Chapter 1.

Origin and Development of Sociology and Anthropology

(Sociology- ISC XI)

Outline:
(i) Emergence of Sociology and Anthropology as Disciplines. Discuss the definition, origin and
growth of the two disciplines briefly. Define the nature and scope of Sociology.
(ii) Classical Thinkers and Theories. Contribution of the Classical Thinkers on the basis of their
theories. Discuss the contribution of the following on the basis of the given theories:
 Auguste Comte – Positivism;
 Herbert Spencer – Theory of Evolution (use Social Darwinism, Organic Analogy);
 Emile Durkheim - Structural Functionalism (use the concepts sacred and profane, division of
labour, solidarity)
 Max Weber - Interpretive Sociology (bureaucracy, types of authority);
 Karl Marx - Conflict Theory (class and class struggle).
(iii) Sociology and other Social Sciences. An understanding of the interrelationship between
Sociology and other Social Sciences Relationship between Sociology and other Social Sciences -
Political Science, Economics, Anthropology (Physical Anthropology; Socio-cultural
Anthropology), History, Psychology, Philosophy.

(i) Emergence of Sociology and Anthropology as disciplines

What is Sociology?
 Sociology is the science of society as it endeavours to study society in its entirety.
 It is interested in social relationships not because they are economic or political or religious
or legal or educational but because they are at the same time, social.
 Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, is traditionally considered to the father of Sociology. He
coined the term sociology in 1839.
 Sociology is composed of two words: ‘Socius’, meaning companion or associate; and
‘logos’ meaning science or study. The etymological meaning of Sociology is thus the
science of society.

Emergence of Sociology:
Sociology came to be established as an independent and a separate social science in the middle of
the 19th century when European social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas.

Definitions:
1}. Auguste Comte, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of
social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation."
2}.Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".
3}. Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social groups".
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 4}.Emile Durkhiem: "Science of social institutions".
5}. Park regards sociology as "the science of collective behavior".
6}. Small defines sociology as "the science of social relationships".
7}. Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to-men".
8}. Ogburn and Nimkoff : "Sociology is the scientific study of social life".
9}. Franklin Henry Giddings defines sociology as "the science of social phenomena".
10}. Henry Fairchild: "Sociology is the study of man and his human environment in their
relations to each other".
11}. Max Weber defines sociology as “the science which attempts the interpretative
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its course
and effects".
12}. Alex Inkeles says, "Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their
inter-relations".
13}. Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack say, "Sociology is the scientific study of
social aspects of human life".
14}. Morris Ginsberg: of the various definitions of sociology the one given by Morris
Ginsberg seems to be more satisfactory and comprehensive. He defines sociology in the
following way: "In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and
inter-relations, their conditions and consequences".

Origin and Growth:

 Social Science is any study concerned with man and society (human relationships,
interactions, behaviour, institutions, etc). Eg. History, Political Science, Economics,
Sociology, Anthropology and Psychology.
 Sociology has a long past but only a short history. Sociology which is known as the science
of society, is one of the youngest as well as one of the oldest of the social sciences.
 It is one of the youngest sciences because only recently it came to be established as a
distinct branch of knowledge with its own distinct set of concepts and its own methods of
inquiry.
 Since the dawn of civilization, society has been a subject for speculation and inquiry along
with other phenomena which have agitated the restless and inquisitive mind of man.
 Even centuries ago men were thinking about society and how it should be organized, and
held views on man and his destiny, the rise and fall of people and civilizations.
 Though they were thinking in sociological terms they were called philosophers, historians,
thinkers, law givers, seers etc. This shows Sociology is one of the oldest of the sciences.
 Sociology emerged in the middle of the nineteen century in Europe due to the efforts of
French philosopher Auguste Comte.
Three factors led to the development of sociology:
1. Industrial Revolution
2. Growth of Natural Sciences
3. Diverse Societies and Cultures
Industrial revolution:
 Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production
 Masses of people moved to the cities in search of work
 In cities people met anonymity, crowding, filth, and poverty
 Industrial Revolution challenged the traditional order an opened the door for democratic
changes
 Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human existence
Growth of natural sciences:
 19th Century – Natural sciences made much progress
 Success tempted good number of social thinkers to emulate their example
 It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social phenomena
Diverse societies and cultures:
 The Europeans had been successful in obtaining colonies
 Their colonial empires exposed them to radically different cultures
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  Startled by these contrasting ways of life, they began to ask questions why cultures differed

Nature of Sociology:
 Sociology is a social science and not a natural science, because it deals with human
beings and social phenomena.
 It is positive and not normative science because it studies social phenomena as it is and
not as it ought to be.
 It is pure and not applied science because it studies underlying factors of a social
phenomenon.
 Sociology is an independent science – it is not treated and studies as a branch of any other
science. It has its own field of study, boundary and method.
 Sociology is a social science and not a physical science – it concentrates its attention on
man, his social behaviour, social activities and social life.
 Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline – it confines itself to statements
about what is, not what should be or ought to be. It does not make any kind of value
judgements. Its approach is neither moral, nor immoral, but amoral. It is ethically neutral.
 Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science – its main aim is the acquisition
of knowledge about human society, not the utilization of that knowledge. The knowledge
thus acquired is of great help to the administrator, legislator, diplomat, teachers etc.
 Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science – it is not interested
in the concrete manifestations of human events. It is more concerned with the form of
human events and their patterns. For example: Sociology is concerned with particular wars
and revolutions but with war and revolution in general, as social phenomena, as types of
social conflict.
 Sociology is a generalising and not a particularising or individualistic science –it tries
to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and association, about
nature, form, content and structure of human groups and societies. It does not study each
and every event that takes place in society.
 Sociology is a general science and not a special social science – it is concerned with
human interaction and human life in general.
 Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science – there are two broad ways of
approach to scientific knowledge. One, known as empiricism, is the approach that
emphasizes experience and
 The facts that result from observation and experimentation. The other, known as
rationalism, stresses reason and the theories that result from logical inference.

Scope of Sociology:
There are two main schools of thought about the scope of sociology.
The Specialistic or Formalistic School:
 Believes that scope of sociology should not be generalized but confined to the study of
some specific aspects of society.
 Subject – pure and independent.
 Deals with social relationships, social activities and processes of socialization.
 Chief exponents – George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber, Small, etc.

The Synthetic School of Thought:

 Sociology as the synthesis of social sciences
 Believes that sociology should study society as a whole and not confine itself to the
study of only limited social problems.
 Social life is inter-related
 General ; not pure or special
 Chief exponents – Durkhiem, Hob House, Ginsberg and Sorokin.

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What is Anthropology?
 Greek anthropos (“human”) and logia (“study”), it is the study of humankind, from its
beginnings, millions of years ago to the present day.
 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how
they behave, adapt to different environments, communicate and socialise with one another.
 The study of anthropology is concerned both with the biological features that make us
human (such as physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history and evolution) and with
social aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family and religion).
 Whether studying a religious community in London, or human evolutionary fossils in the
UAE, anthropologists are concerned with many aspects of people’s lives: the everyday
practices as well as the more dramatic rituals, ceremonies and processes which define us
as human beings.

Emergence of Anthropology:
 Did not appear until the 16th century
 Many philosophers, like Aristotle, were conducting studies of anthropological nature as
early as 4th century BC. Also, Herodotus in 500 BC, Aristotle in 400 BC and Strabo in 100
BC.
 Anthropology, considered as the science of humanity, originated in the region we
commonly refer to as ‘the West’, notably in four ‘Western’ countries: France, Britain, the
USA and Germany.
 Historically speaking, this is a European discipline, and its practitioners, like those of all
European sciences, ocasionally like to trace its roots back to the ancient Greeks

Definition of Anthropology:
 "Anthropology demands the open-mindedness with which one must look and listen, record
in astonishment and wonder at that which one would not have been able to guess" –
Margaret Mead (1901-1978)
 “The purpose of anthropology is to make the world safe for human differences” – Ruth
Benedict (1887-1948)
 “Anthropology is the most humanistic of sciences and the most scientific of the
humanities” – Anthropologist Alfred L.Kroeber (1876-1960)

Origin and Growth:

 Anthropology traces its roots to ancient Greek historical and philosophical writings about
human nature and the organization of human society. Anthropologists generally regard
Herodotus, a Greek historian who lived in the 400s BC, as the first thinker to write widely
on concepts that would later become central to anthropology.
 In the book History, Herodotus described the cultures of various peoples of the Persian
Empire, which the Greeks conquered during the first half of the 400s BC. He referred to
Greece as the dominant culture of the West and Persia as the dominant culture of the East.
This type of division, between white people of European descent and other peoples,
established the mode that most anthropological writing would later adopt.
 The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, who lived in the 14th century AD, was another early
writer of ideas relevant to anthropology. Khaldun examined the environmental,
sociological, psychological, and economic factors that affected the development and the
rise and fall of civilizations.
 Both Khaldun and Herodotus produced remarkably objective, analytic, ethnographic
descriptions of the diverse cultures in the Mediterranean world, but they also often used
secondhand information.
 During the Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries ad) biblical scholars dominated European
thinking on questions of human origins and cultural development. They treated these
questions as issues of religious belief and promoted the idea that human existence and all
of human diversity were the creations of God.
 Beginning in the 15th century, European explorers looking for wealth in new lands
provided vivid descriptions of the exotic cultures they encountered on their journeys in
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 Asia, Africa, and what are now the Americas. But these explorers did not respect or know
the languages of the peoples with whom they came in contact, and they made brief,
unsystematic observations.
 The European Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries marked the rise of
scientific and rational philosophical thought.
 Enlightenment thinkers, such as Scottish-born David Hume, John Locke of England, and
Jean-Jacques Rousseau of France, wrote a number of humanistic works on the nature of
humankind. They based their work on philosophical reason rather than religious authority
and asked important anthropological questions. Rousseau, for instance, wrote on the moral
qualities of “primitive” societies and about human inequality. But most writers of the
Enlightenment also lacked firsthand experience with non-Western cultures.
 With the rise of imperialism (political and economic control over foreign lands) in the 18th
and 19th centuries, Europeans came into increasing contact with other peoples around the
world, prompting new interest in the study of culture
 In the 19th century modern anthrop
 Anthropology came into being along with the development and scientific acceptance of
theories of biological and cultural evolution. In the early 19th century, a number of
scientific observations, especially of unearthed bones and other remains, such as stone
tools, indicated that humanity’s past had covered a much greater span of time than that
indicated by the Bible.

(ii) Classical Thinkers and Theories

Auguste Comte

 1798-1857.
 Born at Montpellier, France. A decade after the French Revolution.
 French thinker, famous social philosopher and the first sociologist.
 Laid the foundation of Sociology- ‘Father of Sociology’.
 He insisted that Sociology- Science of Society, should be treated on par with other sciences.
 His lecture notes, published between 1830-1842 in Six volumes (4800 pages), constituted
his masterly work called “Course of Positive Philosophy”.
 In that work Comte first used the term ‘ Sociology’.
 He believed in ‘cerebral hygiene’ to preserve his mental health.

Comtean Positivism:
 “Philosophy of Science”- Roots in the empiricist tradition.
 Influenced by the writings of David Hume (Scottish philosopher, essayist and economist)
and Saint- Simon (Socialist thinker and philosopher)
 Meaning of Positivism
 The doctrine which asserts that the only true knowledge is scientific knowledge.
 Describes and explains the co-existence and succession of observable phenomenon,
including both physical and social phenomenon

General aims:
 to build general laws which demonstrate relationships between social phenomena.
 to reveal, by observation and experiment, those social phenomena which do or do not fit a
particular hypothesis.
 to use quantifiable and measurable data to construct explanations which examine the
impact of social structures upon human behaviour. Such explanations are therefore distinct
from those which refer to human intentions and motives.
 to apply scientific principles of research to the study of society, with the aim of constructing
proposals for social change, thus leading to a better society.

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Nature of Comtean Positivism:

 Positivism as a doctrine:
Positivism as a way of thinking – Based on assumption that it is possible to observe social
life; knowledge can be derived only from sensory experience; methods of physical sciences
are the only accurate means of obtaining knowledge

 Positivism as a method:
Positivism implies the use of scientific method – Methods most often associated with the
physical sciences

Criticisms against Positivism:

 Positivism is not influential at present – Encourages misleading emphasis on superficial
facts and no attention to underlying unobservable mechanisms. For example: human
motives, meaning of peoples’ behaviour
 Methodological gulf between the physical and social sciences – Inappropriateness of
natural-scientific methods in the human or social sciences. For example: cultural
norms, symbolic meanings, etc
 Problem of verification – Lack of any conclusive basis for verification

Herbert Spencer

 1820-1903
 Evolution was one of the most exciting ideas of the 19th Century
 Comes from the Latin word “evolvere” which means to “develop” or to “unfold”
 Spencer applied the principle of evolution to the social world – “Social Evolution”
 Social Evolution – “A set of stages through which all the societies move from simple to
the complex and from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous

Theory of Evolution:
Spencer gave some laws and propositions to arrive at the theory of Evolution.
Three basic laws:
1. Law of Persistence of Energy or Force
2. Law of Indestructibility of Matter
3. Law of Continuity of Motion
Four secondary propositions:
1. Uniformity of Law
2. Law of Transformation and Equivalence of Forces
3. Law of Least Resistance and Great Attraction
4. Principle of Alteration or Rhythm of Motion

Joint product of the seven laws = the Theory of Evolution

“Evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion, during which the
matter passes from relatively indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a relatively definite, coherent
heterogeneity.”

Organic Analogy:
 The identification of society with a biological organism.
 Society is thus viewed as being essentially analogous to an organism, with its
interdependent parts or organs making up the body of society.

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Similarities between a society and a biological organism:
 Similarity in visible growth – Both society and organism are subject to growth.
For example: a child grows up to be a man; a tiny community becomes a metropolitan area.
 An increase in the complexity of structure – For example: primitive organisms like
amoeba are simple whereas the highest organisms like the mammals are very complex;
primitive community was very simple whereas the modern industrial society is highly
complex.
 Differentiation of structure, leading to differentiation of functions – For example: the
primitive living organism was a unicellular creature; but with the increase in the cells,
differentiation of organs resulted, at the highest levels of evolution the structure of the body
is quite complex. Similar is the case with society. In case of an organism that has very
complex organs, each organ performs a specified function. Similarly, a complex society is
sub-divided into many different organizations, and each organization carries out a specified
function.
 Change in structure leads to change in functions – it means that the function becomes
more and more specialized. This applies to the body of a living creature as well as to the
society.
 Differentiation as well as harmony of organs – each organ is complimentary to the other
and not opposed. This holds true both in the body of a living creature as well as to the
society.
 Loss of an organ does not necessarily result in the loss of an organism – For example:
if an individual loses his leg, he does not necessarily die and similarly, in society if some
association or a political party disintegrates it does not invariably lead to the decay of the
society.
 Similar process and methods of organization – in discussing the organic analogy further,
Spencer compared the alimentary system of an organism to the productive industries, or
the sustaining system in the society. There is a strong parallelism between the circulation
system of an organism and the distributing system in society with its transportation lines
and with its commercial classes and media of exchange. In both cases, there are developed
regulating systems. In society, there is the social control mechanism to fulfil the
regulative function. In an organism, there are dominant centres and subordinate
centres, the senses, and a neural apparatus to perform the tasks of the regulating
systems.

Differences between a society and a biological organism:

 Organs are organised, but parts of society are independent – for example: limbs of an
organism such as legs, hand etc. cannot have existence outside the physical body of the
organism. But the parts of the society such as family, school, political party, etc., are
relatively independent and are not organically fixed to the society. The movement of the
parts is relatively free here.
 Society does not have a definite form as does the organism – organism have an outward
form or shape whereas, society is only a mental construct. It is abstract and exists in our
mind only in the form of an idea.
 Manner of difference in the dependence of organs or parts on the organism or society
– parts or organs of the organism such as legs, hands, nose, eyes etc. are dependent upon
the body itself. They exist for the sake of the body itself. On the other hand, the parts of
the society such as individuals, families, groups etc. are more important than the society.
In fact, society exists for the benefit of its parts, that is, individuals.
 Difference regarding the centrality of “consciousness” – in an organism, there exists
what is known as “consciousness” and it is concentrated in a small part of the aggregate.
The parts of the body do not have this. But in case of the society, consciousness ids diffused
throughout the individual members.
 Differences regarding the structure and functions – in case of an organism, each of its
parts performs a definite and fixed function. For example: the eyes, nose, heart, nerves etc.
of an organism cannot change their functions. On the contrary, functions of the parts of the

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 society such as institutions, often get changed. For example: some of the functions of
family, marriage, etc. have changed.

Social Darwinism:
 Any doctrine which makes use or misuse of Charles Darwin’s biologically evolutionary
principles to explain or justify the existing forms of human social organization
 It is a 19th century adaptation of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
 A theoretical explanation of human social life in general, and social inequality in particular
 It attempts to extend the principles of evolution to explain the developments taking place
in the social world

Social Darwinism works on two principles:

1. The principle of “survival of the fittest”
 The incompetent lose and the strong win that is “survival of the fittest”
 It is the law of the nature that the weak should be eliminated for sake of the strong
 Due to the operation of laws of evolution only the “more fit” persons will survive and the
“less fit” ones will decline on their own
2. The principle of “non-interference”
 Spencer opposed all forms of state interference with private property
 According to him, state was just like a joint stock company, whose primary business was
protection of rights of individuals and defending the interests of its citizens against external
aggression

Emile Durkheim

 1858-1917
 Most prominent French sociologist of the 19th century
 Acknowledged Comte as his master; but went far ahead to establish sociology as an
empirical science
 Defined sociology as a science of social facts ( an external way of thinking, feeling or
acting, which is subjective to the observer and which has a coercive nature)
 One of the most important progenitors of structural-functionalism in contemporary
sociology and anthropology

Main works include: The Division of Labour in Society (1893) , The Rules of Sociological
Method (1895), Suicide (1897) , The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912)
Structural Functionalism:
 A perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together
to promote solidarity and stability
 An approach which aims to discover the roles, institutions and processes play in
maintaining a social order
 A macro sociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as
a whole
 According to functionalist theories, institutions come about and persist because they play
a function in society, promoting stability and integration
 Durkheim was concerned with the question of how societies maintain internal stability and
survive over time
 Other proponents – Robert Merton, Talcott Parsons, etc.
Sacred and Profane:
 For Durkheim, “religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.
 Religion is about the dichotomy between the sacred and the profane
 The sacred refers to those collective representations that are set apart from the society, or
that which transcends the humdrum of everyday life.

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  The profane, on the other hand, is everything else, all those mundane things like our jobs,
our bills, and our rush hour commute.

 Religion is the practice of marking off and maintaining distance between these two realm
 Durkheim didn't limit or restrict the definition of the sacred to the supernatural, as
according to him any social phenomenon or idea could be sacred so long as there was a
'moral consensus' to that effect
 In other words, sphere of the profane is the realm of everyday utilitarian activities – and
the sphere of the sacred is the area that pertains to the numenous, the transcendental, the
extraordinary.
 An object is intrinsically neither sacred nor profane. It becomes the one or the other
depending on whether men choose to consider the utilitarian value of the object or certain
intrinsic attributes that have nothing to do with its instrumental value.
 For example - The wine at mass has sacred ritual significance to the extent that it is
considered by the believer to symbolize the blood of Christ; in this context it is plainly

 not a beverage.
Division of Labour:
 Durkheim’s major contribution to sociological thought
 Reflects the relationship between individual and society
 A classic study of social solidarity

Used in three ways:

1. The technical division of labour – describes the production process
2. The sexual division of labour – describes social divisions between men and women
3. The social division of labour – differentiation in society as a whole.

 Any stable organization, coordinating individuals, or groups carrying out different,

but integrated activities
 The way in which different tasks are allocated to different people
 It is the specialization of specific jobs and tasks, which aims to increase efficiency
and productivity, the skill of the workman, and it creates a feeling of solidarity
between people
 Goes beyond economic interests; it also establishes social and moral order within a
society
Solidarity:

 Synonymous with social cohesion or social integration

 the condition within a group in which there is social cohesion plus co-operative,
collective action directed towards the achievement of group goals
Durkheim drew comparisons between primitive and civilized societies

1. Primitive societies – with Mechanical solidarity based on “conscience collective”

2. Advanced societies – with Organic solidarity based on the “division of labour”

Mechanical Solidarity:
 Social solidarity based upon a homogeneity of values and behaviour, a strong social
constraint, and loyalty to tradition and kinship
 It is a term applied to small, non-literate societies characterized by a simple division
of labour, little specialization of function, only a few social roles and a very little
tolerance of individuality
 In short, it is a solidarity of resemblance

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Organic Solidarity:
 A type of societal solidarity typical of modern industrial society, in which unity is
based on the interdependence of a very large number of highly specialized roles in
a system
 It involves a complex division of labour that requires cooperation of almost all the
groups and the individuals of the society
 It is called organic because it is similar to the unity of a biological organism in
which highly specialized parts of organs, must work in coordination if the
organism is to survive

Max Weber

 1864-1920
 Born in a comparatively rich protestant family in Germany
 Great sociologist of the 20th century
Major works: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1930), The Theory of Social and
Economic Organizations (1947), Economy and Society (1968)

Interpretive Sociology:
 Weber’s interpretive sociology, or verstehen, “considers the individual and his action as
the basic unit…the individual is also the upper limit and the sole carrier of meaningful
conduct.”
 Interpretative sociology (verstehende Soziologie) is the study of society that concentrates
on the meanings people associate to their social world.
 Strives to show that reality is constructed by people themselves in their daily lives.
 Verstehen roughly translates to “meaningful understanding” or putting yourself in the shoes
of others to see things from their perspective.
 Deals with the meaning attached to behavior.
 Sees reality as being constructed by people.
 Relies on qualitative data.

Bureaucracy:
 Finds its origin from the French word “bureau” which means desk.
 Implies a particular system of administration
 Best administrative form for the rational pursuit of organisational goals
 According to Max Weber, Bureaucracy is “a type of hierarchical organization which is
designed rationally to co-ordinate the work of many individuals in pursuit of large scale
administrative tasks.”
 Large-scale formal organisations of the modern society with specialized functions

Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
 Fixed Official Jurisdiction Area
 Hierarchy of Authority
 Clear-cut Division of Labour
 Appointment based on Eligibility
 Fixed Salary, Allowance and Pension
 Office and Maintenance of Files
 Appointment of officials on full time and long term service basis
 Difference between private matter and official issues
 Supervision of work by higher officials
 Systematization of official relations with officials
 Political Neutrality
 Guidance by past procedures

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Types of Authority
Traditional Authority-
1. Legitimated by the sanctity of tradition.
2. The ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity.
3. It does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and
inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo.
Charismatic Authority-
1. Found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others.
2. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual.
3. Followers may consider this quality to be endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or
exceptional powers or qualities. Whether such powers actually exist or not is irrelevant –
the fact that followers believe that such powers exist is what is important.
Legal-Rational Authority-
1. Empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law
(rationality).
2. Obedience is not given to a specific individual leader - whether traditional or charismatic
- but a set of uniform principles.
3. Weber thought the best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy (political or
economic).

Karl Marx

• 1818-1883
• Architect of Socialism and Champion of Communism
• Member of group called “Young Hegelians”, met his life-long friend Fredrick Engels.
• Did not see himself as a Sociologist.
• Theory on Social Class and Conflict Theory  great sociological significance.
Major works: Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848), Das Kapital (1867)
• Spoke of Dialectical Materialism (Hegelian Concept)
• Dialectical = discussion ; Materialism = physical possessions rather than spiritual values,
• Dialectic is the study of contradicts. E.g. Democracy and Dictatorship
• Opposite forces constitute the moving of history
• Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis
• They never balance each other. Therefore, class struggle.

Marxian Theory of Social Class:

 “Class is the manifestation of economic differentiation” – Karl Marx
 “A social class in Marx’s terms is any aggregate of persons who perform the same function
in the organization of production.” – R. Bendix and S.M. Lipset
 From the Marxian point of view, class is not determined by the occupations of income but
by the position an individual occupies and the function he performs in the process of
production
For example: if there are two blacksmiths of whom one is the owner of a workshop and
another a paid worker, they belong to two different classes though their occupation remains
the same.
 Thus, Marx defined a class as all those people who share a common relationshio to the
means of economic production
 Those who own and control the means of production – slave owners, feudal landlords, or
the owners of property such as factories and capital – are the dominant class
 Those who work for them – slaves, peasants, or industrial labourers – are the
sub-ordinate class
 Two major classes : ‘Haves’ and ‘Have-Nots’ ; or a ruling class and subject class ; or
Proletariat and Bourgeoisie – where Bourgeoisie  Factory Owners and Proletariat 
Working Class
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Marxian Theory of Class Struggle or Class Conflict:
• Central to Marxian thought
• In fact, Marxian sociology is often called : the sociology of class conflict
• “The history of the hitherto existing society is the history of the class struggle.” – opening
sentence of Marx’s famous work “The Communist Manifesto, 1848”
• Thus, at every stage in history, there is war between the classes. The landowner exploits
the landless, and the factory owner exploits the workers. Between classes, there is endless
antagonism and hatred. Class conflict is the severest form of class antagonism

Stages or essential aspects of Marxian Theory of Class Conflict:

1) Development of Proletariat – the capitalist economic systems transformed the masses of
people into workers, created for them a common situation and inculcated in them an
awareness of common interest. Through the development of class consciousness, the
economic conditions of capitalism united the masses and constituted them into “a class for
itself”
2) Importance of Property – the most distinguishing feature of any society is its form of
property. An individual’s behaviour is determined by his relations to property. Property
divisions are the crucial breaking lines in the class structure.
3) Identification of Economic and Political Power and Authority – political power
emerges from the economic power. The power of the ruling class therefore stems from its
ownership and control of the forces of production. The political and legal systems reflect
ruling class interests. The capitalist who hold monopoly of effective private property take
control of political machinery. As Raymond Aron points out, “Political power, properly so
called, is merely is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another.” The
political power and ideology thus seem to serve the same functions for capitalists that class
consciousness serves for the working class.
4) Polarization of Classes – in the Capitalist society, there could be only two social classes:
The capitalists who own the means of production and distribution and the working class
who own nothing but their own labour.
5) Theory of Surplus Value – Marxian economic concept that professed to explain the
instability of the capitalist system. The capitalists accumulate profit through the
exploitation of labour. Karl Marx held that human labour was the source of economic
value. The capitalist pays his workers less than the value their labour has added to the
goods, usually only enough to maintain the worker at a subsistence level. Of the total worth
of the worker’s labour, however, this compensation, in Marxian theory, accounts for only
a mere portion, equivalent to the worker’s means of subsistence. The remainder is “surplus
labour,” and the value it produces is “surplus value.” To make a profit, Marx argued, the
capitalist appropriates this surplus value, thereby exploiting the labourer.
6) Pauperization – Exploitation of workers can only add to their misery and poverty. But the
same exploitation helps the rich to become richer. As Marx says: “the wealth of the
bourgeoisie is swelled by large profits with corresponding increase in the mass of poverty;
of pressure, of slavery, of exploitation” of the proletariat. To Marx, poverty is the result of
exploitation not of scarcity.
7) Alienation – the economic exploitation and inhuman working conditions lead to increasing
alienation of man. Alienation results from a lack of sense of control over the social world.
The social world confronts people as a hostile thing, leaving them “alien” in the very
environment that they have created. The workers caught in the vicious circle of exploitation
find no way to get out of it. Hence, they lose interest in work. Work becomes and enforced
activity, not a creative and a satisfying one. The responsibility of the worker gets
diminished because he does not own the tools with which he works, he does not own the
final product too. He is “a mere cog in a machine” and nothing else. This situation of
alienation ripens the mood of the worker for a conflict.

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8) Class Solidarity and Antagonism – with the growth of class consciousness among the
working class, their class solidarity becomes crystallized. The working class becomes
internally more homogeneous and this helps to intensify the class struggle. They are able
to form unions against the bourgeoisie, finally leading to a revolt.
9) Revolution – when the class struggle reaches its height, , a violent revolution breaks out
which destroys the structure of the capitalist society. This revolution is most likely to occur
at the peak of an economic crisis, which is part of the recurring booms and repressions
characteristic of capitalism. Marx has asserted that unlike other wars and revolutions, this
would be a historic one.
10) Dictatorship of Proletariat – Marx felt that the revolution would be a bloody one. This
revolution terminates the capitalist society and leads to the social dictatorship of the
proletariat. Since the revolution results in the liquidation of the bourgeoisie, they will cease
to have any power and will be reduced to the ranks of the proletariat.
11) Inauguration of the Communist Society – After attaining success in the revolution, the
workers, in course of time, would create a new socialist society. In this new society, the
means of producing and distributing wealth would be publicly and not privately owned.
This new socialist society would be a classless and casteless society free from exploitation
of all sorts. The state which has no place in such a society will eventually “wither away.”
In this society, nobody owns anything but everybody owns everything. Each individual
contributes according to his ability and receives according to his needs.

(iii) Sociology and other Social Sciences

1. Relationship between Sociology and Political Science

 Sociology and political science have been very closely related to each other till recently.
According to Morris Ginsberg “Historically, Sociology has its main roots in politics and
philosophy of history.” The main works on social subjects such as Plato’s Republic, the
Politics of Aristotle and other classical works were meant to be complete treatise on
political science.
 The two subjects have even now much in common. Political science is a branch of social
science dealing with the principles of organisation and government of human society. In
other words, Political Science deals with the social groups organised under the sovereign
of the state.
 It is rightly said that without the sociological background the study of political science will
be incomplete. The forms of government, the nature of governmental organs, the laws and
sphere of the state activity are determined by the social process.
 Barnes has written, “The most significant thing about sociology and modern political
theory is that most of the changes which have taken place in the political theory in the last
thirty years have been along the line of development suggested and marked out by
sociology.”
 The behavioural approach in politics has taught political scientists to draw heavily on the
research methods of the sociologists. In the words of Giddings, “to teach the theory of the
state to men who have not learnt the first principles of sociology is like teaching astronomy
or thermodynamics to men who have not learnt Newton’s laws of motion.”
 In the same way, sociology is also to depend on political science for its conclusions. The
special study of political life of the society is indispensable for the complete study of the
society as a whole. According to Comte and Spencer, there is no difference whatsoever
between the two. G. E. G. Catlin has remarked that political science and sociology are two
facets or aspects of the same figure.
 In the opinion of F. G. Wilson, “It must be admitted, of course, that it is often difficult to
determine, whether a particular writer should be considered as sociologist, political theorist
or philosopher”.
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  Eminent sociologists like Durkheim, Malinowski, Parsons, Spencer, Mertons, Max Weber
and Leryhaix made important contributions in the field of political science. Political
Sociology is an inter-disciplinary science which seeks to combine sociological and political
approaches.

The two subjects are, however, different from each other.

 Sociology is the science of society, political science is the science of state, Gilchrist says,
“Sociology studies man as a social being and as political organisation is a special kind of
social organisation; Political science is a more specialized science than Sociology.”
 The Scope of Sociology is wider than that of Political Science. The scope of Sociology is
much wider than that of Political Science. Political Science studies the state and
government only, whereas sociology studies all the social institutions.
 Sociology deals with social man, Political science deals with political man. Sociology
being the science of society it deals with man in all his associated processes, while Political
Science being the science of the political society is concerned with only one form of human
association. Garner remarks, “Political science is concerned with only one form of human
association – the state: sociology deals with all forms of association.”
 Sociology is a general science. Political science is a special science. Political organisation
is a special kind of social organisation and that is why political science is a special science
while sociology is a general science.
 Sociology is the study of both organised and unorganised communities. Political Science
deals with organised communities only. Sociology deals with both organised and
unorganised communities whereas Political Science is concerned only with organised
communities. As such sociology is prior to Political Science.
 Sociology deals with unconscious activities also. Unlike Political Science which treats only
conscious activities of man, sociology treats unconscious activities of man also.
 Difference in approach. Political Science starts with the assumption that man is a political
being; sociology goes behind this assumption and tries to explain how and why man
became a political being.

2. Relationship between Sociology and Economics

 The fact that society is influenced by economic factors while economic processes are
largely determined by the social environments clearly proves that the relation between
Sociology and Economics is very intimate. Economics is defined as a study of mankind in
ordinary business of life or to be more exact, it is the science of wealth in its three phases
of production, distribution and consumption.
 It is thus concerned with that part of individual and social action which is most closely
connected with the attainment and with use of material requisites of well-being.
Economics, in other words, is concerned with material welfare of the human beings.
 But economic welfare is only a part of human welfare and it can be sought only with the
proper knowledge of social laws. Economics cannot go far ahead without the help of
sociology and other social sciences. For instance, in order to solve economic problems of
unemployment, poverty, business cycle or inflation an economist has to take into
consideration the social phenomena existing at the particular time.
 Sociology is thus of considerable help to economics in providing specific data into which
economic generalisations may be fitted. Economic and social order is inextricably
interwoven. Many of the problems of sociology and economics are common.
 The problems of population growth, environmental pollution, slum clearance, child and
family welfare, and urbanisation are as much economic as sociological which cannot be
solved unless and until the social attitudes of the people are given due consideration.
 The theories of socialism, communism, democracy and welfare state are nothing but the
theories of social reorganisation. According to Thomas, “Economics is, in fact, but one
branch of the comprehensive science of sociology.” In the words of Silverman, “It may be
14
 regarded for ordinary purposes, as an offshoot of the parent science of sociology, which
studies the general principles of all social relations.”
 In the same way, sociology is influenced by economics. MacIver writes, “Thus economic
phenomena is constantly determined by all kinds of social need and activity and in turn
they are constantly redetermining, creating, shaping and transforming social need and
activity of every kind.
 Economic forces play a very important role in every aspect of our social life. It is for this
reason that sociologists have been concerned with economic institutions. The earliest
sociologists like Spencer have included the economic activity of man in their analysis of
social relationships.
 Sumner, Durkheim and Weber also approached the study of society through its economic
institutions. Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels had gone to the extent of asserting that
economic factor was the sole motive force of the society.
 Since their times, economic determination (Economic conditions have a determining
influence over the social) has found a significant place in the theories of many social
scientists seeking to explain this vital phenomenon.

In spite of inter-dependence of these two sciences, as explained above they are quite distinct
from each other

 The field of sociology is wider, firstly, the field of Economics is restricted only to the
economic activities of man whereas Sociology is concerned with all the relationships
which are not simply economic but social. The scope of Sociology is thus much wider
than that of economics;
 Sociology has a comprehensive viewpoint. Secondly, an economist’s primary concern
is with all that is directly or indirectly related to the increase of material happiness of
man, with the methods and techniques of production, distribution and consumption.
But a sociologist, on the other hand, is primarily interested in the social aspects of
economic activities rather than in the mechanism of production and distribution,
 Economics is much older than Sociology. Thirdly, economics is much older a science
than sociology.
 Though philosophers like Comte would subordinate economics to, and include it in
sociology. Sociology is a science of only recent growth whereas economics has attained
an advanced degree of maturity.

3. Relationship between Sociology and Anthropology

 Sociology and Anthropology lie so close together that they often appear as two names for
the same field of enquiry.
 Anthropology is derived from two Greek words ‘Anthropos’ meaning ‘man’ and ‘Logos’
is meaning ‘study’. Thus according to its etymological meaning, Anthropology is the study
of man as such that is a study of the development of human race. Anthropology has thus a
very wide field of study.

Anthropology has been divided into three divisions:

(i) Physical anthropology which deals with bodily characteristics of early man and our primitive
contemporaries,

(ii) Cultural Anthropology which investigates the cultural remains of early man and of the living
cultures of some of the primitive contemporaries,

(iii) Social Anthropology which deals with the institutions and human relationships of primitive,
of the past and present

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  Anthropology devotes its attention entirely to the study of man and his culture as they
developed in times long past. Sociology, on the other hand, studies the same phenomena
as they exist at present. According to Kluckhon, “The sociological attitude has tended
towards the practical and present, the anthropological towards pure understanding and the
past.”
 Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by Anthropology. In fact the
historical part of Sociology is identical with Cultural Anthropology. Anthropology has
contributed substantially to the study of Sociology.
 Sociology has to depend upon Anthropology to understand the present day social
phenomena from our knowledge of the past. Sociology has borrowed cultural area, cultural
traits, interdependent traits, cultural lag and other conceptions from social anthropology on
whose basis cultural sociology has developed.
 The discoveries of Linton and Kardiner have influenced sociology in no small degree.
From their researches it is evident that each society has its own culture and the personality
of its members is moulded according to it in their infancy. Likewise the research done by
Malinowski has proved valuable to sociology.
 He has given a functional view point to the study of culture. The researches of Franz Boas
and Otto Kineberg have proved that there is no co-relation between anatomical
characteristics and mental superiority. The concept of racial superiority has been disproved
by anthropology.
 According to Hoebel, “Sociology and Social Anthropology are, in their broadest sense, one
and the same.” A. L. Karoeber has called sociology and anthropology twin sisters. Evans
Pritchard considers social anthropology to be a branch of sociology.
 In the same way, some of the conclusions drawn by sociologists have also helped the
anthropologists. For example, anthropologists like Morgan and his followers have come to
the conclusion regarding the existence of primitive communism from the conception of
private property in our modern society.
 Robert Redfield writes, “Viewing the whole United States, one sees that the social relations
between Sociology and Anthropology are closer than those between Anthropology and
Political Science.”

In spite of the interdependence of these two sciences the field of the study of each is quite
distinct.

 Keesing writes. “But the two academic disciplines have grown up independently, and
handle quite different types of problems, using markedly different research methods.”
 Firstly, anthropology is the study of the whole society. It studies its political and legal
problems, family organisation, religion, art, industries and occupations etc. Sociology
studies only its particular aspects.
 The focus of sociologist is social interaction. Secondly, Anthropology studies cultures
which are small and static while Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and
dynamic. That is’ why Anthropology has developed faster and better than Sociology.
 Thirdly, Anthropology and Sociology are separate sciences as the former is the study of
man and his culture as they developed in times long past; while the latter studies the same
phenomena as they are at present.
 According to Kluckhohn “the sociological attitude has tended towards the practical and
present, the anthropological towards pure understanding and the past.” Lastly, sociology is
concerned with both social philosophy and social planning whereas anthropology is not
concerned with social planning. It does not make any suggestions for the future.

4. Relationship between Sociology and History

 Sociology and History are so intimately related that writers like Von-Bulow have refused
to acknowledge Sociology as a science distinct from History. History is the record of the
life of societies of men, of the changes which the societies have gone through, of the ideas
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 which have determined the actions of these societies and of the material conditions which
have helped or hindered their development.
 Sociology is concerned with the study of the historical development of the societies. It
studies the various stages of life, modes of living, customs, manners and their expression
in the form of social institutions. Sociology has thus to depend upon history for its material.
Arnold Toynbee’s book, “A Study of History” is proving very valuable in Sociology.
 History supplies facts which are interpreted and co-ordinated by the sociologists. In the
same way sociology gives the social background for the study of history. History is now
being studied from the sociological point of view. It is rightly said that the Study of history
would be meaningless without the appreciation of social significance.
 If history is to be useful to understand the present and to serve as a guide for the future,
sociological interpretation of facts is absolutely essential. It is because of their such mutual
dependence upon each other that has led G. E. Howard to remark that History is past
Sociology, and Sociology is present History.

But in spite of their close relationship the two subjects are distinct.

 History is concrete and sociology is abstract. There is much in history that has no direct
relation to Sociology, while there is much in Sociology which is not in history. According
to Park, “history is the concrete, while sociology is the abstract science of human
experience and human nature.”
 The primary interest of the sociologist is to find the general laws of the society, and that of
the historian to narrate the historical events in their chronological order. The sociologist
would try to find out the common aspects of the events recorded by historians and then to
generalize.
 Sociology and History have different attitudes. History would deal with events in all their
aspects while sociology would study them from the viewpoint of social relationship
involved.
 For example, the historians would describe a war, all the circumstances accompanied with
it, while sociologists would try to understand a war as a social phenomenon. They will
study its impact on the lives of the people, their social institutions, etc.

5. Relationship between Sociology and Psychology

 Social Psychology deals with mental processes of man considered as a social being. It
studies particularly the influence of group life on the mental development of individual,
the effect of the individual mind on the group, and the development of the mental life of
the groups within themselves and in their relations with one’ another. Sociology, on the
other hand, studies the various kinds of groups which compose the society.
 Social Psychology has to depend on Sociology to understand properly human nature and
behaviour as it is Sociology which provides the necessary material regarding the structure,
organisation and culture of societies to which individuals belong.
 According to Kimball Young, “We might say that while our major emphasis is on the
individual in interaction with others, such interaction can only be understood within the
social life and cultural matrix in which it occurs.”
 The sociologists in their turn also have to draw up Social Psychology. They recognise the
importance among other things of psychological factors in understanding the changes in
social structure. Lapiere and Farnsworth write that “Social Psychology is to sociology and
psychology as Bio-chemistry is to Biology and Chemistry”. According to Motwani,
“Social Psychology is a link between psychology and sociology.”
 As a result of the close relation between the two Karl Pearson has not accepted the two as
separate sciences. In the words of MacIver, “Sociology in special gives aid to psychology,
just as psychology gives special aid to sociology.”
 It is now generally assumed that a scientific study of social phenomenon must have a
psychological basis; and the psychological facts regarding human nature should not be
assumed but should be explored by direct observation as well as experimentally. The
17
 improved understanding of human behaviour will make the science of sociology more
objective and realistic.
 Mc Dougall and Freud were of the view that whole of the social life could be reduced
finally to psychological forces. In that case Sociology would be reduced to a mere branch
of Psychology. But this view cannot be accepted as the causes affecting social behaviour
are other than psychological also like the economic, geographical, political etc.
 Social life cannot, therefore, be studied exclusively with the methods of the Psychologists.
The fact of mutual dependence of Social Psychology and Sociology should not be
interpreted to mean that one is either identical with or the branch of the other.

As a matter of fact there are important points of distinction between these two related fields
of investigation:

(i) Difference of subject-matter:

 Firstly, Sociology is a study of the society as a whole while Social Psychology is merely
the study of individuals in interaction as members of groups and of the effect of that
interaction on them.
 Sociology has been aptly compared to the science of mechanics which considers masses of
matter and properties of matter in mass, and Social Psychology to Molecular Physics which
deals with molecules and their invocation in view of the fact that Sociology studies the
organisation of social groups, their central values and the various forms of institutional
behaviour arising on account of them and Social Psychology is concerned with the
individuals as members of the group.
 The individual is the unit of analysis in Social Psychology. As remarked by Klineberg,
“The primary concern of the sociologist is group behaviour, and that of the social
psychologists is the behaviour of the individual in the group situation.” Bogardus writes,
“As psychology analyses mental processes, so Sociology analyses social processes.”

(ii) Difference of attitudes:

 Further, Sociology and Social Psychology deal with social life from different angles. The
former studies society from the viewpoint of the community element while the latter from
the viewpoint of psychological factors involved.

6. Relationship between Sociology and Philosophy

 Sociology means the study of society on a generalized or abstract level.
 In an empirical science the generalizations concerning a specified field of inquiry are drawn
from facts observed in that field or in closely related fields these generalizations are drawn.
No propositions are allowed to play a role in the system if it contains knowledge which is
not empirical. In other words it is not formulated under the limitations just stated.
 On the contrary philosophy is primarily an attempt to understand reality in its totality. From
a multitude of observed facts the philosopher proceeds to certain ultimate principles which
have taken together attempt to explain reality as a whole.
 Thus whereas the sociologist explains society in terms of acts observed in society and
eventually in related fields of empirical knowledge, the social philosopher explains society
in terms of the explanation he gives to total reality. The latter can speak of the first causes,
supreme values and ultimate ends the sociologist is not entitled to do so.
 Modern philosophy and sociology came into existence during one time period to explain
the social crisis of Europe in the 19th century. Sociology aimed to provide a social doctrine
that would guide social policy. This aim has now been abandoned.
 There exist some links between sociology and philosophy. There is a philosophy of
sociology in the same sense as a philosophy of science that is an examination of the
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 methods, concepts and arguments used in sociology. There is a close relationship between
sociology and moral and social philosophy the subject matter of sociology is human social
behavior as guided by values: moral and social philosophy studies values and the
sociologists study values and human valuation as facts. On occasions the sociologist is
made to distinguish between fact and value. It is only by some training that social
philosophy becomes competent to distinguish between fact and value.
 It can be said that the study of sociology leads to philosophical quest. Durkheim thought
that sociology has to necessarily contribute to a renewal of philosophical questions. This
made him indulge in some epistemological discussions a branch of philosophy.
 Karl Mannheim argued that sociology of knowledge had implications for epistemology.
Both of them thought that sociology can make a direct contribution to philosophy.

 While sociology leads to philosophical reflections much of it also begins there.
Sociological research will become trivial if it ignores the larger problems of social life
which are coordinated in philosophical world-views and in social doctrines.

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