of angles, the width b is the longer leg
dimension.
c. For flanges of channels and zees, the width b
is the full nominal dimension (bf).
d. For plates, the width b is the distance from the

free edge to the first row of fasteners or line of
welds.
e. For stems of tees, d is taken as the full
nominal depth.
Width Of Stiffened Elements
a. For webs of rolled or formed sections, h is the
clear distance between the flanges less the fillet
or corner radius at each flange and hc is twice the
distance from the centroidal axis to the inside
face of the compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius.
b. For webs of built-up sections,

h is the clear distance between the inner lines of
fasteners on the web or the clear distance
between flanges when welds are used,
hc is twice the distance from the centroidal axis to
the nearest line of fasteners at the compression
flange or the inside face of the compression
flange when welds are used, and
hp is twice the distance from the plastic neutral
axis to the nearest line of fasteners at the
compression flange or the inside face of the
compression flange when welds are used.
MODIFIED SLENDERNESS RATIO

Snug Tight Connections
Snug tight connection is defined as the type in
which the plates involved in a connection are in firm
contact with each other but without any defined
contact prestress.
It usually means the tightness obtained by the full
effort of a man with a wrench or the tightness
obtained after a few impacts of an impact wrench.
Obviously there is some variation in the degree of
tightness obtained under these conditions. The
tightness is much lesser than tensioning of the high-
strength bolts.
Turn-of-Nut Method: After the tightening of a nut to a

snug fit, the specified pre-tension in high-strength bolts
may be controlled by a predetermined rotation of the
wrench.
This procedure is called turn-of-nut method of fixing the
bolts.
Shear Connections / Stay Plates
Between Elements Of A Built-Up
Member
Built-up compression members composed of two

or more hot rolled shapes shall be connected to
one another at intervals by stay plates (shear
connectors) such that the maximum slenderness
ratio a / ri of individual element, between the
fasteners, does not exceed the governing
slenderness ratio of the built-up member, that is,
the greater value of (KL / r)x or (KL / r)y for the
whole section.
Shear connectors are also required to transfer
shear between elements of a built-up member that
is produced due to buckling of the member.
Following notation is used in further discussion

of the effect of spacing of shear connectors:
a = distance between connectors

ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual
component
a / ri = largest column slenderness of individual
component
rib = radius of gyration of individual
component relative to its centroidal axis
parallel to member axis of buckling
 KL 
  = column slenderness of built-up member
 r 0
acting as a unit
 KL 
  = modified column slenderness of the
 r m
built-up member as a whole
α = separation ratio = h / (2 rib), and
h = distance between centroids of individual
components perpendicular to the
member axis of buckling
Modified Slenderness Ratio

Depending On Spacing Of Stay Plates
If the buckling mode of a built-up compression
member involves relative deformation that
produces shear forces in the connectors between
individual parts, the modified slenderness ratio is
calculated as follows:
(a) For snug-tight bolted connectors:

 KL  2
 KL   a 
2
  =   + 
 r m  r  0  ri 
(b) for welded connectors and for fully tightened

bolted connectors as required for slip-critical
joints:
 KL   KL 
2
α a
2

2
  =   + 0.82 
2 

 r m  r 0 1 + α  rib 
(KL / r)m should only be used if buckling occurs

about such an axis such that the individual
members elongate by different amounts.
For example for double angles in Figure 3.17, if
buckling occurs about x-axis, (KL / r)m is not
evaluated as both the angles bend symmetrically
without any shear between the two.
However, if buckling occurs about y-axis, one of

the angle sections is elongated while the other is
compressed producing shear between the two and
consequently (KL / r)m is required to be evaluated.
At the ends of built-up compression members
bearing on base plates or milled surfaces, all
components in contact with one another shall be
connected by a weld having a length not less than
the maximum width of the member, or
by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four
diameters apart for a distance equal to 1.5 times
the maximum width of the member.
The slenderness ratio of individual component

between the connectors (Ka / ri) should not exceed
75% of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-
up member.

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Tests on majority of practical columns show that

The longer a column becomes for the same cross-

(a) Stable (b) Neutral (c) Unstable

Figure 3.2. Types of Equilibrium States.

In the first case, the restoring forces are greater

At the same time, due to stress in the material,

2. The presence of rivet or bolt holes in tension

CONCENTRICALLY AND ECCENTRICALLY

The load is distributed uniformly over the entire

In practice, majority of the columns are

Slight initial crookedness, eccentricity of loads, and

The AISC Code of Standard Practice specifies an

The magnitudes of these stresses are

1. Uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling

84 MPa (C) 140 MPa (C)

140 MPa (T) 280 MPa (T)

2. Cold bending of members beyond their

4. Welding also produces the stresses due to

SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

Four Angles Two Inward Two Outward Built-Up W - Section

Built-Up Built-Up W And Channels

Different combinations of these structural shapes

The total cost of these sections may become less

LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIO

Local buckling should never be allowed to occur

An unstiffened element is a projecting piece with

For unstiffened flange of figure, b is equal to half

Figure - Buckling of a Column Without Intermediate Bracing

Single angle sections may buckle about their weak

It is the length of column between two consecutive

Effective Length Of Column

Following points must be remembered to find the

d. Braces that provide resistance by bending

g. Because bracing is most effective in

j. The end condition of a particular

The reason is that the rotation becomes free

EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (K)

This depends upon the end conditions of the

c. Loads are un-symmetrical.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3.11. Causes of Sidesway in a Building Frame.

Sidesway may be prevented in a frame by:

b. Fixing the top of frame with adjoining rigid

Provision of lateral bracing, which may be of

Unbraced frame is defined as the one in which the

K-Factor For Columns Having Well

Partially Restrained Columns

Consider the example of column AB shown in

Figure 3.13. Partially restrained Columns.

K-Values For Truss And

The effective length factor, K, is considered equal

ELASTIC BUCKLING LOAD

A column with pin connections on both ends is

This bending moment is function of the deflection

sin θ = 0 for θ = 0, π, 2π, 3π, … (radians)

For other columns with different end conditions, we

It is important to note that the buckling load

In the above equations:

Long compression members fail by elastic buckling

However, in the vast majority of usual situations

Inelastic Buckling (Straight Line Or

Intermediate Long Columns