by narayanadash
With Love For Family, Yogmaya, Sriram And Sudha
Preface
and maxima and asymptotes are also discussed (which does not
Sincerely,
Narayanadash, author.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents
Chapter 1:The concept of Limitsof a function Part I
§1.1:Concept of Limit:
§1.2:Extending the concept of limit; Limit When x
§1.3:A further extension of concept of limit; Infinite limits:
§1.4:Algebra of limits
§1.5:Some Important Limits and methods of finding them:
A) Exponential series.
B) Hint on preparing a log table:
§1.6:Many facets of the definition of limit
A) An example :a limit that does not exist anywhere : true meaning of definition of limit.
B) Remember the following five results.
c) Do the following curves approximate st lines at large distances?
d) Function of many variables
§1.7:Order of smallness and order of largeness , comparison of infinitesimals:
§1.8:Equivalent infinitesimals used in calculation of limits
§1.9:Notes on infinitesimal and Hyperreal numbers.
A) Order completeness of real numbers
B) Infinitesimals
Chapter 2 : The Concept Of Limit Of A Function Part II
Chapter 3:Continuity And Theory Of Equations
§3.1:The Concept of Continuity.
§3.2: A further result in Algebra of limits: (limit of a composite function)
§3.3:Removable and non-removable discontinuity; discontinuity of 2nd kind.
§3.4:A little more about real number sets and sequences., limit points and bounded sequences
§3.5:Properties of continuous functions
§3.6:Further Properties Of Continuous Functions
A) Intermediate value theorem
B) When the function f x is continuous in [a, b] and f a . f b < 0, there is a root of f x in [a, b].
C) When the function f x is continuous in [a, b] and f a f b , f x takes every value between f a
and f b .
D) When the function f x is continuous in [a, b] and Maxf x M , min f x m the function takes every
value between M and m . In fact, [M, m] is the range of the function.
E) Wavy curve method to analyse an algebraic function
§3.7:Monotonic functions and continuity of inverse functions.
§3.8:Continuous linear operators
Chapter 4: Further theory OF EQUATIONS AND POLYNOMIALS
§4.1:Theory of equations ( polynomial equations)
§4.2:The division algorithm,
Remainder theorem and Synthetic Division
§4.3:Evaluation of a polynomial and other functions
§4.4:Synthetic division (Due to Horner).
§4.5: Prove that a polynomial of n-th degree has n roots,
If a polynomial of degree n, f x p0 x p1 x
n 1
§4.7:
n
............. pn1x pn has more than n roots it must be an
identity, i.e., it must be identically 0.
§4.8:Show that a polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has at least one real root.
§4.9:Every polynomial of even degree p2n x a0 x a1x2n1 ........... a2n 0 whose absolute term is negative ,
2n
§4.10:Take any polynomial p2n x a0 x a1x2n1 ........... a2n 0 of even degree. If it attains at least one value
2n
, the sign of which is opposite of that of a0, then show that it has at least two real roots.
§4.11: If a polynomial p x , of only odd powers of x has all its coefficients of same sign, it has no other real root
except x = 0.
§4.12: If a polynomial p x , of only even powers of x has all its coefficients of same sign, it has no real root.
§4.14:The number of negative roots in a polynomial of n-th degree f x 0 cannot exceed the number of changes
in sign in f x
§4.16:Just in the same manner, show that if a ib is a root of polynomial equation f x 0 , then a ib is one root
too.
§4.17:Except conjugate surds no other irrational (transcendental) number can be a root of a polynomial.
§4.18: Rational root theorem :
§4.19:Integer roots as a special case:
§4.20: Location theorem
.§4.21: Evaluation of root of a polynomial
§4.22: The following points may be carefully noted for testing whether a given number is a root.
PART I
§1.1:Concept of Limit:
In the figure 2. 1. above, for all values of x less than 1 we have f(x) = y = x i.e., when x is
very near to 1 remaining less than 1 at the same time, y is also near 1. Similarly when x
is greater than 1, but very near to 1 at the same time, y = 2 – x is also near to 1. So y is
nearing 1 from either side when x is near to 1. We say this fact in Calculus language as “
limit” of y is equal to 1 when x approaches 1.No matter whether f(1) is same as that limit
or different ; even function at that point may not have been defined. The limit does not
depend upon the value of the function at the point in question. For example you can chose f(1) =4
which very different from the limiting value lim y lim f x 1 .This is a way of writng “the limit of
x 1 x 1
A function f(x) is said to tend to a limit ‘L’ at x = a, if the value of f(x) can be made
arbitrarily near to L, if x is chosen sufficiently near ‘a’ [ f(a) may or may not be defined).
0.99999,x = 1.000001,etc.)
In the above example, (fig.2.1) , we can make 1 – f(x) < if we take the values of x such that 1 – x
(for ,y = x for all x < 1) .Thus we write Lim f(x) = 1 or say, f(x) tends to 1 from left or from
x (1 0)
below or say left handed limit of the function at x = 1. Similarly we can see that we can make
f(x) –1 < if we choose the values of x such that x – 1 < ( as f(x) = 2 – x for all x more than
1 but less than 2). We write this as Lim f(x) =1 and say that the function f(x) tends to 1
x (1 0)
from right or from above or say the right handed limit of f(x) at x = 1 is 1. Imagine what would have
been the result if our function had been defined as f(x) = 3 – x, instead of 2 – x for x values above
2; the right handed limit would have been 2 instead of being 1.We could define f(1) = 2; no
restriction on us.
We say that the limit of a function f(x) exists at a point x = a if the left-handed and the right-
handed limits both exist and are equal, otherwise we say the limit does not exist.(The definition of
limit should be unequivocal and unambiguous, otherwise which one should we choose for our limit?)
Both the above statements of criteria for a limit of f(x) at x = a to be ‘L’ may be combined
in a single statement:
Lim
x 1
f(x) = L for every such that f(x) – L < , however small, we can find a such that
x – a < Only one case of failure would ascertain non-existence of limit of f(x) at x = a .
(Two symbols ‘ L’ and ‘a’ are per chance same ( 1 each) in the example taken, they need not be
the same in general).Note also the triangle inequality [ p < q –p<q< p ] for
smallness. For example a grain of sugar may be negligible for a sugar merchant, but it is more than
own weight of an ant. The order of smallness or negligibility can be different for different purposes
too. For example, a small grain of copper sulphate is by no means negligible for spectroscopic
investigation. So, for Mathematics, the standard of smallness must be universal, for all people and for
all purposes; therefore the word ‘arbitrarily small’. ( do not confuse this with order of smallness ,a
Note : ε and δ may be thought of as small positive numbers unless otherwise stated.
x2 9
EXAMPLE 1: Find
Lim y , if y
x3 x3
Straight putting x = 3 renders the expression in 0/0 form and is useless. One cannot
substitute x = 3 direct here. A great scientist Einstein had said that a problem is solved as
soon as it is correctly known. So let us take x = 3 + where the latter is a variable small
number near zero which can be made as small as we please .(Imagine this symbol to be a
box which encloses the arbitrarily small variable , we need not bother about the variable, we could
take the box anywhere we please easily and toss it away mercilessly at last, when we could
do so. This is the beauty of using symbols exactly where difficulty is met with) .
x2 9 ( 3 ) 2 9 9 6 2 9
6
x3 =
3 3
The last can be discarded at last , then the answer = 6. So our arbitrarily small number (+ve or
–ve) has been enclosed within the symbol and we have chosen no standards of smallness to
The objective of this example is to show that , in working out problems, we may cancel out common
factors from numerator and denominator (for sake of short cut, for , while taking limits, we may
replace zero factors by non-zero infinitesimals, even if the functional value is undefined, as there is
infinitesimal. But care must be taken to see that there is no division by 0. See the note below.
NOTE :
Division by 0 is an impossible operation, for example, if you divide a basket containing ten apples
to a number of people giving 0 to each, an infinite number of people you may count. But this is not a
division, since the basket of apples is never exhausted in the process. This is in contrast to the fact
0 2
that dividend 20 is exhausted in the process if divided by 6, casting a quotient . Division of 0 by
0 3
0 2 0 4
0 also not possible since is obtained from 2.0 3.0 ( which is true)and is also obtained
0 3 0 7
0
from 7.0 4.0 ( which is true again). Thus is not unique, and in fact arbitrary. So this is no division;
0
20 2
where as 3 is definitely unique. The process of division must end up with exhausting the
6 3
x2 9
y
Now, instead of tossing away x3 by just saying that x = 3 does not belong to the domain of
the function, we are just scavenging for its possible value by assuming x 3 h or x 3 h , taking h
to be very small nonzero values. In the above example, we observe that in both cases x 3 h or
x2 9
6h
x 3 h , x 3 . In the last step, we may toss away h to get the limiting value of the function =
6.
Again, if the limit of y for x 3 h is different from the limit of y for x 3 h , we do not accept the limit
and say that the limit does not exist. The two limits are referred to as Right handed limit RHL and
left handed limit LHL. The limit exists only if the LHL and RHL are same. It does not exist when
one or both of RHL and LHL do not exist or they are unequal. The whole concept of limit centers
around this idea. A function f x is said to be continuous at x a only if f a is same as the limit
lim h3 3
x 3
Example2 Find h
In this example, we cannot substitute 0 by h direct, as may be done in a variety of problems, since t
0
involves division by 0. Some manipulation must be done to avoid . This is done by rationalizing
0
lim h3 3
lim
h3 3 h3 3 lim h 33
1
1
x 3 x 3 x 3
h h h3 3 h h3 3 33 3 3 3
lim h3 3
x 0
Example3 Find h
lim h 3 3 lim
x 0
h3 3 h3 3 lim h 33
1
1
x 0 x 0
h h h3 3 h h3 3 03 3 2 3
There is a special significance of this problem. This limit is rate of change of the function h near 0.
Example4
Find
ax a
. Ans.
1
. Hint :Rationalize the exp. lim
ax a ax a
lim
x 0 x 2 a x 0
x ax a
x 1
lim
x 0
x ax a 2 a
The function is identically 1 for all values of x 1 and is not defined for x =
2
Lim x
1.The latter fact does not prevent us from taking limit at x = 1. So, x 1 2 1
x
For this reason note here that the functions f(x) = x2 /x2 and f(x) =1 are different functions. Are their
domains different?
x
EXAMPLE 6 : Let y .We have x x for x 0 and x x for x 0 y = 1 for x 0 and y
x
= -1 for x 0 that the left handed limit is -1 and the right handed limit is 1 when
x 0 . Hence lim
x0
y does not exist . (If x1 and x2 are any two points in the opposite
sides of 0, we have f(x1) – f(x2) = 2, which cannot be made arbitrarily small, say < .3
whatever small interval for x1 – x2 we may choose. If we assume y1 y 2 < .03,in which
interval around x=0 which is not possible . Evidently we cannot get a for this case).
EXAMPLE7 : Consider the step function y = [x] ,the greatest integer not greater than x .
In the interval [2 , 3[ the value of the function is constant and = 2; but at x = 3, y = 3.So
the function’s value suddenly increased by 1, for virtually no increase of x. In other words, if
around x = 3, in which the function increases only by 0.01.For, however small interval we take
EXAMPLE 8 : Can you construct another step function? Try y = [tan x] . Point out the points
When x tends to 0, 1/x becomes larger and larger and sin(1/x) takes all possible values
A quadratic equation ax2 +bx +c =0, is supposed to have two roots anyway. Suppose c = 0, the
b 1
case gives, one root x = 0, and the other . Putting it in a different way, let x ; so the equation
a y
a by 0. y 2 0 . But still we cling to the nomenclature and call it trivially quadratic. Repeating the step
again, if we put b = 0, the equation becomes ax 2 0 so that both its roots become 0. but this reduces
Note:
It is not always that we can not substitute the value of the variable direct for calculating the
0 0
limit. If the expression does not have indeterminate forms such as , ,0 ,1 etc, we could
0
direct substitute the value of variable to get the limit . It is only when the expression involves
tools.
For example lim 3x 2 2 3*22 2 3*4 2 10 , as it does not involve indeterminate forms.
x 2
§1.2:Extending the concept of limit; Limit When x
There may be limits of functions even when the independent variable tends to infinity, particularly
when the independent variable appears in the denominator. A minor modification must be made in
large, such that for all x, such that |x| > M , we get | f(x) – L | < ε true.
For example, f(x) = 1/x tends to 0 as x tends to . For |1/x – 0| to be less than 0.00025,
we can find a number 4000 such that , for all x, such that |x| > 4000, we have |1/x –
0| < 0.00025.
You might think that the definition should have included something like |x - ∞| < δ . The phrase |x| > M
number M ,such that , we can find a sufficiently small number such that |f(x)| > M for
(Please do not confuse here if you are a student. You are advised not to confuse anywhere
in fact. If at all you do, leave the point, proceed appreciably further ,then return to a point
prior to the point of confusion and proceed again leisurely . Either your confusion shall
Infinite limits are only nominally limits as we do not have much to do with infinity.
Lim k
EXAMPLE 12 : Examine the x x when i) k > 0, ii) k = 0, iii) k < 0. i) When k >
1
0, for any large number M, xk > M x > Mk . So , for any arbitrary large number M we
1
can find a sufficiently large number N = Mk such that xk > M for all x > N. So in this case,
Lim k
x x =
Lim k
N. i.e., we can make xk arbitrarily smaller by choosing N sufficiently large. x x = 0 for
k< 0 .
Lim
i) for z > 1, zp increases indefinitely as p increases indefinitely. Hence p zp =
Lim
ii) for z = 1, zp = 1 for whatever p may be. Hence p zp = 1
iii) for |z| < 1, let z = 1/y so that 1/y is either greater than 1 or less than - 1.Then zp or
Lim
(1/y)p decreases to 0 through positive or negative values. Hence p zp = 0.
lim tan . We know from its graph that tan θ = p/b and p increases
EXAMPLE 14: Find
2
indefinitely and b decreases at the same time so that , for any large number M we can find a δ such
Though the concept of limit is intuitive, it evolved through centuries since Leibniz and Newton
developed Calculus independently, even before that. It did not take shape until the last century and
the present form of definition was contributed by Cauchy and finally Weisstras formulated it. The
concept is so fundamental that it is at the root of all other concepts of Calculus like differentiation,
integration etc.
The concept itself does not give any method or clue to calculate any limit. But if we guess a limit
intuitively or by direct substitution, the definition only confirms whether the number is truly the limit
or not. So far we have had many typical examples and methods of finding limits as given above the
most common method , of course is a cautious guess by direct substitution and by practice only, you
would gain confidence of calculating limits. After the chapter on differentiation, a more formal method
0
due to L’Hopital would be introduced with wider applicability in , ,1 , 0 and 0 etc. forms . For
0
explained towards the end of this chapter) or L’ Hospital’s rule ( explained after differentiation
chapter,).
§1.4:Algebra of limits
Infinitesimals are themselves not of any use (Are they?). But infinitesimally increasing or
decreasing sequences, if have limits, the limits are important and throughout Calculus we are to
only study these limits. So we need Algebra of limits to work with limits.(Proofs or details
may be omitted at first reading ;the results are obvious and useful for working out
problems)
Limits of functions behave like algebraic numbers in a manner (provided they exist) that if the
functions are added, limit of the addition function is addition of their limits and such other
results as follows:
(a)If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) + g(x)) = L+ m = Lim f(x) + Lim g(x)
x a x a x a x a x a
Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, for each 1 and 2 such that │f(x) - L│< 1 and │g(x) - m │< 2
x a x a
we can find 1 and 2 such that │x - a│< 1 and │x - a│< 2 or can find a where =
Hence for every ε arbitrarily small, such that │(f(x) – g(x)) –( L + m) │ ≤ ε we can find a such
that │x - a│<
If Lim f(x) = L , for each 1 such that │f(x) - L│< 1 we can find 1 such │x - a│< 1
x a
Or for each │ p│. 1 such that │p │. │f(x) -L│ < │p │. 1 we can find 1 such
│x - a│< 1 (multiplying by a positive quantity does not change the direction of inequality.
Or for each such that │p . f(x) – p. L│ < │p │. 1 we can find 1 such │x - a│< 1
Or for each such that │p . f(x) – p .L│ < we can find = 1 such │x - a│< setting
= │p │. 1 and = 1 which does not restrict any arbitrariness. (-ve value of p does not
(c) If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) - g(x)) = L - m (to prove)
x a x a x a
Setting p = - 1 in result (b) above, we get Lim ((-1) . g(x)) = ( -1) . m or, Lim -g(x) = - m
x a x a
And putting -g(x) in place of g(x) in result (a) above, we get, Lim ( f(x) – g(x) )
x a
= Lim ( f(x) + (- g(x) ) ) = Lim f(x) + Lim (- g(x)) = Lim f(x) - Lim g(x) = L – m(d)
x a x a x a x a x a
d) If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) x g(x)) = L x m (to prove)
x a x a x a
If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, for any 1 and 2 such that, for │ f(x) - L │< 1 and
x a x a
│ g(x) - m│ < 2 ,we can find 1 and 2 such that │x - a│< 1 and │x - a│< 2
+ Lm + m f(x) - Lm + L g(x) - Lm │
1 2 + m 1 + L 2 for │x - a│<
For any arbitrary we can choose 1 and 2 such that 1 2 + m 1 + L 2 < where we can
1
(e) If Lim g(x) = m, Lim = 1/ m (to prove) if m 0
x a x a g( x )
Let us prove this by disproving its contradiction .If Lim 1/ g(x) is not 1/ m let
x a
Lim 1/ g(x) = r Utilizing the result (d) Lim ( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = m .r , not equal to 1.
x a x a
But identically, Lim ( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = Lim 1 = 1 (Identically means ,independent of x or g(x)) That
x a x a
(f) If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) g(x)) = L m (to prove) if m 0 Lim (f(x)
x a x a xa x a
x g( x )
( In the example y if we set y = f(x), g(x) x and h(x) = x, so that y f ( x ) ,
x h( x )
g( x )
Lim
x 0 g(x) 0 xLim
0 h(x) but
Lim
x0 does not exist. The situation arises because division by 0 is not
h( x )
allowed. But nobody prevents us direct calculating the limit which is earlier shown to be 1)
x3 4 x 2 3 13 4.12 3 2
Lim
x 1
Example x2 6 12 6 7
(g) Lim g(f(x)) = g(f(a)) = g( Lim f(x) ) i f Lim f(x) exists at all. (Without
x a x a x a
(h) If the functions f, g, and h in the same domain are such that
f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all values of x and if
Lim f(x) = L = Lim h(x) . and Lim g(x) exists, then Lim g(x) = L (Without proof)
x a x a x a x a
Some call it Squeezing Theorem or Sandwich Theorem. The result is quite simple to
understand and is useful for working out problems. You can also work out a sketch proof by taking
Lim g(x) = M L and then arriving at a contradiction. is to show that limits of rational functions can
x a
(Triangle inequality ;Sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third.)
p.│q │ ≤ │p .q │…………………………………………..…..(3)
│ |p|-|q|│≤ |p-q|………………..…………….………………..(4)
(Difference of two sides of a triangle is less than the third. This is deducible from (1);
put p + q = a, p = a – q. │a │ ≤ │ a - q │ + │ q │ ; │a │ - │ q │ ≤ │ a - q │ │ │a
│ - │ q │ │ ≤ │ a - q │ )remember
Example16:
an
Show that for a > 0, lim 0.
n n !
Hint : If the limit exists, it must be 0 , being sum of all positive terms. Now take a positive integer m
such that m a m 1.
etc.
nm nm
am a am a a
The latter is . . For any m, is constant, but lim 0 as 1 . Hence the
m! m 1 m! n
m 1 m 1
result.
The general results given below would serve as examples to illustrate the methods of limit
calculation.
Extend the algebra of limits to any finite number of sums, and products of functions step by step.
a) Find Lim [ xn – a n ] / ( x – a )
x a
It is worth observing that limits of polynomials are found by substitution. ( in substituting, what we
xn an (a h ) n a n
Lim Lim
x a x a h 0 h
Exercise1
sin x
Show that lim 1. Hint : x x for x < 0.Remember
x 0 x
example 17
tan x sin x sin x tan x
a) Which of the two limits exist, lim and lim
x 0 x x x 0 x x
b)
cos.x -1
c) Lim
x 0 =0
x
→
remember
nx
1
Lim 1+ = 1+ x + x2 / 2! + x3 / 3! + x4 / 4! + x5 / 5! ..upto = ex
n ∞ n
→
[ The symbol e stands for Napier’s number as introduced in Chapter 1.and the
The Napier’s number, the exponential series, the logarithmic series introduced below are
enormously important in the field of Algebra, Trigonometry, Coordinate Geometry, Calculus, Real and
Complex analysis, Physics, etc. The results involving the exponential and logarithmic series are
extremely useful in series summations, preparing logarithmic table etc. It has given Mathematics,
1 nx
Lim (1 ) = Lim [1 + nx.1/n +nx(nx-1)/2!. (1/n2) + nx(nx-1)(nx-2)/3! . (1/n3)+..up to ]
n n n
( by Binomial Theorem)
.1/n2 etc. as n .
→
x
1 n
Lim 1 = ex
n ∞ n
→
Again putting x = -1 in the series for ex , we get, e-1 = 1 - 1 + 1/2! - 1/3! + 1/4!
....................up to
Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms .In this manner, log e a is written as ln a . e)
Lim ( x + 1/x )x = e
x
The result has already been proved for x being any positive integer in the previous section.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1
n x n 1 1 1 1 (1 ) (1 ) x (1 ) n 1
n 1 x n n 1 x n n 1 x n
1 n 1 1 n 1
(1 ) (1 )
n 1 1 1
(1 ) x (1 ) n 1
Lim n 1
1
1 x n n 1 1
n 1 n 1
Lim 1 Lim 1
(1 ) x (1 ) n 1 for , n ...when...x
x x n n
Lim 1 n 1
(1 )
n n 1 Lim 1 Lim 1 Lim 1 e Lim 1
(1 ) x (1 ) n (1 ) (1 ) n e.1
Lim 1 x x n n n n 1 n n
1
n n 1
Lim 1
(1 ) x e
n x
n
x
1 e
Lim
f) n
n
n
x x n(n 1) x 2
1 1 n .......upto...
Lim Lim
n n
n
2
n 2! n
x2 1
Lim
n 1 x 1 ..........upto...
2! n
x2 x3
1 x .......... upto... e neglecting 1/n and its higher powers.
2! 3!
x a x a
1
x a
Lim 1 1 Lim 1
1 e We have, , x 1 xLim 1 .x 1 e.1 e
Lim
g) Prove x
x x x x
x .a x
Lim 1 a
x 1 ea Lim
x 1
h) Prove
x x
a
Lim 1
x .a
1 x
Lim 1
a
Lim 1 x
x 1 x x 1 e a
We have,
x x
x
x
x a
Lim a Lim a a
a
x
Again, x 1 x 1 a
x 1 ea
Lim
a
.
x a x a x
h2
1 h .... upto 1
Lim e 1 Lim
h
h 0 2!
i) h0 = 1 neglecting h and higher powers.
h h
Lim e
ha
1 1 ha
h2 a 2
....upto 1 eha -1
Similarly, h 0 Lim
h 0
2! a i.e.,
Lim
h 0 a
h h h
remember
j) ax = exln a, For let ln a = y ey = a ax = (ey)x = (ex)y =exy=exln a
a x 1 Lim e x ln a 1
Lim
x 0 x 0 .ln a 1.ln a ln a if a > 0, Similarly, if a < 0, -a > 0,
x x ln a
a x 1 Lim e x ln|a| 1
Lim
x 0 x0 .ln | a | 1.ln | a | ln | a | So,
Lim
x 0
a x -1
ln | a |
x x ln | a | x
, if a 1
Remember that lim a 1 x
if a 1
x
0 0 a 1
if
ln(1 x ) ln(1 x) Lim 1
Lim
x 0 1. , We Lim
x0 ln(1 x) x ln Lim
1
k) have x 0 (1 x) ln.e 1.
x
x 0
x x
y 2 (ln a)2
To derive it, note that a
y
e y ln a
1 y ln a
2!
y ( y 1)( y 2)( y 3) 4
x .....upto....
4!
which is just another way of expressing the above series, and identical with the first one. Hence,
(1) 2 (1)(2) 3
ln(1 x) x x x
(1)(2)(3) 4
x .........upto ,
1.2 1.2.3 1.2.3.4
x 2 x3 x 4
or, ln(1 x) x ......upto........
2 3 4
1
or, ln(1 ) 1 1 1 1
2 3 4 .....upto....
n n 2n 3n 4n
n 1 1
ln ln(n 1) ln n and ln(1 ) 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 ....upto....
n n n 2n 3n 4n
n 1
ln ln(n 1) ln n
n
and ln 8 = 3 ln 2, we get ln 10. once we get ln 10, we can find log x , (i.e., log 10 x, it is customarily
The logarithmic series provides the clue to prepare a log table, starting at ln 1 =0 and choosing
incremental values of x. But the series is not rapidly converging ,i.e., we cannot have good
approximation values of logarithms of numbers by summing only a few terms from the beginning. But
the logarithmic series provides us designing other series not only for preparing a log table but
Exercise2
Show that lim x 2 x 1 1
x 1
Exercise3
sin x
Show that lim 0 remember
x x
sin x 1 1
Hint ; Make sin x.
x x x
Exercise4
cos2 x
lim
Find x x .Ans. 0.
Exercise5
sin 2 x sin 2 a
lim
x2 a 2 sin 2 x sin 2 a sin x a sin x a
Find xa . Ans. 1 Hint :
x sin x sin x
lim x 1
x x cos2 x x sin x x
Exercise6:Find .Ans. lim lim 1
x x cos2 x x cos 2 x
x 1
x
lim2 x sin 2 x
Exercise7:Find x .
0 lim2 x sin 2 x lim2 x lim2 x 0 lim 2 x sin 2 x 0
, as 0 sin 2 1 .But
x
Ans. : We have x x x , so x .
1 1
1
lim 1 log3 x
1
lim log3 x .
log3 x e x1 log3 x
e1 e
x 1
c
lim e x sin
Exercise9:Find
x ex .
c
sin
c e x sin ce x
c lim e sin x c lim
x
c lim c
sin 0 x e x 1
c x
x ce x
x 1
lim 2
Exercise10: Show that
x1 x 1
cos2 x
lim sin 2
Exercise13:Find
x 0
x .
Hint :
1
Lim sin x
x 0
Example 17 : Find x . Put sin-1x = θ, so that x = sin θ, We have θ 0 when sin
θ 0.
1
Lim sin x 1 1
x 0 xLim
0 1
x sin Lim sin 1
0
or x 0. Now,
Exercise14:
sin x
lim 0
x 0
x .
1 lim
tan 1
x
2
lim tan x 1 , but x
2
x
2
.
x2
Exercise16: Show that x0
lim 0.
sin x tan x
lim 1 x x 1 1 x 1
Exercise17: Show that x1
tan x tan x tanh tan h tanh
lim 1 lim 1 1
Exercise18: Show that x x 0
x 0
x . Hint tan x x , so h , also h h
1 sin 2 x
lim
x 4x
Exercise19: Show that 4 does not exist.
1 sin 2 x 1 1
lim lim 1 sin 2 x lim 1.lim 1
x 4 x x x 4 x x 4 x
lim
x 4x
Now 4 4 4 4 . But 4 does not exist.
sin x sin x
lim lim 0
Exercise20: Show that
x 0
x
does not exist, but
x0
x
.
Exercise21:
1 n 1n 22 n 2n 32 ... n m 1n m2
Show that lim lim 1
m n m2 2
1
n
2
n
m 1
n
1 2 1 3 1 ...... m
2 2
1
lim 1 2 3 ... m lim m m 1 1
n n n
2 3 m
Hint : lim lim
m n m
2
m m2 m 2 2
Lim e
ax
e bx
x 0 ab
Example 19 : Prove x remember
eax ebx
Lim
We have x 0
Lim eax 1 Lim ebx 1
x 0 a b
x x 0
x x
Example 20 :
Lim
f ( x) a0 x n a1 x n 1 ........ an
Examine x f ( x ) where and , b0 0
b0 x m b1 x m1 ........ bm remember
a1 a
x n (a 0 ..... nn )
a 0 x n a1x n 1 ........ a n x x n m g( x ), say
x
f (x) b b
x m ( b0 1 .... m
b0 x m b1x m 1 ........ b m x xm
)
We have,
a0 a0
Lim
x g( x ) Lim
Lim
x g( x ) x x
Lim nm
00
Now,
b0 ;So, if n<m, x
f ( x ) =
b0
nm a0 a
Lim
Lim Lim
x g( x ) x x .1 0
if n=m,
x f (x) = b0 b0
an
Lim
x 0 g( x)
Similarly
bn .
Exercise22
ax 2 b
lim a 0 . Hint
Find x x c when : If a < 0, by above formula, limit is - ∞. If a = 0,
0.x 2 b
lim 0
x x c
Exercise23
x2 1
lim ax b .
x 1
Find all values of a and b if x
x2 1 x 2 1 a a b x 1 b
Hint : Since lim ax b lim and degree of numerator > degree
x
x 1 x x 1
1 a
of denominator, then 0 a 1 . The b could be any real number.
1
x2 1
If lim ax b 0 , find all values of a and b.
exercise24
x
x 1
x 2 1 a a b x 1 b
Hint : lim 0 and the degree of numerator > degree of denominator, and
x
x 1
this is only possible only when the degree of numerator < degree of denominator.
Both the statements are possible only when 1 a 0 and a b 0 , i.e., only when a = 1 and b = 1 this
1 b
becomes lim
x x 1
0
Exercise25 remember
x2 1
If lim ax b c 0 , find all values of a and b.
x
x 1
x2 1
Hint : Since x
lim ax b c 0 lim x 1 a a b x 1 b c and the degree
2
x
x 1 x 1
1 b c b 1 c .
Example 21 :
Lim cos nx
n 0, as, n
n remember
Exercise26
1
e 1
x
Evaluate lim f x if
f x 1
e 1
x 0 x
1 1
e h 1 1/ e h 1
1 1
1
Hint : lim f x lim f 0 h lim 1
lim 1
1 , as h 0 e 1 / e h 0
h
x 0 h0 h 0 h 0 h
e h
1 1/ e h 1
1 1
e h 1 1 1/ e h
1 1
1
Now, lim f x lim f 0 h lim 1 1
1 , h 0 e h 1 / e h 0 So left
x 0 h0 h 0 h
e h 1 1 1/ e h
1 cos2 x c
Show that the lim does not exist.
xc xc
Lim e
x
cos x
Example 22 : Find x 0
x2
x4 x6 x2 x4
1 x .......
x2
Lim e cos x 2
1 ......
x 0 Lim 2! 3! Lim 2! 4!
We have, x2 = x 0 2 x 0 2
x x
1
x 2 1 higher.. powers..of ..x 2
2 1 3
1
2
x 2 2
Example23
lim sin sin 1 x
Find x 1 . Ans. : 0. Note that RHL is not required as the function is not
Example24
Show that lim cot x does not exist . Hint : Show LHL = ∞, and RHL = - ∞. So left handed limit
x0
Example 25
Lim f ( x x ) f ( x )
x0 and is called differential coefficient of the function at any point x,
x
where
If potential function in a gravitational field is given by V(r)= - GM/r, find the field strength E=-
r (r r )
GM GM
We have, E r 0
Lim r r r GM Lim (r r )r GM Lim 1 GM
2
r 0 r 0
r r (r r )r r
Differential coefficient , the next volume, thus may be seen as an application of Limit
calculation.
A function may be regarded as the output of an operation on the independent variable which may be
regarded as input. For example mixing Ammonia and Hydrochloric acid would produce Ammonium
Chloride gas. The rate of reaction depends upon concentrations of inputs and of course,
circumstantial variables like temperature, pressure etc. in other words, The volume of Ammonium
Chloride at any time t , say, V(t) is a function F, say, of concentration of Ammonia CA, that of
Hydrochloric acid CH, temperature T, pressure P of the system . In symbols, V(t) = F(C A,CH, P, T, t),
where F is a function of many variables or may be a set of functions, different for different ranges of
temperature. At any particular time t1, with given values of CH, P and T, V(t1) is a function of CA. If we
set a target value L , can we be able to control the input CA near a control value CA1 ? In other
words, can we control the output to be within a range of prescribed error ε i.e. (VA(t1) – ε < L < VA(t1)
+ ε) by controlling the input in a range within (CA1 – δ < L < CA1 + δ) ?. If this is so, we say that V(t1)
has a limit L at the point CA = CA1. If you closely observe the meaning, you would understand that the
actual output does not depend upon this L, which is a result of Mathematical considerations only; it
may be different, or altogether may be absent (when suppose, the factory is under lock up) .
Otherwise, when this L is equal to VA(t1), we understand that the production process is smooth or
Take the example y f x 2 x2 3 and we are asked to find lim f x . We guess a limit L at the point
x 5
x = 5, by direct substitution , 53 and make back calculation for finding δ for every ε, such that
2 x 2 3 53 .Proceed backwards as 2 x 2 50 , or , 50 2 x 2 50 ,
50 50 50 50
or , x , or , 5 x 5 5
2 2 2 2
50 50
We can take bigger of the two numbers 5 and 5 as a δ. We need not look
2 2
Take an example : show that the step function y = [x] , the greatest integer not greater than x does
not have a limit a x = 3. Observe that for values of x such as 2 x 3 , y = 2 and for x = 3, y = 3. Take
an ε = 0.1 and we try to put all values of y between 2.4 to 2.6 and observe that there is no δ, which
can make [x] lie between 2.4 to 2.6 as it suddenly changes from 2 to 3 at x = 3.
definition of limit.
1 when x is rational
Try a function f x for investigating limit at a rational point. Obviously the
0 when x is irrational
function oscillates too much there and has no limit. You may remember that there
is a rational number between any two irrational numbers and there is an irrational number between
But for every δ > 0 such that x a some ε > 0 for which f x L , say , for example, ε = 1.1.
The definition of limit is certainly different from this consideration; it says for every
ε (such that f x L ) we can find a δ (such that x a ), and not the other way round. So the
So also the statement that for any ε > 0 such that f x L we can find an x near ‘a’ is not
1 when x is rational
Note : The function f x is called characteristic function of rational
0 when x is irrational
numbers. It simply separates the rational numbers from irrationals simply by attaching
different labels 1 and 0 to them. It is also called Dirichlet function after the mathematician Dirichlet .
But the reverse of the above statements is always true. If an ε can not be found so that f x does not
On first time reading , falsity of the above two statements may appear strange . For any δ we are
finding an ε and still the limit may not exist ! But we see that it is so. Do we have to always check is
backwards whether a suspected limit is actually so and there is no direct method. In fact there is one,
The independent variable x may tend to a in many ways, actually in infinite number of ways.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ......... n , n1 .........infinite terms or , , , ......... n , n1 .
2 4 8 16 2 2 2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 2 1 2 1
........infinite terms and through infinite number of such sequences as you can see to it. And similarly x
→ a through infinite number of sequences converging to ‘a’. It may be assured that if all the
function f x L along every path of x leading to ‘a’. Can you practically test a limiting value in
this manner ? How many such paths can you take into consideration ? But there is one practical utility
in this development. If you want to disprove that a number L is not the limit of a function f(x) as x → a,
you can present a sequence x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,......................infinite terms along which lim f x L . Only one
x a
example is sufficient to disprove a proposition. But before giving examples for such a method , it
should be shown that the two definitions of limit are equivalent – the ε - δ method and the sequence
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,...........xn ...........infinite terms is said to converge to a limit ‘a’ if for every positive δ, we
can find an integer M such that |x – a| < δ for all n > M. The definition is for any sequence ,e.g.
the sequence f x1 , f x2 , f x3 ...... f xn ... ....infinite terms is said to tend to the limit L if for any ε > 0,
Now the equivalence of Heine definition of limit and that due to Cauchy – Weisstras may be easily
seen to be equivalent, Starting from Heine’s definition , for any ε > 0, for f x L we can find a
sequence f xn such that f xn L assures a sequence xn such that |x – a| < δ, for some δ ,
for some integer > N. Thus it leads to Cauchy – Weisstras definition. Then starting from the Cauchy –
Weisstras definition the Heine’s definition follows easily, for, if f x L , it tends to the limit through
2x 1
example27: To find lim in sequence method.
xa 3 x 2
2 x1 1 2 x2 1 2 x3 1
The limit would be limit of the sequence , , ,............ as n , i.e. xn a
3 x1 2 3 x2 2 3 x3 2
.So
2 xn 1 xlim
n a
2 xn 1 2a 1
lim
xn a 3 x 2
n lim
xn a
3 xn 2 3a 1 . (But this method is of little practical use; direct
To evaluate the limit, assuming it exists, let us evaluate it along the path or sequence xn n and in
1
another way, along the sequence yn 2n .
2
Now, along the path xn n , we have lim sin x lim sin n lim 0 0 .
x n n
1 1
Now, along the path yn 2n , we have lim sin x lim sin 2n lim1 1 .
2 x n
2 n
Since the two limits are different, the limit does not exist.
Misc exercises
1
28. Show that the limit lim sin does not exist. Hint see above example.
x 1 x 1
29. Show that the limit lim cos x does not exist. Hint see above example.
x
1
n , for n 2m 1
30. Find the limit of the sequence xn
n , for n 2m
n 2
1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 n 1
Hint : The sequence is precisely 1, , , , , , , ................ . Now lim 0 , But lim .
2 3 3 5 5 7 5 n n n n2 2
1
1 n1 , for n 2m 1
22
31. Find the limit of the sequence xn . Ans. No limit exists.
1 , for n 2m
n2
2
an
32. For any positive number ‘a’, show that lim 0
n n !
remember
an a a a a
Hint : Take any natural number m 2a . Then , for n > m, we have, . . ............
n! 1 2 3 n
nm
a a a a a a a a 1 m 1
. . ...... . . ...... a m 2a n
1 2 3 m m 1 m 2 n 3 n 2 2
1 an
Now n 0 . So lim 0.
2 n n !
n n 1 2 n n 1 2 nx 2 2
n 1 xn n 1 xn 1 n xn . (As n >1)
2! 2! 2 n
2 2
As lim 0 , lim n n 1 lim 1
n n n n n
1
34. Find lim a for a > 0. Hint : lim a lim a a 0 1 .
n n n
Remember
n n n
n 1! . nn n! n 1 . nn n 1 . nn nn 1
n 1 n! n 1 n! n 1 n 1 1 n 1
n 1 n 1 n n
Thus xn1 xn . The sequence is bounded below and has a limit L say.
n 1
n
n 1 1
n n
1 nn 1 1
Now 1 n 1 n. n .... 2 , so xn1 xn . As both
n n 1
n n
n 2 2
1
lim xn1 L, lim xn L , So L L , also 0 L . Thus L =0
n n 2
n2 n 1
2
13 23 33 ... n3 1
36. Show that lim . Hint : 1 2 3 ... n
3 3 3 3
. Divide numerator
n 1
n 2
2 4 4
and denominator by n 4 .
B) Remember the following five results.
a x bx
37. Show that lim 1 if a b 1 . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by a x .
x a x - b x
a x bx
38. Show that lim x x -1 if b a 1 . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by b x .
x a - b
a x bx
39. Show that lim 1 if 1 a b . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by a x .
x a x - b x
a x bx
40. Show that lim x x -1 if 1 b a . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by b x .
x a - b
41. Take n in place of x in above 4 consecutive questions and prove the results again, n +ve
integer.
general term is r n r 1 n 1 r r 2
n n
1.n 2. n 1 3. n 2 ... n.1 2 n 1 6 n 1 2n 1
2
Now lim
n 12 22 32 ... n2 n
n 1 2n 1
6
n n
n 1 n 1 2n 1 3 n 1
2
2 6 3n 3 2n 1 n 2 1
1 as n .
n
n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2
6
45.
1 12 4.1.a 1 1 4a
.
2 2
Since a > 0, and a sequence of positive terms is positive, the minus sign is avoided. So
1 1 4a
L .
2
Of course the sequence is bounded; that is to be proved at first to ensure existence of a finite limit if
at all. If a 0 ,
an upper bound is aa a 2 , for a a, a a a a a 2, a a a
an 1
n
2am 1 2a 1/ m a
47. lim lim lim
bn 1 . Ans. If n is even, n = 2m, 2bm 1 2b 1/ m
n n m
Find m b.
2am 2a 1 2a 2a 1 / m a
lim lim
When n is odd, say n = 2m+1, m 2bm 2b 1 m 2b 2b 1 / m b also.
1 1
lim
sin x
n 1 n
2 2
48. If , then find all the values of x.
1 1
lim
sin x 2 lim sin 1 x 0
n n
n 1
2
Ans. Since , n .
1
This is possible only when sin x is a proper fraction, i.e., 1 sin 1 x 1 x 1,1
x2 1 x2 1 1 x x2 1
lim - ax - b 0 , Hint. x , Show that lim lim ax b for a = 1, b = -1.
x
x 1 x 1 1 x x x 1 x
Evidently y ax b is a st line.
1
b) lim
x -
x 2 - x 1 - ax - b 0 ,
x
1 1
x x
Hint lim x 1 2 ax b
2
1
1 1 2 11 1
lim x 1 2 ax b lim x
1 2 ... ax b 0,
x
x x 2 x x
x
1
for a 1, b
2
1
1 1 2
(expanding the binomial 2 and neglecting higher powers)
x x
x2 1 1
So the curves y and y x 2 x 1 are st lines y x 1 and y x when x or x
x 1 2
respectively.
Example28 :
Choose a sequence xn 2n so that lim sin xn lim sin 2n 1
2 xn xn
2
Since the limits are different in two different paths, the limit does not exist.
Exercise48
The use of Heine’ definition is not only useful for proving non-existence of limits. Take the following
example.
x 1
lim
Example29 : Find the limit x 3 2 x 3
x 1
f x
Let us consider any sequence xx converging to 3 in the domain of definition of 2 x 3 i.e.
3
xn
avoiding any 2 which evidently is not in domain of f x , for, it makes f x infinite.
xn 1 x 1 x2 1 x3 1 x 1
Now consider the sequence , i.e., 1 , , ...... n .....infinite terms
2 xn 3 2 x1 3 2 x2 3 2 x3 3 2 xn 3
3 1 4
Clearly the limit of this sequence is , which is a constant , i.e. independent of choice of xn.
63 9
x 1 4
So, lim . The Heine’s definition also gives us method of testing a limit. ( you can see it is no
x 3 2x 3 9
x 1
better than method of direct substitution in f x ).
2x 3
Exercise49
Find lim sin 1 x . Hint : lim sin 1 x lim t 1 , putting sin 1 x t so that t as x 1
x 1 x1 t
2
2 2
tan 1 x sin 1 x
exercise 50 : Find lim .
x 0 sin 3 x
x
1 1
tan 1 x tan 1
tan x sin x 1 x2
lim lim
x 0 sin 3 x x 0 sin 3 x
x3 lim 3
x 0 x
x
x
tan 1 1 x2 x 1 x2 x
1 x.x tan 1 x 1 x2 x x 1 x2 x
x2 1 x2
1 x2 lim lim x 2 1 x 2 1.lim x 2 1 x 2
ans. lim
x 0 x 3 .1 x 0
x 1 x2 x x 0 x3 x 0 x3
x2 1 x2
1 x2 1 1 x2 1 1
lim
x 0
x2 1 x2 1 x2 1 2
x2
x a b
Note that sin 1 x tan 1 and tan 1 a tan 1 b tan 1
1 x 2 1 ab
But definitely the Heine’s definition gives good theoretical insight into the problem of existence of
limits. It will help understanding the path concept we have introduced informally in case of function of
two variables z x, y . The domain of such functions is entire xy plane or some part of it. And the
graph of the function gives us a surface in a three dimensional (x, y, z) space as y f x gives us a
curve in two dimensional plane. For example x 2 y 2 a 2 gives us the surface of a cylinder of radius a
standing on the xy plane. Another example, z x 2 y 2 cot gives us a cone with vertex at the origin
and half vertical angle α. And so on. We can extend the definition of limit for such functions as
follows:
y y0 .
It is easy to understand that a curve y f x is a path in xy plane and if a function z of two variables
x and y has to have a limit at (x0, y0), it has to have that limit though every path leading to the point
(x0, y0).
infinitesimals:
So far we are talking about ε and δ tacitly assuming them small positive numbers , but when it come
to a formal statement or definition , we are evidently avoiding the word ‘small’ ; on the pretext that
definitions and tools of Mathematics are independent of ‘order of smallness’ which may vary from
person to person or vary as purposes behind. Remember that a grain of rice is negligible for a grain
merchant but never for an artist who want to inscribe a whole book on it. But mathematical
formulations should be of universal application and should not be for the grain merchant alone nor for
the above artist. Let us closely look at what is meant by order of smallness and then formally proceed
1
lim x . Evidently if x is an infinitesimal function as x → a or as x → ∞, then is an
x x
1 1 1 1 1
Intuitively we know the series 3
i.e., 3 3 3 3 ......infinite terms is more rapidly converging
n 1 n 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
than the series 2
,i.e., 2 2 2 2 ...infinite terms ,
n 1 2 3 4
i.e., for a desired approximation , we can we can do with less number of terms of the former series
Let us take two infinitesimal functions x as x → a and x as x → a. we say that they are
lim x
infinitesimals of the same order if xa
c if c is a non-zero constant. In that case
lim x
xa
lim x
we write x x If xa
0 then we say that x as x → a is of higher order than x
lim x
xa
lim x
Similarly If xa
then we say that x as x → a is of lower order than x as x → a. A
lim x
xa
To verify whether these definitions are in consistent with our intuitive idea, the following examples
may be tried.
Example 30
x2 1 x2 1
a) Show that as x → 1 is infinitesimal. Evidently so, since lim 0
2 x3 3 x 1 2 x 3 3
It is easily verifiable that
b) The sum and product of any finite number of infinitesimal functions as x → a are themselves
bounded means it varies within two numbers A and B, may or may not have a minimum and
maximum, e.g., the set {x: x 2 2 } has no maximum but has an upper bound x 2 ) is an
Example 31
1
Show that f x x 2 cos
3
is an infinitesimal function as x → 2.
x2
1
The lim f x 0 , as lim x 2 0 and cos
3
can not be more than 1 or less than– 1 .From the
x 2 x 2 x2
latter example, it seems that using the concepts of infinitesimal may facilitate calculation of limits ; yes
it is so, we would return to that later on. Look at the following examples for understanding
comparison of infinitesimals.
Example 32
Show that both the functions f x 16 x 4 and g x x are infinitesimals for x → 0 and compare
their orders.
Taking limits of the functions for x → 0, we see that both the limits are 0 and
x 1
lim , a non-zero constant. So f x g x .
x 0
x 16 x 4 8
Example 33
Show that the functions f x 2x3 x 1 and g x 2 x2 3x 1 are both infinite functions as x → ∞
2 3 1
2 3
2 x 3x 1 x x
2
x 0 .Hence
Both the functions are infinite functions as x → ∞ . Now lim lim
x 2 x 3 x 1 x 1 1
2 2 3
x x
Remember
The following propositions are easily proved and shall enable us to work with infinitesimals freely.
One infinitesimal can be replaced with another one of same order (taking into account the
infinitesimals
x x x x
such that x x and x x then lim lim .Also lim lim .
xa x x a x x a x x a x
b) If x x as x → a and x x as x → a, then x x .
x x x
0 lim 1 lim , lim x lim x x x x →a
x a x x a x x a x a
d) Sum of two infinitesimals of different order is equivalent to the one of them which is of
Misc. Exercise Using the above, prove and remember the following.
a.
x
1 x
1
53) 1 x from ln 1 x x . If , n 1 x 1
n n
sin 3x
lim
x 0 ln 1 5 x
54) . Hint: use sin5x 5x , ln 1 4 x 4 x and on simplification, the limit is 5/4.
1 cos x
lim
x 0 x
1 cos 2 2
x x
Ans. Since 1 x 1 (using the formula n 1 x 1 ), we have
2 n
0.03
1 .03 1 1.015 .
2
x
1
1
1
2
To estimate the error, 1 x 1 x 2 1 x 2 1 x 2 1 x .1 1 1 x 1 .
2 2 2 2
2
x 1
1 x x2
2
But again 1 x , so the error is 1 x 1 . If x = 0.03,
2 2 2 2 8
x 2 0.009
0.0011 , 0.11%.
8 8
1
58) Show that 1 x . as x 0
1 2x
Hint : 1
1
1 2x
1
1 2x
1 2x 1 1 1
1 2 x 1 x
1 0 2
3
59) Show that sin x x x 4 . Hint use x sin x .
1 cos x 6 x3
2
2 16
sin 3 x
61) Find lim . Hint : sin 3 x 3 x , arctan x x .
arctan x
x 0 2
ln 1 3 x
. Hint : ln 1 3x 3x , e5 1 53 x
3
x
62) Find lim
x 0 e 53 x
1
3
163) Show that 1 cos3 x sin 2 x .
2
1 3x
2 2
Exercise64: remember.
Cauchy’s necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a limit. The earlier discussion that
the limit, if it exists, does not depend upon any sequence along which the limit is calculated. The idea
is formally stated in the form of Cauchy’s necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a limit of
some function f x .
In other words, The lim f x exists if and only if for every ε > 0 such that f x1 f x2 , we can
x a
Exercise65
1 1
Show that the following limits do not exist. a) lim cos b) lim 1
x 0 x x 0
2e x
Work out and remember these frequently used limits. remember the following ten
results
sin x tan x
a) lim 1 lim cos x lim
x 0 x x 0 x 0 x
tan -1 x sin -1 x
b) lim 1 lim
x 0 x x 0 x
a x -1 e x -1
c) lim ln a, a 0 ; in particular lim ln e 1 a e ln a a x e x ln a
x0 x x 0 x (Hint – use , and expand
e x ln a
as an exponential series)
x
1
1
d) lim 1 x x e lim 1 also x could be replaced by natural number n.
x 0 x
x
nx
1
lim 1 e x
e) n
n
cos.x -1
Lim
x 0 0
f) x
x 2 x3 x 4
ln(1 x) x - .....
(Hint – expand 2 3 4 )
1 x
m
-1
lim m
h) x 0 x (Hint. take help from (c) and (g)
ln x
lim 0, m0
i) x x m
n
xn - an h
na n-1 a h a 1
n n
lim
k) xa x - a prove by using binomial theorem a for all values of a or
xn - an x a x n 1 ax n 2 a 2 x n 3 .....a n 2 x a n 1
factorize
Exercise67
a x -1
lim ln a, a 0 , prove that when x→0 and f x 0 , remember
x0 x
Using
a f x -1 f x
lim ln a lim if the latter limit is L. remember
x0 g x x0 g x
a f x 1 a f x 1 f x
Hint. lim lim lim ln a.L
x 0 g x f x 0 f x x 0 g x
f x 1
If x→0 and f x 0 ,and lim L then lim 1 f x g x e L .
x 0 g x x0
f x
lim f x
1
1
x0 g x lim
lim 1 f x g x lim 1 f x f x e e
g x
x0
L
Hint.
x 0
f x 0
g x
Exercise69: If x→0 and f x 0 ,and lim f x g x L then lim 1 f x eL . Remember
x0 x0
x
tan
a 2
2a
example35 : lim 2 e
Show that
xa
x .
x x
tan
a
tan
a 2a 2a
lim 2 lim 1 1
Ans.
xa
x xa
x
a x h h
lim 1 tan xa x h a h lim tan h h
e e e h0 a h 2 2a
xa x 2a lim tan lim tan lim cot
xa x 2a
e h0 a h 2a
e h0 a h 2a
h
2a 2a
lim lim
h0 a h h0 h
tan 2a 2
e 2a .1
e a
e
lim f x 1 lim g x
x a xa
Exercise70 When and , show that remember
f x -1
g x
lim f x
g x
lim 1 f x -1
lim
g x
e
xa
x a x a
x
1
1
lim 1 x x e lim 1 e
Also its particular cases already proved above, namely,
x 0
, b)
x
x ,
1 x
lim 1 x x e lim 1 e
c)
x 0
, b)
x
x ,
lim log 3 3 x e
log x 3
Ex 71: Show that x 1
1
lim 1 log3 x
1
log3 x e
log3 x
x 1
e log3 x
xc
xa
lim
x x b
Exercise 72: Find .
xc
xa x c
xa lim lim 1 x a 1
x x b
Hint : As x→∞, we have x b →1, and x + c →∞. So x
xb
x c
x c lim a b
e
a b a b a b
lim 1 e
lim
x x b
x c
e x x b
x
x b
1 1
a b x x2
1
1 ax x 2 2
1 ax 2 x2
2
lim
x 0 1 bx 2
lim
x 0 1 bx 2
lim
x 0
1
1 bx 2
Exercise73: Find . Ans.
lim
a b x 2 . 1
e x0 1bx2 x2
e a b
1 1 1
lim tan 2 x .
lim 1 tan 2
x 2x
lim 1 tan 2
x 2x
e x0 2x
x 0 x 0
Exercise 74: Find . Ans.
2
1 tan x
lim 1
x
e
2 x0 2
e
lim 1 sin x
cot x
lim 1 sin x
cot x
x 1 x 1
Exercise 75. Find . Ans.
1 1
x x 1
1
2tan x 1
2 tan x x 2tan x 1 lim
lim 1 e
lim
x0 1 tan x x
e x0 x 1 tan x
e2
x 0
1 tan x
1
ln x
lim tan ln x e2
Show that
x 1
4
Exercise77:
1
2 tan ln x ln x
1
1
ln x 1 tan ln x ln x
lim tan ln x lim lim 1
Ans. x 1
4 x 1 1 tan ln x
x 1
1 tan ln x
tan ln x 1 tan ln x 1
2lim . 2lim .
x11 tan ln x ln x ln x 1 tan ln x
e e2
x1
e
2
If lim 1 ax bx 2
x e3 Show that then a 1 and b may be any real number.
x 0 2
Exercise78 :
2
2x
1 ax bx
lim ax bx 2
Ans. lim
2 x e e x0
3
e3 e 2a
e3 a
3
x 0 2
More and difficult problems may be found in the next chapter , the chapter dealing in
L’Hospital’s rule and in the chapter for improper integrals using Newton-Leibnitz formula.
Describing a real number as a Dedikind’s cut is best understood with the help of this example. A
hypotenuse of a square of unit side each may by symbolically denoted by 2 which is a definite
number as it can be constructed by a ruler and compass. But to express it with only 10 symbols of
digits from 0 to 9, we can only approximate it to any desired degree; like 1.4, 1.41,1.414 ……. etc.
from below 2 or like 1.5,1.42, 1.415 …… etc. from above 2 . The two sequences of numbers are
property” of real numbers. If A and B denote the set of all real numbers less than or equal to 2 and
B denote the set of all real numbers greater than 2 , then the two sets for a ‘cut’ on the real number
line at 2 . One can restate the above statement by taking A to be the set of all real numbers less
than 2 and B as the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to 2 . In this way any real
number is a cut on the real number line, and the set of real numbers is said to be “order complete”.
The rational numbers do not have this “order completeness” property, which is a consequence of
least upper bound property. One cannot “arrive at” 2 by advancing on the sequences of rational
numbers 1.4, 1.41,1.414 ……. etc. or 1.5,1.42, 1.415 …… etc. The set of rational numbers tends to a
limit 2 which is not a rational number ( has been proved before). But all converging sequences of
real numbers are real numbers, i.e., included in the set of real numbers. In topological language, the
set of real numbers is thus called “order complete. The successive approximations that are
“improving” , converge to a real number. ( Thus “ bounded” and “Cauchy” sequences of real numbers
The field of complex numbers do not have this order completeness property or Archimedean
property. Given two complex numbers one cannot say which is greater or smaller for that matter.
B) Infinitesimals
The use of infinitesimals is done cautiously; as to where to neglect them and where they cannot be
neglected. To give them an algebraic structure, Abraham Robinson extended the real number system
to include infinitesimals and the extension of R is called the set of hyper real numbers.
1 1 1 1 1 1
A number was defined as infinitesimal if ..... ...... and
2 3 4 5 6 m
infinitesimal. The hyperreal numbers are not Dedekind complete in the sense that there are no
positive infinitesimals in the set of ordinary real numbers R, (obviously). But the same rules of Algebra
may be applied to hyperreal numbers ( real numbers including infinitesimals) as applied to real
numbers. In this idealization of infinitesimals we can divide a real number by an infinitesimal and the
1
result would be a ‘huge’ number .Conversely we could divide a real number by and the result
would be an infinitesimal. The we can make computation rules for finite and infinitesimal numbers as
follows.
Entire calculus can be rewritten just like ordinary algebra without extra caution for infinitesimals using
Remember that is not a number either in R or in the set of hyper real number set. ; since
PART II
The ideas of the previous chapter are put to use in this exercises. Mathematics is no reading,
but doing. By working out only we become able to recognize and understand the underlying
concepts
Misc. Exercises
Find the following limits. Use binomial expansion, e – series or logarithmic series or any series expansion you
x x2 x3
a) e x 1 ...................
1! 2! 3!
1 x x x 2 x3
b) e 1 ........ , putting – x in place of x.
ex 1! 2! 3!
x ln a x ln a x3 ln a
2 2 3
c) a e
x x ln a
1 ...................
1! 2! 3!
nx n n 1 x n n 1 n 2 x3
2
Also you may use the following series expansions of trigonometric functions, which would be derived
later on.
x3 x5 x 7
a) sin x x ........
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
b) cos x 1 ........
2! 4! 6!
2 s , as x s 0
x s s x s s Lim ( x s s )( x s s )
2)
Lim
x s . Ans.
Lim
x s xs
x x x( x s s )
xss 1 1 1
Lim Lim
xs
x( x s s )
xs
xs s 2s s s ( 2 1)
1
x 1
h 2
x [1 1] x [1
h
1]
hLim x hLim 2x 2x 2 x
0 0
h h
4) Show that x
lim x x 2 x 1
2
lim
x x2 x x x2 x lim x
lim
x / x
1
x
x x2 x x
x x2 x x 1
x / x 1
x
2
x 4 2 x3 3x 2 bx 2 x 4 2 x3 5 x 2 3x d
x 4 2 x3 3x 2 bx 2 x 4 2 x3 5 x 2 3x d
8 x 2 b 3 x 2 d b3 2 d 8
lim 8
2 4
x
x 2 x 3x bx 2 x 2 x 5 x 3x d
4 3 2 4 3 2 lim
x
x x 11
2 3 b 2 2 5 3 d
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
x x x x x x x x
x
6) Find lim cos tan 1 sin tan 1 x . Ans.
1
2
Ans. Putting y tan x sin x tan x sin x tan x sin x ... , we get, y tan x sin x y . Solving it , we
1 1 4 tan x sin x
get, y , since y 0
2
1 1 4 x3
z .
2
1 1 4 tan x sin x
1 1 4 tan x sin x 1
The given expression becomes, lim 2 lim
x 0
1 1 4 x3 x 0
1 4 x3 1
1
2
lim
1 4 tan x sin x 1 1 4 x3 1 1 lim sin x 1 cos x lim 1 4 x3 1
x 0
4 x3 1 4 tan x sin x 1 4 x0 x x 2 cos x x 0
1 4 tan x sin x 1
x
2sin 2
lim sin x 2 .1 1
x 0 x x 2
2
4 cos x
2
cos 2 1 cos 2 1 cos 2 1 cos 2 ..
cos 2 sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 x .....
Ans. lim lim
x 0
sin
x4 2
x 0
sin lim x4 2
x42
x
x0
x x42
lim cos 2 sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 x ....
x 0
cos 2 0
2
1
sin lim sin
x 0 x 4 2 4
x 2 1
x2 1
11) Find lim f x the function defined by f x x 2 1 , for
x 1
0 x2 1
for
1
x 2 1 , for 0 x2 1
Ans. It may be deduced that f x 0 for x2 1
1 1
2 , for 1 x2 2
x 1
1
x 2 1 , for 0 x2 1
0 for x2 1
0, for 1 x2 2
1
Now lim f x 0 and lim f x lim f 1 h lim . Limit does not exist.
1 h 1
x1 x 1 h1 h 1 2
sin 1 x
13) lim 1 1
Show that x0 tan x
1 cos 1 cos x 1
14) Show that lim
x 0 x4 8
15) Show that lim sin cos tan x 1
x 0
2
sin x
16) Find lim . Ans. 0
x 0
x
sin 1 x
17) Find lim . Ans. 1
x 0
x
tan x
18) Find lim . Ans. 1
x 0
x
1
19) Show that lim e
cot x
, lim e
cot x
does not exist. Ans. lim ecot x 1
e
x x x
2 2 2
1
21) Show that lim tan cos sin 3 x 1
x 0
4
x sin x x
22) Find lim . Ans. Does not exist
x 1 x 1
ln x
23) lim
x x
Find . Ans. 0.
ln x n x
24) Find lim . Ans. -1 .
x x
a 2 xx 1
25) Show that , for x 0 has no limit at x = 0.
f x 2 x x
ln a x0
for
a x x 1
Hint : Use x x x , so that the function becomes f x x x , for x 0.
ln a x0
for
a 1 a 1
h h h h
ah 1 a 1h 1 1
Now lim f x lim lim ln a ; but lim f x lim lim 1
x 0 h 0 h h h 0 h x 0 h 0 h h h 0 1 h a
.So the limits are different and the limit does not exist.
ln 3 sin1 1
Ans. We have f 1 lim ln 3 sin1 .
n 2 2
ln 2 x x 2 n sin x
Now, for x 2 1 , we get f x lim ln 2 x , as x 2 n 0 , for x 2 1 .and for
n 1 x 2 n
ln 2 x x 2 n sin x
x 2 1 , we get, f x lim sin x , as x 2n , for x 2 1 .
n 1 x 2n
1
1
x
28) Show that the limit lim
1 x x
x 0 e does not exist.
1
1
x
1 x x
1 1
Ans. Take l
e ln l x x ln 1 x 1
1 1 11
Now, lim ln l lim
x 0
x 0 x x
ln 1 x 1 x 0 x x ln 1 x 1 , as x x as x 0 .
lim
11 x 2 x3 1 x x2 1 x 1
lim x ...... 1 lim 1 ...... 1 lim ......
x 0 x x
2 3 x 0 x 2 3 x 0
2 3 2
1 1
But when x 0 , x 1 . So, lim ln l lim
x 0
x 0 x x
ln 1 x 1 11ln 1 1 1 ln 2 1 So
ln A 0 ln A A e0 1
1 2 3 n
lim 2 2 2 .......... 2
31)
n n n n n .
1 2 3 n 1 n n 1 1 1 1
lim 2 2 2 .......... 2 lim 2 1 2 3 ... n lim lim
n n n 2n 2
n n n 2 n 2
Ans. n n 2n
12 22 32 .....n2
lim
n n6 12 22 32 .....n 2 n n 1 2n 1
.Ans. lim 3
lim
n n n 6n 3
1 1 2 1
lim 1 1
n 6
n n 6
n 2r 1
lim r 1 3 3
32) Find
n
1 2 3 ...r .
3 3
Ans. 4
x n nx n 1 1
33) lim
Find
x xn Ans. 0
13 23 33 .....n3 n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1
2 2
13 23 33 .....n3
34) lim . Ans. lim lim lim
n 1 n 1 4 n 2 1
n 2 2 2 2
2 n 2 n n
1
4n 4 1 2
n
2
1
n lim 1
4
n
n 1
2
1 4
4n lim 1 2
4
n
n
n n 1 2n 1
rn r r n 1 r 1 r r 1 r 2
n
r n r 1 n 1
n n 2 n n 2
Ans. r 1 r 1
2 6
2n 1 n 1 n 2
n 1 n 1
n
n
2 3 2 3
n n 1 n 2
1.n 2. n 1 3 n 2 ... n.1 6 n2 1
lim lim lim
n 1 2 3 .....n
2 2 2 2 n n n 1 2n 1 n 2n 1 2
So,
6
1 1 1
lim 0.2
log 5
......... n terms
4 8 16
36) Find n .
1
1 log
1 2n
5
2
1 1 1 1
1 5
5
log 4
4
5
2
sin 2 x
1 sin1 x
1 1 1 sin x
1 1 1
1
2
sin x
2
1 1 2 1
1 sin x n 1
1 1 1 sin x lim lim
1 2
n 1
2 2 2
....
n 1 sin x
x 0
sin x x 0
sin x n sin x
2 sin x .....
1
2 2 2
n n n n n n
n 0 0 0 ..... 0 1 n
0
r 1
lim r 1
n
38) Find n 1 3r r . Ans. 2 .
2 4
3n 1
n
lim
4n 1 6k 1
n 2k
n
3
39) Find . Ans. If n is even, 2k say, then lim . If n is odd, say 2k +1,
8k 1
k 2k
4
2 k 1
3 2k 1 1 6k 3 1 3
then lim 2 k 1
lim .
k
4 2k 1 1 k 8k 4 1 4
n
r3 8
40) Find the infinite product lim .
n
r 3 r3 8
r3 8
n
33 8 43 8 53 8 n3 8 3 2
Ans. lim 3 lim 3 3 3 ........ 3 lim
r 3 r 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 n 8 3 2
n n n
32 2 3 22 4 2 42 2 4 22 n 2 n 2 n 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
........... . 2 2
3 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 n 2 n n 3 2
3 2 4 2 n 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 n 2 2 n 22
2 2 2 2
lim ....... 2 2 2 2
...... 2 2
n
3 2 4 2 n 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 n n 3 2
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8..... n 2 19.28.39.52.63.... n2 2n 4
lim
5.6.7.8.9......... n 2 7.12.19.28.39.52.63..... n 2n 4
n 2
1.2.3.4 5.6.7.8............ n 2 19.28.39.52.63.... n2 2n 4 7
lim (need not worry about last
7.12 n 5.6.7.8.9......... n 2 19.28.39.52.63..... n2 2n 4 12
positive numbers.
1 1 4a
42) Find lim an when an 2 a an 1 and a0 a . Ans. .
n 2
a n bn
lim
43) Find n a b where a b 1 . Hint : divide numerator and denominator both by a . Ans. 1.
n n n
1
r 1 r n
m n
45) lim
n
Find . Ans. M
n
2
46) Find lim 1 r 1 n .
n
n
Cr
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Ans. Let an 1 r 1 n 1 2. n 2 n 2 n n ..... n 1 2. n 2 n
n
Cr C1 C2 C3 C4 Cn C1 C2
1 1 1 1 1
n n ..... n , n 2 terms , since n
n etc.
C3 C3 C3 C3 C4
2 4 n2 2 4 6 n 2 2 10 2 10
1 n 1 1 ; i.e. an 1 .
n n n 1 C3 n n n 1 n n 1 n 2 n n n 1 n n n 1
n
2 10
n
2 5
n
2 2
Moreover, an 1 n . Thus, lim 1 lim ann lim 1
n n n 1
lim 1 1
n
n n n n n 1
C1 n
n
a
47) Find lim 1 sin . Ans. ea .
n
n
1
48) Find all values of x for which lim 2n
0.
n
4 1
tan 2 x
2
4 4 4
By plain reasoning , tan 1 2 x 1 tan 1 2 x 1 or tan 1 2 x 1 , i.e.,
1
tan 1 2 x or tan 1 2 x 2 x tan 1, or , 2 x tan 1 x
4 4 4 4 2
1 1
49) Find all values of x for which lim .
cos x
n 1 n
2 2
1 1
By plain reasoning , lim cos 1 x 1 , i.e., 1 cos x 1.
cos x
n 1 n
2 2
1
50) tan 1 2 x or tan 1 2 x 2 x tan 1, or , 2 x tan 1 x
4 4 4 4 2
1
51) lim 2 x
x 0 . Ans. does not exist
1 1 1
lim sin x sin x 2 sin
52)
x 0
x x x . Ans. lim sin 1 x sin 1 x 2 sin 1
x 0
x x x
1 1 x3 1
limsin lim limsin .1 .The former does not exist
x 0 x x 0 1 x x 0 x
1 1
53) lim 2 x 2 x x . Ans. does not exist.
x0
2
1
1
2
x x x
1
54) lim 1 2 (hint put it lim 1 2
x
x x x
1
Show that lim 1 5 x x 2 sin x e5
55) x 0
x 1
3x3 x 2
lim 3 2
0
56) Show that x 5 x nx
1
x2 f x x x2 f x
lim 1 lim 0
57) Show that x 0 x2 exists only when
x 0 x2 and find it.
1
x2 f x x2 f x x
lim 1
Ans. Evidently if x2 does not tend to 0, x 0 x2 .
1
x2 f x x f x
2
x
lim
lim 1 e
x0 x3
e0 1
Now , x0 x2 .
1
f 0 lim f x ln 1 f x ln f x 0
58) Find , if x 0
e . Ans. 0
asin x 1
lim ln a
59) Show that x0 x cos x
3x 5 1 3n 5
lim f n
60) If x 9 x 4 3 , find how many points of 9n 4 are outside the interval 1 1 , 1 1 .
3 1000 3 1000
3n 5 1 19 19
Hint ; we have . We have to find out n so that
9n 4 3 3 9 n 4 3 9n 4
18988
19 1 n 703.259
.Thus 27 .
3 9n 4 1000
3x 2 1 3n 2 1 3
lim 2 lim 2
61) Find x 5 x 1 . From this show that n 5n 1 5
1 1 1
63) Find lim r 1 r . Ans. We have lim r 1 r 1 2r 0
n n n
1 0 from GP formula. So lim
n 2 n 2r n
1
64) Find lim 2 cot x Ans. ∞
x 0 x
We have, lim
tan 1 tan x x , i.e. when x .
x 2
2
Also lim
tan 1 tan x x , i.e. when x .
x 2
2
n sin x n tan x
66) Find lim , lim .
x 0
x x 0 x
3
x x x x 3 7
67) Find lim . Ans. .
x 1 x 1
3
9
3 3
x x x x 3
3
x 1 x 1 x 2 1 1
Hint : lim lim .
x 1 x 1
3 x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1 x x 1
2
x
68) Find lim
x 3
x
x 3
x
x 3
x
x
x .........
x x x
Ans. Let y i.e.,
3
x x 3
x 1
x x x 2
y
3 3
x x x
x x
3
x
3 3
x x
x x
x ......... x .........
5 5
3
x x 3
4x
y . Solving it we get, y neglecting – sign as y > 0 .
x
1 5
5
10 5
2
y x y
3
2 x x 4x3
3
3
x 3
5
4x 3 2 2
Taking limits, lim y lim lim 1
x x 5 10 5 x 4 11
2 x 3 x 3 4x 3 1 1
5
x 3
69) For a > 0, find lim
x
a 2 x 2 ax 1 a 2 x 2 1 1
Ans. . Hint : rationalize
2
r
70) Find lim r 1
n
.
n 1 r r4
2
1 1 r r 1 r r
2 2
r r 1 2r
Ans. Let tr . Then tr
1 r2 r4 1 r 2 r 4 2 1 r 2 2 r 2 2 1 r 2 r 1 r 2 r
1 1 1
2 1 r r 1 1 r r 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1
Now, t1 1 , t2 ,
2 1 11 1 1 11 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 7
1 1 1 11 1
t3 ,
2 1 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 2 7 13
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
t4 ,……………., tn .
2 1 4 4 1 1 4 4 1 2 13 21 2 1 n n 1 1 n n 1
r 1 1 1
Adding up and taking limit, lim r 1
n
lim 1
n 2
1 r r 1 n n 1 2
n 2 4
x n 1 n 1 x n n n 1
71) Show that lim , if n is a positive integer > 1.
x 1
x 1 2
2
x n 1 n 1 x n x n 1 x nx n x x n 1 n x 1 x x 2 x 3 ... x n n
Hint : lim lim lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1 2 x 1 2 x 1 2 x 1
x 1 x2 1 xn 1 n n 1
lim ... , putting n 1 1 ..... 1 , n terms. 1 2 3 ....... n
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
2
1 1 1
72) Find lim 1 1 ...... 1 , given a1 1, an n 1 an1 for n 2 .
n
a1 a2 an
a 1 a 1 a 1
Hint : lim 1 2 ...... n , also from an n 1 an1 ,
n
a1 a2 an
an a 1 a 1 an 1 a a an 1
we have 1 an 1 . So, lim 1 2 ..... lim 2 3 .....
n n
a1 a2 an n 2a1 3a2 n 1 an
an 1 1 1 an 1 a 1 1 a
lim lim lim lim n lim lim lim n1
n n 1 n! n n! n n! n n! n n! n n 1! n n 1!
1 1 1 1 1 a
lim lim lim ...... 1 e , as a1 1
n n ! n n 1 ! n n 2 ! 2! 1! 1!
n
1 1 1
n 1 n 2 n 22 .... n 2n1 e
n2 2
73) Show that lim n
n
n 1
n
1 1 1
n n ... n
n 2 n 1
1 1 1 lim 2 2 2
lim n n n 1 n 2 n 22 ..... n 2n1
2
Hint : n
n
n
n
n n n
1 1 1
n n 22 n 2n 1
n 1
n
lim 2
.....
n
n n n n
2n 2n1 n
n n n n
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2n1
lim 1 1 .... 1 n 1 lim 1 1 ..... 1 n 1
n
n 2n 2 n n
n 2n 2 n
1 1 1 1
1 .....up to terms .
ee 2 e 4 ................up to terms e 2 4
e2
2 x 1
x 2 2 x 1 2 x 2 1
74) Show that lim 2
x 2 x 3 x 2
2
x2 2 x 1 1 2x 1
Hint : lim 2 and lim 1
x 2 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 2
2
ln 1 x
75) Show that lim 1 remember
x 0 x
x2 x3
Hint: ln 1 x x ...........
2 3
log 1 x
76) Show that lim log e , i.e. log e remember
x0 x
Hint : log 1 x ln 1 x log e
ln 1 x a
77) Show that lim 1
xa xa
ln 2 x ln 2 x
78) Show that lim 1
x 0 x
x x x x
ln 2 1 ln 2 1 ln 2 ln 1 ln 2 ln 1
ln 2 x ln 2 x 2 2 lim 2 2
Hint : lim lim
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x
x x
ln 1 ln 1
lim
1 2 lim 1 2 1 1 1 , using the result lim ln 1 x 1
x 0 2 x x 0 2 x 2 2 x 0 x .
2 2
ln 1 2 x 2 ln 1 x
79) Show that lim 1 .
x 0 x2
2x 2x
2 3
2x ..... x 2 x3
x .....
ln 1 2 x 2ln 1 x 2 3 2 lim
lim
2 3
Ans. lim 2 2 2
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 x
x 2 2 x 3 ....
lim 1
x 0 x2
axe x b ln 1 x 9 xe x
lim 2
80) If x 0 x 2 sin x , find a and b. Ans. A = 3, b = 12
x 2 x3 x 2 x3 x 4 x3 x5
ex 1 x ..... ln 1 x x .... sin x x ..................
Hint :Use 2! 3! , 2 3 4 , 3! 5!
x cos x ln 1 x 1
lim
x 0 x2 2
81) Find . Ans.
e x cos x e x
lim
82) Find x0 x sin x . Ans. 0.
c
lim e x sin
83) Find x e x . Ans. C.
Ans. -3.
x sin a a sin x
86) Find lim . Ans. sin a a cos a .
xa xa
2
x 5
x
x 5 2
x x
lim x
88) Find lim .Ans. lim lim 1 e x x3 e2
x x 3
x x 3
x x 3
1 1 1 2 x2 1
1 7 x 2 x2 1 7 x 2 x2 2 x 2 x2 lim
x0 15 x 2 x 2
2
89) Find lim . Ans. lim lim 1 e
e e2
1 0
x 0 1 5 x 2 x 0 1 5 x
1 5x
2 2
x 0
xa a x 1 ln a
lim
90) Find x a x a . Ans. 1 ln a
x a
ax bx ln a ln b
91) Find lim . Ans.
x c x d x ln c ln d
92) If lim xa sinb x sin c x 0 and a, b and c are non zero, Show that a b c 0
x0
sin b x sin c x
Hint : lim xa sinb x sin c x lim xa bc lim b
lim c
lim x a bc .1.1 exists and nonzero only if
x 0 x 0 x 0 x x 0 x x 0
a bc 0 .
ae x b
94) If lim c , then show that a b c .
x 0 x
x 2 x3 x2
a 1 x .... b a
ae b a b
c ,then lim
x
2! 3! x
Ans. If lim c lim lim a lim 2! ... c
x 0 x x 0 x x 0
x x 0 x x 0 x
a b x a b
lim a lim a ...all 0 terms c lim a 0 ...all 0 terms c
x 0
x x 0 2! x 0
x
a b
If lim has to be finite, then a b 0 . Now, substituting this in the above, a c .
x 0
x
x P 1 P 1 x P
95) Find lim if P is a positive integer.
x 1
x 1 2
x P 1 Px x P x x P 1 P x 1 x 1 x x 2 .... x P 1 P
Ans.: lim lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1 2 x 1 2 x 1
lim
x x 2
.... x P
lim
1 1 .....P times lim x 1 x2 1 .... x p 1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1 x2 1 xP 1
lim
x 1 x 1
x 1
.....
x 1 x1
lim 1 x 1 x 2 x 1 ....... x P 1 x P 2 ... 1
P P 1
1 2 3 ..... P
2
1
1 b n 1
n n lim
b 1 n b 1 b 1
n
n n a 1 1 1 1
lim n ln b
lim 1 e ea eln b b a
a
lim 1 e n a n
n
a . Ans. n a
96) Find
2
tan x
x1
1
1 1 lim 1
lim tan 2 x
2 x0 x
lim 1 tan 2
lim 1 tan 2
e x0 e e2
2x 2x 2
x x
97) Find x0 x 0
. Ans.
x x x x sin x
lim cos cos 2 cos 3 .......cos n
98) Show that n 2 2 2 2 x .
x Hint : lim
sin 2n n n
x3 x 4
e x
cos 2 x cos x e x cos x 2 2 is a non-zero real number, find the integer n.
the lim lim
x 0 xn x 0 xn
cos xs 1 cos x e x
x3 x 4 x3 x 4
cos 2 x cos x e x cos x e x
Ans. lim 2 2 lim 2 2
x 0 xn x 0 x n
x2 x4 x6 x3 x 4 x3 x4 x5 x3 x4
... ......
x3 2 x5
lim
2! 4! 6! 2 2 lim 2 2 12 2 2
x x 2
.....
x 0
lim n n
x 0 xn 3! 5! x x 0 x
x5
......Higher powers of x
lim 12 . So this is non-zero and finite if x = 5
x 0 xn
1 cos ax 2 bx c
99) Find lim if is a root of ax 2 bx c 0 .
x
x 2
ax 2 bx c
1 cos ax bx c 2 2sin 2
2
Ans. If the other root is , then lim lim
x x
x 2 x 2
a x x
2sin 2 a2 x x
2 2
lim 2 2 lim
a x x x 4 x
x 2 2 2
2b c
2
2.lim
a2 x
a 2
2 2
a 2 4 a
2 4
a a
2
b 2 4ac
x 4 2 2 2 2
a
1x 2 x 3x .......... n x x
100) lim
Find x0 n
a
1 2 3 .......... n n a 1x 1 2 x 1 n x 1 a
1x 2 x 3x .... n x n x
x x x x
lim lim ...... lim .
lim . x0 x n
Ans. lim 1 e x0 n x
e x0 x x0 x
x 0
n
a
ln1ln 2.....ln n . a
eln n! n n! n
a
e n
x e, for n 1
1
101) Show that lim 1 n 1 for n 1 remember
x
x
for n 1
x
1 1 lim x
It is proved already lim 1 n 1 , for n = 1, so lim 1 n 1x 1 . Also it is trivial to prove
x
x x
x
1
lim 1 n for n < 1.
x
x
1
xn lim
1
x x n1
n
x x
1 1 x n1
Now, lim 1 n lim 1 n lim 1 n .
x
x x
x x x
xn
1
0 for n > 1 and lim 1 e.
1
Now lim
x n1 n
x x
x
1 m 1m 2m m 2m 3m ......
102) Find lim lim
m n n2
m m
1 2
1 2 1 3m 1 ......
m
1 m 1m 2m m 2m 3m ...... 2 3
Ans. lim lim lim lim 2
m n n2 m n n
1 2 3 ...... n n n 1 1
lim lim
n n 2 n 2n 2 2
ax p bx p 2 c a
lim p pq pq
x dx ex q 2 f
Ex105: Find . Ans. if ,0 if and d if p = q remember
1
f x x
f x lim 1 x e
3
x 0
Ex106: Find the polynomial if x .
1 1 x2 f x 1
f x x x2 f x x lim
x0
x x2 f x 1
Ans. lim 1 x e3 lim
x
e 3
lim 1 e e
3
x 0 x 0 x 0
x x x x
x2 f x 1
f x a0 x a1x
n n 1
...... an lim 3
If , then x 0 x x
x 2 a0 x n a1 x n1 .... an
lim 2
a a
x 0 x
3 lim n2 n 1 an 2 1 x a0 x n3 a1 x n4 ....an2 3
x0
x x
1 cos x
Ex107: If a min x 2 2 x 3 and b lim
n
x 0 x2
, find a b
r 1
r nr
.
x
2sin 2
2
Hint : a min x 2 x 3 min x 1 2 2 , b lim
2
x 0
1 cos x
x2
lim
x 0 x2
2 1
. Ans.
2
4n 1 1
3.2 n
4.
4
Ex108: If a square is inscribed in a circle of radius R, a circle is inscribed inside the square, again a square is
inscribed in the circle and the process is repeated for ever, find the sum of all the squares.
Hint. If a1 is the side of the 1st square, a1 2 2R a1 2R . If a2 is the side of 2nd square, a2 2a1 . Thus
a2 a2
lim a12 a2 2 a32 ....... lim a12 1 1 ....... 2a12 4 R 2
n n
2 4
Exercise 109:
An isosceles triangle ABC is inscribed in the circle ABC with AB = BC . Another isosceles triangle ABD is drawn
inscribed in the same circle whose base is AC, one of the equal sides of triangle ABC. If inscribing isosceles
triangles is continued indefinitely in this fashion, show that ultimately the triangle shall be equilateral in the
limiting case.
Ans. Taking the base angle ( angle B) for the first triangle ABC to be Ө, observe that at the same time, Ө =
angle ADC. The base angle of the second triangle ADC , i.e., the angle DAC = angle
1800
DCA = 900 . Similarly the base angle of the third triangle shall be
2 2
900
2 900 90 900 90 . This is just putting 900 in place of Ө mechanically. The base
0 0
90
0
2 2 4 2 4 2
900
limit n , we get 600 . If both the base angles of the triangle in the limiting
1
1
2
Exercise110
Show that the triangle of largest area inscribed in any circle is equilateral.
Ans. ABC is a triangle inscribed in a circle ABC. If CD is a diameter, B ADC and DAC 900 . Then
AC b
sin B sin ADC where CD 2R , R being radius.
CD 2 R
b c a a b c
Thus 2 R . Similarly 2 R and 2 R . So the relation 2R ,
sin B sin C sin A sin A sin B sin C
The area of the triangle is given by ( drop the symbols for angles for sake of brevity)
1 1
bc sin A 2 R sin B 2 R sin C sin A R2 2sin B sin C sin A R 2 cos B C cos B C sin A
2 2
B = C. For another value of A also the condition B = C would give a triangle of maximum possible area in the
circle. So, when all the angles vary, the condition would force
EQUATIONS
continuity and discontinuity concepts are. But the concepts are to be formalised for mathematical use.
In Mathematics the concepts of continuity and discontinuity are abundantly used. Let us start with
discontinuity. In the accompanying graph, you may observe that you cannot draw the graph with a
pencil in a single go, i.e., without lifting its head out of the paper even for once. That is exactly
continuity of the graph. Now it remains to translate this idea into language of Mathematics. When x
tends to 1 from below, y tends to 1,when x Consider the same graph of the previous section
repeated here and the same equation y = x, for x [0,1[, y = 2 – x, for x ]1,2] and y = 2 for
x=1.When x tends to 1 from above, also y tends to 1. But when x is exactly equal to 1, y = 2 ,as if
leaving a ’ hole’ in the graph at x = 1. This indicates two things, 1) the graph would have
been continuous if this ‘hole’ would not have been there and 2) we could make the graph
continuous by ‘plugging’ this hole by defining y = 1 instead of 2 , at x = 1.In other words, the
The statement Lim f(x) = f(a) can be restated as : for every such that
xa
f(x) – f(a) < ,we can find a such that x – a < (If definition of limit is applied by taking
These are the two statements describing the concept of continuity in mathematical language; the first
one describes continuity in terms of the concept of limit . Though this is sufficient for the purpose of
describing continuity, the second sentence above describes the concept of continuity in a manner
similar to the description of the concept of limit. This gives real insight into the understanding of
the concept, while description of continuity in terms of limit is like a formula in mathematics with which
A function which is continuous at any point of an interval is called continuous in the interval.
Example1
sin x
Show that e x is continuous in R, tan x is continuous at 0, 2 .
cos x
Example2 The function [x], the largest integer not larger than x at x = 3 , or at any integral
b) when the limit exists but not equal to the functional value ,
x, for 0 x 1
f x 2, at x 1 ; Here, lim f x 1 lim f x , but f 1 2
x 1 x 1
2 x for 1 x 2
x2 4
Example4 In the function f x lim f x 4 lim f x , but f 2 is not defined.
x 2 x2 x 2
Example5 f x tan x at x . Here tan x and tan x
2
e) When there is a wide gap in the graph ( Horizontal, vertical or both. See the figure:
1
f) When there are too much oscillations at a point, e.g., the graph of the function y sin at x
x
1 1
functional value there. Another example may be taken y x sin . Like the graph of y sin , the
x x
1
graph of y x sin also goes through myriads of oscillations as x 0 from both sides, but the
x
oscillations become smaller ever in vertical width as we approach 0. See the graph below. So we
have a limiting value 0 of the function at x = 0. Still the function is discontinuous there as there is no
The topic of removable and non- removable discontinuity shall be dealt in detail subsequently.
The algebra of limits can be applied to continuous functions without any concern. Thus if f(x)
and g(x) are continuous functions , so also f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x), k. f(x) where k is a
Example6
sin x
Show that f x sin x cos x , g x 2sin x , x are continuous in 0, 2
cos x
A pitfall: Example7
f x
Give an example of a function which is discontinuous at x = a but both f x and g x both are
g x
algebra of limits, because Algebra of limits excludes the cases where denominator
becomes 0.
Exercise1
1, for x0
Ans. Try f x and g x 0
0 for x0
f x g x f x . g x
Algebra of limits says if and are continuous at a point so also but is it never
f x . g x f x g x
says that cannot be continuous if one of and or both of them are discontinuous.
Exercise2
f x 1
x
g x
What is the difference between and x
Hint. The second function is discontinuous at x = 0, as it has limit 1 there but no value, not
defined there.
function)
If f is a function of x (e.g. f(x) = x2 ) and g is a function of f ( e.g., g(f) = sin f, ) the
consider whether limit of g(f(x)) = g(L) . This at once requires L must be f(a), i.e., f must be
For every ε > 0 such that g f x g f a , we can find a δ such that f x f a , for g is
a continuous function of f. Further for every δ > 0, such that f x f a , we can find a ζ > 0
such that x a , for , f x is continuous at x = a. This gives, For every ε > 0 such that
continuous at x = a.
Example8
It won’t be difficult to see that the theorem could easily proved for g = f 2
( Lim f(x) . Lim f(x) = Lim ( f(x) ) 2 as per a result of Algebra of limits) . This
xa xa xa
A pitfall: Example9
Consider the function z tan y .Evidently it is continuous at y = 0. Now let y sin x . This is also
2
continuous at x = 0. But z tan sin x is discontinuous at 0 as it tends to ∞ there. Does it
2
contradict the above theorem ? . No. because the argument of z is there, not 0 as required by the
2
Exercise3
1
The function f x has obviously a discontinuity at x = 1. show that f f x has no
1 x
discontinuity
x 1
Hint. f f x and f f f x x
x (verify)
Concept of continuity is used to study of functions , particularly at points where they are
expected to change suddenly. We are thus able to know whether near such points we could
smoothly extrapolate the curve . Actually ‘rates of change’ of a curve from point to point is
the tool required to extrapolate a curve, as you might have correctly guessed. But in order to
have ‘rate of change’ to exist, or to have any meaning, continuity is the minimum requirement
( x 2 a 2 ) ( x 2 b2 ) ( x 2 c 2 )
Try or
x a xb x c
( x 2 a 2 ) ( x 2 b2 ) ( x 2 c 2 )
. (Functional values at a, b, c do not exist).
x a xb x c
Exercise4
Put the denominator equal to 0 and solve for finding the points of discontinuity.
1 2
c) cos 1 d) no discontinuity as the denominator has no real root. e) sin 1
2
Let f(x) = 1 for all rational values of x in [2,5] and Let f(x) = 0 for all
irrational values of x in [2,5] . Try taking limit of the function anywhere in the interval, say
at x = 3.2. The limit does not exist because in any small interval we may please to take
around x = 3.2, the function oscillates infinite times between 0 and 1. Because between
any two irrational numbers, there exists a rational number and between any two rational
numbers there exist an irrational number. So the function has no limit at any point of its
domain. The question of continuity does not arise. (This is called Dirichlet function.)
Exercise5
Hint :. f x h f x f x h f x
Exercise6
Find out the number of points of discontinuity of sin x cos x in the interval 0 x 2 , if a denotes
1
x sin. x , when..x 0,
Example 12: Examine continuity at x= 0, of f ( x)
and ..0..when..x 0
1 1 1 1 1
We have , sin 1 x sin x x sin x 0 lim x sin lim x 0 lim x sin 0
x x x x 0 x x 0 x 0 x
Exercise7
sin cos x
, when x
2
x
Test for continuity of f x 2 at x . Ans. Continuous
2
1 when x
2
sin cos x
, when x
2
x
Test for continuity of f x 2 at x . Ans. Discontinuous
2
1 when x
2
sin x
Example 13 : Investigate f (x) for continuity. Its limit is 1 as x 0 and it is not
x
sin x
Further note that for f (x) x = 0 is a point of ‘Removable Discontinuity’.
x
sin x
, for , x 0
For, if we define f(x) such that f ( x) x the function becomes continuous at x
1, for , x 0
= 0.
Lim sin ax
Example 14 : Find x0 what should be value of the function if the function is made
x
continuous there?
Lim sin ax
f 0 a
sin ax
We have x 0 a xLim
0 a.1 a
x x then would make it continuous
sin x sin a
Example15:Find xLim
a . How can you make it continuous?
x a
f 0 cos a
the function could be made continuous.
Exercise9
If
f x
1
1 x , find
f f f x
and discuss its continuity.
1 1 1 x
f f f x f f f
1 x 1 f
1
1 x x
x 1
Hint. 1
1 x x
kind.
In a previous example, we have seen what is a removable discontinuity. It is a point at which the
functional value is different from the limit at that point or not defined, leaving a point
1 1
x, for 0 x , 1 for x ,
2 2
Take another example f x 1 x for 1 x 1, x 1 for 1 x 3
2 2
3 x 3
2 for x 2 , and x 1 4 for x 2
Find the 3 points of removable discontinuities yourself as an exercise and remove the three
But, instead of point hole, if there is wide vertical gap ( or horizontal gap or a gap in both directions)
in these functions . Examine from its graph and find where it is.
x2 for x2
x, for x 2
a) f x b) f x 3 for x2
x 1 for x2 1 for x2
Such a function with finite number of discontinuities is called piecewise continuous functions.
Such piecewise continuous functions have some useful and interesting properties. For example, if the
domain of the function can be partitioned into a finite number of open or half closed intervals, and if
it is continuous inside each of th intervals then we can find the area under the curve or graph of
the function bounded by the two ordinates at the extremities and the x – axis. This is Riemann
integration of the function ; the area is unaffected if a finite number of ordinates are removed. But if
1, for x2
f x , the function is not defined in the interval [2, 3] and this is evidently not a
3 for x3
piecewise continuous function. The area under the curve bounded by two
ordinates at the extremities has no meaning.
Example16
To look into the phenomenon of continuity a little closer, let us examine the Dirichlet function
x
1, if x is rational
0, if x is ir rational
which is everywhere discontinuous for non-existence of limit.
As in case of limits, remember the Heine’s definition the lim f x L should be unique
x a
lim f x f a through every sequence xn converging to ‘a’. Similar statement for limit → ∞.
x a
Example17
x 2 , if x is rational
Show that f x 2 is nowhere continuous.
x , if x is irrational
At any point x = a, rational or irrational, we can find a sequence of rational numbers xn converging to
a, so that lim f x a 2 ; we can also find a sequence of irrational numbers xn converging to a, so that
x a
lim f x a2 ; since there are two different along two different paths, the limit does not exist and
x a
Can you give an example of a function continuous everywhere except at x = 2, x = 3.75? The
Ans. Try f x 1,
0,
for x 2
for x 3.75
a) f x x x at x 2 (jump discontinuity)
1
b) x sin at x0 (oscillating discontinuity)
x
1
c) x at x3 (infinite discontinuity)
x 3
x2 9
d) x at x 3 (removable discontinuity)
x3
Misc. exercise10
b) If not, can you make these functions continuous by suitably defining functional values at the
1 x2 cos x
4) f x 3x 5) f x 6) f x
x2 cos x x
x x2
7) f x 8) f x 9) y cos ec 2 x
cos x x 7 x 12
2
x x2 1
10) f x tan 11) f x 12) f x 5 2 x
2 1 sin 2 x
x 1
2
1 1
13) z , when y 14) y
y y2
2
x 1 x 1
1 tan 2 x 1 tan x
15) y
1 tan 2 x 16)
1
at x =0 17) x at x = 0
1 2 x
4 x 2 3x 1 x 1 sin 2 x
18) 5 x at x = 0 19) x when x = 0 20) 1 cos x
Answers 1), 2), 3),6), 9),17), 18), 19) continuous except at 0 4) continuous except at 2
3
,
5), 7), 20) continuous except at 2 2 8) continuous except at 3, 4.
10) continuous except at 1, 3. 11), 15), 16) everywhere continuous, 13) discontinuous at
1
x ,1
2 14) continuous except at – 1 .
Exercise11
Whether the functions are continuous. If not, what is the type of discontinuity ?
[sin x] [tan x] x 1 x 2
a) b) c)
Exercise12
2, at x0
A function is defined like f x x 2 for x 2 . Find out whether the function is continuous at x =
x2 1 for x 2
Henceforth try to understand the statements making mental picture of the same. The proofs
may be omitted at first time reading and the results may be remembered to work out
problems. Thereafter the proofs shall boost confidence gathered by and by in course of
continuity.
2 x 2 , for x0
When t 0 , x 2t t 3t , and y t t 0 . Thus f x
2 2
.
0, for x0
continuous for 1 x 2 .
x 1, x 0,
Ex15: Show that the function f x 1, x 0, is discontinuous at x 0 and the discontinuity could
x 1, x 0
2
be removed by defining f 0 1 .
When at least one of the limits lim f a h and lim f a h is infinite ( or both are) the discontinuity is
h0 h0
§3.4:A little more about real number sets and sequences., limit points
The concepts of limit and continuity of functions are intimately related to sequences. So we must
spend some time investigating sequences which would , of course give further help in understanding
integers or the set of natural numbers. Tn or n-th term of the sequence is actually T n , the
functional value of T , when x = n, the argument of the function. A sequence Tn , n 1, 2,3, 4,...............
converges to a limit L, if , for every ε > 0, there exists a natural number M, such that T n L ,
for all N > M. Such sequences are said to be convergent sequences . A sequence which is not
n
divergent. whereas T n sin is oscillatory.
3
A number ξ is a limit point of a sequence T n if any neighbourhood of ξ , i.e., the open interval ]ξ –
δ , ξ + δ[ contains infinite number of members of T n , for any δ > 0. It is easy to understand that if
only one limit point exists for a sequence, it is convergent to the limit point as the limit; if more than
one limit points exist, the sequence oscillates between them and it is oscillatory, if no limit point
exists, it is divergent.
Exercise17
a) If ξ is a limit point of a real number set A, show that there is a sequence in A converging to ξ and
vice versa.
A sequence is bounded if there are real numbers A and B such that A f n B for all n. Next, any
infinite bounded sequence has a limit point- this is called the Bolzano-Weisstras theorem.
Consider the range of the integral function f n . If the range contains infinite number of points, there
would be at least one point f m , around which infinite number of points in the range will remain
in the neighbourhood ]ξ – δ , ξ + δ[ ,otherwise the range would not be bounded if only finite number
of points remain around neighbourhoods of all points in the range, as there are infinite number of
points in the range. According to the definition of limit point, this point ξ in the range is a limit point.
There is a theorem on upper bounds and lower bounds ; the set of upper bounds of a set of
real numbers has a smallest number, and the set of lower bounds of a set of real numbers has
a largest number. Let D be a set bounded above and consider two subsets L and U of the set of real
completeness property of R , either L would have the greatest member of L or U would have the
either x y or x y or x y ; the two statements may be verified to be same ). Let L have the
greatest number of it. Then is not an upper bound of D. So there is a number b of D such that
< b . Let ‘a’ be a real number such that < a < b. the number ‘a’ is greater than the greatest number
of L so a U . Also ‘a’ cannot be an upper bound of D since it is smaller than a member b of D. Thus
L and not to U. If L has not its greatest number of it, then U must be having smallest number of it ,
because of order completeness property of R. Complex numbers have no order completeness
property.
The least of upper bounds of a set S bounded above is called supremum of S or sup S.
Further, a bounded sequence has greatest and least limit points. For, if S is a bounded set of
real numbers, then S [a, b] . If S’ is the set of limit points of S, then S ' S [a, b] . Let
G sup S ' and g inf S ' . It may be shown that both G and g belong to S’, i.e., they are
themselves limit points of S. Take ]p, q[ a neighbourhood of G ; then there is an ξ in S’ such that
p q , which says that ]p, q[ a neighbourhood of and as such it contains an infinite number of
members of S , as S ' means that is a limit point of S. Thus G S ' S .similarly g S . The
This is in view of Algebra of limits. ( prove them as exercises). Also if f x and g x are continuous
f x
functions in a domain and g x 0 then must be continuous in that domain. There are further
g x
important properties . These properties tell more about roots of functions, their location and even
help in estimating the roots approximately in some cases. These are not only true for
polynomials or n-th degree equations but transcendental functions which are represented by
converging infinite power series which cannot be expressed in ‘closed’ forms like
x 2 4ac
x4
1 x 2 etc. ,
5 x3
such as trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions etc. Closed forms
are not like sin x tan -1x etc, they are only names given to infinite converging series they stand for. In
contrast a converging infinite series like 1 x x 2 x3 ................upto for |x| < 1, can be expressed as
1
which is a closed form. Both polynomials ( finite power series) and functions in closed forms are
1 x
expression in x is one which is derived from x by a finite number of algebraic operations on it;
algebraic operations means addition, subtraction, multiplication, division , raising to power and
extracting roots. It may be noted in passing that transcendental functions may have algebraic
irrational numbers as roots, even rational numbers and even integers. For example, ln e x 0 has
Theory Of Equations. Some properties of functions would be revealed after the differentiation
chapter also so that something of theory of equations also may be explained thereafter. Regarding
solving polynomial equations, centuries elapsed for finding solution of quadratic, cubic and
biquadratic equations. Then Abel pointed out that equations of degree five or more cannot be solved
in general by standard algebraic methods ( in terms of roots and powers of coefficients) although an
n-th degree polynomial with rational coefficients has n roots. The fundamental theorem of Algebra
is that every equation of nth degree has at least one root, real or complex. Though known for
centuries earlier, this was first proved by a most gifted genius, Karl F Gauss in the last century once
when has 22, then at 44 and then at 82, with further improvement each time. The attempts to prove
the fundamental theorem of algebra has created many branches of Mathematics, modern algebra,
analysis, topology, spectral theory, functional analysis and differential equations, etc. A polynomial
equation however can be solved by numerical methods to any desired degree of approximation ( also
on computer).
To cheer you up, you can at least prove that a polynomial of odd degree with all of its coefficients
positive has a real root. See one exercise after monotonic functions given below.
Exercise18
continuous.
Hint. Prove that x n is continuous everywhere by showing lim xn an . Use binomial theorem in
x a
n
h
expanding x h x 1 for including all real values of x.
n n
x
bounded.
Suppose the range is not bounded . So we can have a sequence xn in [a, b] and a
natural number M such that f xn n for all n > M. Let be a limit point of this sequence
xn as the sequence is bounded. Since the function is continuous at , there is a δ > 0 such
sequence xn. This is quite impossible since n→∞. Thus the f x must be bounded and
A pitfall: example 20
1
A function f x is continuous in the interval ]0, 1] . Is it bounded ? Cite the reason for the same. (
x
the domain is not a closed interval!). Does it contradict the above theorem?
By the above theorem, the sup f = M and inf f = m , say both belong to the range of f as the
1
attains the value M so M f x 0 . Thus from algebra of limits we have is a
M f x
continuous function in the same interval and hence bounded by the previous theorem.
1
Since M is the supremum, there is a number in [a, b] such that f M for any
k
1 1
given number k. it follows that k for any given number k and hence is
M f M f x
not bounded. This is a contradiction , so f x must attain its sup M. Similar argument for
m.
A pitfall: Example 21
[-1, 1] even if it is discontinuous at a point in the interval. There is no point in thinking discontinuous
Exercise19
Show that the function f x x [ x] does not attain any maximum value even if it is bounded.
Hint. It is not continuous. (graph the function to see that it is a ‘saw tooth wave’).
Exercise20
2 x for x [1,0]
Take a function f x 1 .Find its point of discontinuity.
x 2 for x ]0,1]
Show that the function has both maximum and minimum in the interval, even if it is not continuous.
Exercise21
2 x 1, for 1 x 0
x
2 , for x 0
Show that the function f x x
2 1, for 0 x 1 in the interval [–1, 1] is bounded but never
discontinuity at x = 0.
there is a δ such that f x and f have the same sign for all x such that
x
.
Since f x is continuous at ξ, for any given ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that
f f x f
Then take f negative and f .This makes f x negative in x ] , [ .
When these two statements are combined, we can say that f x and f for one δ such
that x ] , [ . This property is very important and has further applications in
a δ such that f x and f have the same sign for all x such that x .
The argument of the previous proposition may suitably modified to get this result.
Do this as an exercise.
IMPORTANT NOTE :
The two wonderful properties as above do not require the function to be continuous
x
throughout the interval except at the point .
f 0 f x 0 x
NOTE As a deduction, if then in the small interval .
signs, there is a point ξ in [a, b] at which f 0 . Also ξ = sup S, S being the set of
infinite and let that subset be S and let ξ = sup S. If possible let f 0 . Then a , for
f 0 is not possible.
But this itself is a contradiction as sup S . Thus f 0 is also not tenable. This forces
f 0 , which was to be proved. Deduce a similar proof for the case f a 0 and
f b 0 .
Exercise22
Exercise23
Does the negation of the above result assert that there is not root of f x in [a, b] ? give an example.
Ans. consider y x 2
So the statement is not true backwards; i.e., the condition is sufficient, but not necessary.
Exercise24 remember
Let a continuous function f x defined in [a, b] have a finite number of roots in it, say
x1 , x2 ,......xn in it arranged in increasing order i.e., x1 x2 ...... xn .show that in each of the
intervals ]x1, x2[,]x2, x3[,]x3, x4[,…..the function retains the same sign.
Ans. The occurrence of changing sign in any interval results in existence of another root there.
3 3
Hint : take a function f x sin x x 1 , then f 0 1, f . So there is a root in between.
2 2
Exercise27: Show that every odd function f x f x has at least one real root if it is
continuous.
Exercise 28: Show that any polynomial of odd degree has a real root. Hint : it direct follows from
above.
Exercise 29: Show that any polynomial of degree 3 (cubic equation) has a real root. Hint : it
Hint. f 0 f 0 f 0 f 0 0
, so 0 is a root.
x 2 1 for 1 x 0
Exercise31 : Show that the function f x is discontinuous at x = 0 and
x 1 0 x2
2
for
hence never assumes 0 value in the interval of definition [–1, 2] even if the function
the function takes every value between M and m . In fact, [M, m] is the
( do it as an exercise)
f x
H) A continuous rational function ( which takes only rational(
real number value. We can find an irrational number , A B , such that f c ,and
a c b .This is a contradiction since the function takes only rational values. To reconcile the
Exercise32: There is one real root of x3 3x 1 0 in [1, 2]. Divide the interval into smaller
subintervals and approach the root correct up to two places of decimal. Hint : apply the criteria of odd
Ans. 1.53
Exercise33: Design a function f x x a x b x so that f a a and f b b . Find at
2 2
ab
what point the function attains the value a) .b) ab
2
Exercise34:
Show that the function f x x [ x] attains minimum value in any interval of length greater than 1.
Exercise35: If f x is continuous in [0, 1] and | f x | < 1, Show that f x has a fixed point in
I) A fixed point mapping x x may be arrived in many ways from an implicit function
former is easier to solve in some cases. The variables in g x, y 0 may or may not be
fact many choices may be available, some may be better than others in finding the solution
and even some may not lead into a solution. Details are dealt in a separate section after
theorem guarantees existence of a root in an interval at the ends of which the function has opposite
signs. The last theorem is used in proof of Rolle’s mean value theorem which is the basis of a
number of mean value theorems leading to Taylor’s theorem, which is reconstruction of smooth
Exercise36: If a spring is stretched, each point of the spring in the old position is carried though a
mapping to a point in the new position. Show that there is a point on the new position of the spring
which is the image of the same point in the old position. ( fixed point mapping)
Exercise38: Show that the equation x5 18 x 2 0 has a real root. Does it belong to [–1, 1].
x f x f 1 x are {0, - 1 }
Plot the points x = 1, x =2, x = 3 on the number line, where the function takes 0 values. If x <1, all
three factors x 1 , x 2 , x 3 are negative, so the value of the function is negative. For 1 < x < 2,
the factor x – 1 is positive, but both of x – 2 and x – 3 are negative so that product of the three factors
f x is positive. If the values of x are between 2 and 3, x – 1 and x – 2 are positive but x – 3 is
negative, so that f x is negative. For values of x beyond 3, All the three factors are positive and so
the value of the function is positive. This is a consequence of intermediate value theorem. The
rational function is continuous and it takes positive values for x > 1 and negative values for x < 1,( in
whatever small interval you take around x = 1 ), it is bound to have 0 value at x = 1 . Of course,
before applying the rule, we must see that all the coefficients of x be of the same sign.
This does not mean that a continuous function which does not change sign around a point should not
does not exist, these points of discontinuity must be excluded from consideration and the analysis
should be separately done for each continuous piece. Look at the graph . This has a discontinuity at x
= 3.
and monotonically decreasing in the interval [0, - ∞[ as x2 x1 0 x2 2 x12 . There are abundant
examples of monotonic functions . They occupy a special place in analysis since they always have
inverse functions. As two different arguments x1 and x2 do not lead to same value of the function (
either y1 y2 or y1 y2 ) so that the function y f x admits of an inverse function x f 1 y as
f 1 y does not have two values for same value of y. This is precisely requirement of or necessary
criteria of a function. Constant functions are trivially monotonic functions also and therefore we
sometimes make a distinction between them by calling them strictly monotonic. Monotonic
functions are continuous in the interval of their definition and so also their inverse functions – a fact
from Real Analysis we can freely use. The proofs are not difficult and rely on the fact that monotonic
functions are bounded and have a maximum and minimum in the domain of definition.
Exercise43: If all the coefficients in the function y a0 x 2 n1 a1 x 2 n ................... an x an1 are positive.
Show that it has a unique solution for x for every given value of y.
This is a small step towards visualising the fundamental theorem of Algebra – every polynomial has a
root. it is by and large a consequence of continuity of polynomials although generally we read theory
of equations in Algebra. The beauty of properties of continuous functions is that existence of roots of
not only polynomials but transcendental functions are also found out, albeit under certain conditions.
Another small step in the direction is - a polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has at least
one real root; see a problem given below in theory of equations. Another small step in this direction is
- Every polynomial of even degree p2n x a0 x2n a1x2n1 ........... a2n 0 whose absolute term is
negative , has at least two real roots following the above problem.
an
Exercise44: A sequence is monotonic and bn 0 . Show that the sequence
bn
a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an x x
is monotonic.
b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ........... bn x n
an
ai xi ai an 1
Hint. Let bn be increasing , then i
bn 1 a1 a2 x a3 x 2 .... an x n
bi x bi bn 1
b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn 1 x n 1
Exercise 45: Prove that a linear function f x ax b must be monotonic, either increasing or
decreasing.
Hint : A st line is increasing for +ve slope and decreasing for – ve slope.
would show that it must be a constant multiple of x, i.e., there is some α, such that f x x .
First, it may be seen easily that the operator carries additive identity and inverse to those elements in
Now, if x is a positive integer n, then the result follows for positive integral values of x , as ,
It also follows for negative integral values of x also, as, if x is a negative integer, put y = – x , so that
f x f y f y y x .
p p p p p p
If x , a rational number, then f p f q f ...q times f f ...q times
q q q q q q
p
af
q
p p
Or f q qf . Thus the result is true for rational values of x also. Lastly, if x is a real number,
q q
The importance of the result is quite wide as far as spaces with concept of open sets in topological
spaces, not only real numbers. The result is repeatedly applied below to find other similar results
There it means that the continuous mappings are structure preserving and carry identity and
inverse elements to the identity and inverse elements of the target space respectively.
Exercise47 remember
continuous everywhere.
Exercise48 remember
If a function f z is such that f x y f x f y is continuous at z = a, show that it is continuous
everywhere.
Exercise49 remember
2 f tan x 2 f sin x ln 2
lim .
x 0 x 2 f sin x 2
Exercise52: remember
loga f x kx f x a kx
Exercise53: remember
If f xy f x f y f x n nf x
, then we can prove in the lines of a problem above for positive
a f x x xn
n
f xn nf x f x f xn
a a a a
So . But this is possible when and .
f xy f x f y
.
Exercise54: remember
Exercise55: remember
number a.
f xy f x f y f x n f x
n
f xn f x f xn f x f xn xn
log a log a x n 1
Subtracting,. xn x x n
x f x x
f x n f x n 1 f x f x n 1 x x n 1 f x f x n 1 x n 1 f x z x z
Thus
f x y z f x f y f z
Ex56: If , is a continuous , derivable real valued function on R, and if
f 2 4, f ' 0 3 f ' 2
and , then find .
1
f x lim n x n 1 f xy f x f y
Ex57: Given n
for x >0, Show that for y >0.
1 1
Exercise58: f x f f x f f x
If x x and is a cubic expression only, then show that
f x 1 x3
1 a b c
f x ax3 bx2 cx d f 3 2 d 3 a bx cx 2 dx3
1
Hint : Let . Then x x x x x .
3
a bx cx 2 dx 3 ax3 bx 2 cx d 3 a bx cx 2 dx3
1 1
ax3 bx 2 cx d
x x
x3 , x5 , x4 , x3 ....
Expanding and comparing the coefficients of etc. From both sides, d=1, c=0, b=0, a =
1 f x 1 x3
. So, .
Exercise59: remember
1 1
f x f f x f f x f x 1 xn
If x x and is of n-th degree polynomial, then show that
Exercise60: remember
1 1
f x x2 2
If x x find the function.
2
1 1 1
f x x2 2 x 2 f x x2 2
Hint : we have x x x
Exercise61 remember
real number k.
f x y f x 0 f 0 y f 0 k , say f y k
We have for any x, y. Putting x = 0, or, for any y.
1
Exercise62: Show that x has a root in [0, 1].
2x
Exercise63
Exercise64
a) Show that sum and product of two discontinuous functions may be continuous.
b) Show that sum and product of two functions one of which is discontinuous may be
continuous.
Exercise65
c) x 2sin x 0 d) xx 2 e) x 1 x 4
Exercise66
1 1
Discuss continuity of composite function f x .where y
y y 2
2
x 1
1 1
Ans. The function f x y 2 y 2 y 1 y 2 is discontinuous at y 1, y 2 .
1 1 1
When y 1 i.e., 1 x 2 . When y 2 , i.e., 2 2 x 2 1 x .
x 1 x 1 2
Also y is not defined when x = 1. So it is not true that a composite function cannot have more
Exercise67: Show that the Keppler’s function f x x sin x , where is a constant satisfying
Exercise68 : Can you give an example of a function which is discontinuous at rational values except
1 p
q , for x q , ratiuonal , q 0, p 0
f x for discontinuity.
0, for x 0 or for x irrational
p p 1 p
At x 0 , any rational number, f . In any interval around x 0 however small, there
q q q q
1
we have only a finite number of integers qn such that qn . Then arranging the qn ' s in ascending
order, and taking the greatest of them q , for any irrational number x, such that
1
f x f c 0 for the interval xc . Also , for any rational number in this interval,
q
p 1 1
f f c 0 . Hence the function is continuous at any irrational point.
q q q
Since f x 0 for x = 0, the same argument follows for x = 0 and the function is continuous for x
= 0.
1 tan 2 x
Exercise69 : Discuss continuity of composite function f x .
2 tan 2 x
1 y2
Ans. The function g y is continuous everywhere, but y tan 2 x is discontinuous at x n
2 y 2
2
.
1
1
1 y2 y2
Now, lim f x lim lim 1 .
y 2 2 y
2 y 2
x n
2 1
y2
1 tan 2 x
2 tan 2 x , for x n
Hence the function is continuous if defined like f x
2
1
for x n
2
1 x, 0 x2
Given that g x f f x , where
for
f x , find the point of
3 x, for 2 x3
Exercise70.:
discontinuity of g x if any.
1 x, for 0 x2
We have, f x
3 x, for 2 x3
1 f x , for 0 f x 2
It is wrong to just substitute and say g x f f x .
3 f x , for 2 f x 3
f 1 x , 0 x2
is the correct expression for g x f f x .
for
Rather, g x f f x
f 3 x , for 2 x3
f 1 x , for 0 x 1
Now, subdividing the interval [0, 2] further, g x f f x f 1 x , for 1 x 2 .
f 3 x , for 2 x3
when 0 3 x 1, then f 1 x 1 3 x 4 x .
2 x, for 0 x 1
From the last three results g x 2 x, for 1 x 2 .
4 x, 2 x3
for
1 1
x 1 2 x x
Exercise71: Show that the function f x when x 0 takes every value in the interval
0 when x 0
[ f 2 , f 2] although it is discontinuous at some point in the domain of its definition[–2, 2]. Find out
x 1 ..... for 2 x 0
Hint. Rewrite the function as f x 0 for........... x 0
2
x 1 2 x for ....0 x 2
It increases from – 1 to 1 in the interval of definition [– 2 ,0], it increases from 0 to 3/2 in [0, 2]
Apply the intermediate value theorem to both intervals [–2 , –1] and [0, 2] .
x2 1
when x2 1 at x =1.
Exercise 72 : Discuss continuity of f x x2 1 ,
0 when x 1
1
x 2 1 , when 0 x 1
2
x2 1
when x 2 1 f x 0
Hint : f x x2 1 , for x2 1
0 when x 1 11
2 , when 0 x 2 2
x 1
1
x 2 1 , when 0 x 1
2
f x 0 for x2 1
0, when 0 x 2 2
1
Now lim f x 0 ; but lim f x lim f 1 h lim . Hence the function is discontinuous.
1 h 1
2
x1 x1 h 0 h 0
1
Exercise73: Show that the function has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 0.
x
1 1
Hint ( x 0, ; x 0, ; there).
x x
1
Exercise74: Test for show that the function has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 0. Hint (1/x
x
→∞ there).
1x
e 1 , for x0
Ex75: Show that the discontinuity of f x 1x at x = 0 is not removable.
e 1
0, for x0
x2 2 x 2 3 3
f x for x 3.
3x
3 x 2 3 x 2 1 3 .
Hint : lim f x lim
x 3 x 3
x2 2x 2 3 3
3x
lim
x 3 3x
Now f 3 2 1 3
1 p
, for x , ratiuonal , q 0, p 0
q 3
Exercise77: Test for discontinuity of f x
q
0, for x 0 or for x irrational
a x x 1
, for x 0,
x x
Exercise78 : Test for discontinuity of f x
ln a , for x 0
a 1 a 1
0 h 0 h h h
ah 1
lim f x lim lim lim ln a
x 0 h 0 0 h 0 h h 0 h h h 0 h
Hint:
a 0 h 0 h 1 a 1
0 h 0 h
a 1h 1 1
lim f x lim lim 1 lim f x lim
x0 h0 0 h 0 h h0 1 h a x 0 h 0 0 h 0 h
But
a 1h 1 1
lim 1
h 0 1 h a
a 2 xx 1
, for x 0,
2 x x
Exercise79 : Test for discontinuity of f x
ln a , for x 0
.
x x x
Hint : use in above.
1/ x
tan x , when x 0
Exercise80 : Test for discontinuity of f x 4 at x = 0.
a when x0
sin x
, for x 0
Exercise 81 : Test for discontinuity of f x x
1, for x 0
Exercise82 :
x 2 , for x ratiuonal ,
a) Express the function f x 2 in terms of Dirichlet function
x , for x 0 or for x irrational
x
1, for x ratiuonal ,
0, for x 0 or for x irrational
.
Ans. f x x 2 2 x 1
b) Test for its discontinuity. (Take two sequences xn of rational numbers converging to x and
1x
e , for x 0
Exercise83: Test for discontinuity of f x
0, for x 0
x
2n
x
0, for sin 1
x
2n
2 0, for x 1,
f x lim sin lim x 2 n
n
2 x n
1 for x 1
1, for sin 1
Hint : 2 , as
x
sin 1 , i.e.,
2
Hence it is continuous except when when x is an odd integer. 2m + 1.
f x1 f x2 f x3 ......... f xn
in the interval, then the average f for some [a, b]
n
Exercise 87 : A function has same values at the end points of an interval or values of same sign. It is
continuous in the interval except at one interior point where is has a discontinuity of second kind.
Design such a function , at least the graph of it and show that it can not have a root in the interval.
Exercise 88 : If a function is monotonic in the closed interval [a, b] and takes all intermediate
value between f a and f b show that the function must be continuous in the interval.
Hint assume the contrary and arrive at a contradiction.
Exercise 89: If F x and f x be two continuous functions in a closed interval and are equal
at every rational point of it, show that they are equal at every irrational point of it too.
Exercise 90 : Using elementary ideas of vectors from high school, we may define vector functions
of real variable as a variable vector having its components different scalar functions of the real
variable. Mainly, a vector function represents two independent functions taken together.
that the function defined by w t f1 t g2 t f 2 t g1 t in the same domain has a root and u t and
u t f1 t i f 2 t j g1 t i g2 t j v t .
1 x 2x uv
Exercise 91 : If f x ln , find f u f v and f 2
. Ans. f u f v f ,
1 x 1 x 1 uv
2x
f 2
2 f x .
1 x
a2 a x
Exercise92 : If f x , find f x y f x y .Ans. f x y f x y
2
e1/ x 1
if x0
Exercise 93: The function f x e1/ x 1 has a discontinuity at x = 0. Show that it
0 x0
if
is non-removable.
x
Exercise94: Show that g x f can have at most two values.
x
2 tan x 1 tan x x
lim 2 lim
e x 0 1 tan x x
e x 0 x 1 tan x
e2 . Hence f 0 e 2
shall make the function continuous.
So far this chapter is devoted to application of concept of continuity to functions in general and
developing a theory of equations ( of polynomials and their roots) in particular. The concepts of limit
and continuity are bare necessity for analysing functions and developing further tools of differential
calculus like, differentiation, tools of integral calculus like integration etc . Thus we would return to the
subject of limit and continuity time and again in course of development of topics in Calculus and
present more problems in continuity and limit again and again e.g., after the chapter of differentiation
( e.g. L’ Hopital’s rule for calculating limits using intermediate value theorems of Lagrange and
Cauchy for calculation of limits, ) , after the chapter of improper integrals ( Leibnitz’ rule for calculating
limits) etc.
The design of concept of limit and continuity depends upon the set in which the concepts are applied
and the algebraic structure in the set. What has been dealt here is the concept of limit and continuity
applied to the set of real numbers. If we consider the set of rational numbers or the set of integers the
description of limit and continuity would be different, though the intrinsic concept remains the same.
For example, the sequence 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, -2 , ... may be regarded continuous if we restrict the concept
to integers, where as the sequence 8, 6,14, 2, 0, -2 , ... may not be. You may be exited to know that
the concepts are applied to wide variety of sets and structures like metric space ( with some sort of
distance function defined in them) or even to topological spaces ( only union and intersection of
member sets defined , no distance function necessary) etc. Broadly the concept of continuity relate
to aesthetic sense of beauty. The reader is warned not to wander away from the set of real numbers ;
this is neither necessary for now nor it is desired; it may create unnecessary confusion. A sequence
of events in a movie show may lead to an expected event ( like ‘they remained happily ever after) or
may finish up to a tragic end or may be left blank letting the observer to imagine.
CHAPTER 4: FURTHER THEORY OF EQUATIONS AND
POLYNOMIALS
Background:
The essentials of theory of equations or theory of polynomials as it may be better called ,are
consequences of properties of continuous functions, although the topic is read generally in the
domain of Algebra. The fundamental theorem of Algebra, the proof of which challenged mankind
for centuries states simply that a polynomial ( understood to be a finite power series in a single
variable devoid of negative or fractional powers and with rational coefficients) must have a root. The
statement shall be shown to be equivalent to saying that even if the coefficients of a polynomial are
chosen randomly, it can be thought to have been arrived at, by multiplying linear factors. For, it would
be proved that the theorem leads to the result that a polynomial of n-th degree has n roots or is the
product of n linear factors, real or complex ones. The great theorem does not give any clue to finding
the roots at all, but a few things are revealed about their nature and some symmetric functions
involving the roots. Standard algebraic methods are employed to solve quadratic, cubic, and
biquadratic equations ( 4th power) and solution of equations of 5th degree and above were shown not
to be possible to find out in standard algebraic methods , even theoretically, as proved by Abel, with
exception of a few special cases. Only the roots can be found numerically, employing methods of
Calculus, by successive approximation to any desired degree of accuracy; e.g., Newton – Raphson’s
method or, Piccard’s iteration (successive approximation) . It is an wonderful experience of writing the
solution instead of finding them. The procedures employ results of Differential Calculus and as such ,
have to be postponed until then. Hence the justification of including theory of equations in Differential
Calculus. Meanwhile we would see what interesting results of utility the theory of equations has to
give us.
In search of proof of the fundamental theorem of Algebra, not only Number System was expanded
from Natural numbers to Integers, Rational numbers, Real numbers, Complex numbers, Vectors,
Quaternions, Matrices, and Tensors, etc. Which were utilised elsewhere such as , in Quantum
Mechanics, Special and General Theory of Relativity and Nuclear Physics etc. Many algebraic
structures were discovered or designed for experiment such as Groups, Rings, Integral Domains,
Fields, Vector Spaces, Modules , Banach Spaces, Hilbert Spaces etc. and many branches of
Mathematics were developed , like, Topology, Functional Analysis, Spectral Theory, Real and
Complex analysis, Differential Equations etc. In short, Mathematics came to be regarded as the back
bone of the modern sciences projecting a developed world view and reforming serious subjects like
Economics and management. Mathematics was no more regarded as mystery or magic in the little
head of the Village School Master but played the role of facilitator for the modern sciences and arts.
To have a closer look at the developments, consider the equation x + a = 0 in the set of natural
numbers. The set is ‘closed’ with respect to the binary operation of addition, i.e., addition of any two
natural numbers gives us a natural number. In other words we can never get out of the set of natural
numbers just by going on adding more and more numbers to any number. The fact that the reverse
process of addition, i.e. subtraction met a road block came trailing behind . we could not subtract a
larger number from a smaller one, even we did not know whether a number would be left if we
subtracted any number from an equal one. In other words, the equation
x + a = 0 had no root for whatever natural number ‘a’. Since one could go 10 steps forward and
return 12 steps backwards, the civilisation decided long ago to agree that the equation x + a = 0 has a
solution or a root at all circumstances. That led us to the set of integers and admit 0 into the number
system. Again the binary operation of multiplication was closed in the set of integers and the linear
equation ax + b = 0 faced a road block in the set of integers while carrying out the reverse process of
division. Since the tailor could make 3 small shirts out of 2 meters of cloth, we understood that the
division process was complete in a fraction once we agreed to include fractions into our number
system . The restriction a 0 was very natural because the linear equation ax + b = 0 ceased to exist
otherwise. Since the division process was complete, arithmetic with fractions were formulated and
also we could write the rational numbers completely in decimal system devising a concept of
recurring decimals. This must have happened many many years after the fire place was installed at
home and wheel was discovered. Since all quadratic equations x 2 a 0 could not be solved in what
we called the rational number system, as the reverse process of squaring cubing etc. faced
restriction, we had to agree to admit diagonals of squares into our number systems, albeit reluctantly,
otherwise we would not have felt any dearth of words and called them irrational numbers. But this
was only negative values of ‘a’ only. The integers and the rational numbers were found to be
countable, i.e., were able to be labelled with natural numbers , discovered by the primitive for
counting; or accounting for missing thing or people in the community. It requires really a mind to
accept that the integers and the rational numbers are equivalent to the natural numbers, who contain
it. More numbers like , the ratio of circumference of any circle to its diameter were discovered by
great talented people , who were taken to be mad by the commoners, and perhaps therefore , the
numbers were called irrational numbers; also the roots of x 2 a 0 which could not be expressed as
recurring decimals or as fractions or rational numbers. These numbers could not be raised to any
powers to equate them to a rational number, and therefore were branded as non-algebraic or
transcendental, as transcended our existing ideas and beliefs for a long time. They were so large in
number that the natural numbers failed to count them and were branded as uncountable. But to
emphasize their existence because they are so eluding, these numbers, along with the rationals,
were called real numbers. We had to denote the irrational numbers as symbols as the ancient
Romans did with number with little arithmetic formulated. But, we could be able to compare any two
real numbers, whether one is less than, equal to or more than the other. Again, the existence of root
of x 2 a 0 had to be assumed. It required a highly generous and open mind to accept the apparent
paradox that there is no number whose square is negative the squares of positive numbers as well as
squares of negative numbers, both are positive only. So i 1 was accepted as a symbol, its
algebra was formulated and was accepted as a number . Again there was dearth of words in literature
and they were called imaginary numbers or complex numbers. Perhaps we could not have landed on
the Moon had we not accepted them as numbers. The complex numbers p iq enabled us to solve
all quadratic equation. Nobody could say whether a given complex number , which is not a pure real
number nor a pure imaginary number ,is greater than or less than another complex number. This is
lacking of order completeness property in the set of complex number which is a characteristic in the
set of real numbers, because the numbers are not only in a line, but scattered over a whole plane.
They further helped extending our ideas providing placeholders p, q as a single entity containing
a b c d
p, q, r, s , independent rows of vectors e f g h , ultimately tensors. The vectors facilitated
i j k l
placeholders for many 3 independent equations in dynamics written as one, the matrices
made us writing solutions of sets of equations instead of finding them , facilitated quantum mechanics
(which ended the era of dichotomy of wave and particle theories of physics) and the tensors
facilitated theories of relativity and gravitation of Einstein . Still Mathematics is in look out for
placeholders for grand unification theory, possibly deriving the forces of gravitation, electromagnetic,
strong and weak nuclear forces from a common primitive as imagined by Einstein. Newton was a
great integrator for almost knowledge of physical sciences upto his time and could foresee far into the
future . He devised and used Calculus for definition of force and study of gravitation . Einstein, Neil
Bohr, Max Plank, were great integrators, putting an end to dilemma caused by ether. Einstein called
upon the scientific community to redefine time, mass, weight and speed or length. Maxwell was a
great integrator combining forces of magnetism and electricity although Faraday was inventor.
Einstein could use Maxwell’s equations for special theory of relativity because the mathematics was
While exploring roots or solutions of equations, we looked at the algebraic structures in the sets
where the equation was set up. In the set of integers, the algebraic structure is called a group under
the binary operation of addition. Closure property is assured along with associativity
additive inverse a of every element a is included in the set of integers. Commutativity property
could be carried over to commutative groups also. Rings are sets which include another binary
communicative addition group. Actually the binary operations of addition , multiplication etc. Were
studied in different sets, to explore what results they give; not only addition or multiplication, but any
operation defined consistently to connect two members ( called binary operation); so the numbers
were abstractised as sets and addition and multiplication were abstractised as binary operations and
the marvellous results obtained could be utilised elsewhere. In a ring there is freedom of
a.b 0 with a 0, b 0 , which is denied in another algebraic structure , integral domain (integers
for example, ) where an identity element of multiplication (1) is also provided in the set. More
freedom is assumed in a field which is a commutative ring with identity and inverse of multiplication
included in the set, e.g. the set of rational numbers , the set of real numbers , the set of complex
numbers are all fields. Roots of polynomials (finite power series) are explored in various algebraic
structures (sets with binary operations over them) and if a polynomial is not having a root in a field,
possibility of finding its root in a bigger field is explored; e.g. a quadratic equation not having a root in
the set (field) of rational numbers is having a root is the field of real numbers, a quadratic equation not
having a root is the field of real numbers has a solution in the field of complex numbers. It is left as an
exercise to prove that if surd is a root of a quadratic equation in the field of real numbers , then its
conjugate is also a root. if a complex number is a root of a quadratic equation in the field of complex
numbers, its conjugate is also a root. The statements have been proved below in general for all
polynomials , not only for quadratic equations. By now, it goes without proof that a linear or quadratic
polynomial has at least a root in the field of complex numbers. This is the fundamental theorem of
algebra if stated in context of any polynomial. There is no need to prove it for real and complex
numbers. But we have to assume it only, for polynomials of degree higher than two, for the grand
proof is beyond this book. It is shown below that this assumption enables us to think that any
polynomial whose coefficients have been arbitrarily written ( rational numbers , of course) , has been,
results)
Unless otherwise stated, the coefficients of a polynomial may be understood to be rational numbers.
A polynomial of nth degree equated to 0 gives a rational integral algebraic equation. ‘Integral’
because the rational coefficients may all be multiplied with LCM of their denominators and that does
not cast any difference in the nature or roots of the equation. From the definition we exclude the finite
Note : Though polynomials are continuous functions, some of the results discussed below do not
require the continuity condition such as division algorithm, rational root theorem etc.. As such they
could have well been dealt in the chapters for Functions. But such result are given here to include
We have known that if (x) is divided by (x) 0, we would have some quotient q(x) and
remainder r(x) i.e. αx qx .βx r x .The quotient and the remainder must be unique. In the
number systems, natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, real numbers and complex
numbers this is the very meaning of the process of division, where r(x) needs be less than
(x).In case of functions in general, we give the process of division this meaning also. There is
a sort of proof for it in case of polynomials where the degree of r(x) should be less than the
degree of (x).
Let (x) = a0 + a1x +….. + anxn and (x) = b0 + b1x +….. + bmxm………………(1)
where an 0 bm
When n < m we have (x) = 0. (x) +(x) , degree of (x) is already < (x).
When n m, let us assume that the theorem is true for all integers less than n. Construct a
than n. Therefore q1(x) and r(x) can be found out such that
a
or, x x n x n m q1 x rx x qx rx where q(x) is the
bm
Still the proof by induction is not complete until we have actually verified the theorem in some
particular case.
When (x) and (x) both are of degree 0, (x) = a0, and (x) = b0,so that x x 0
a0
b0
When (x) is of degree 0, and (x) is of higher degree, x 0.x x ,degree of (x)
being less than that of (x). So the theorem is valid in the two cases. Hence it is valid for (x)
and (x) being of any degree. If q(x) and r(x) are not unique, suppose,
This implies x qx q' x r' x rx which is impossible since the degree of the left
side is more than that of (x) which in turn is more than the degree of right side.
If the quotient and the remainder on dividing P(x) by x – a be Q(x) and R(x) respectively,
we have, P(x) = (x – a ) Q(x) + R(x) identically for all values of x (division algorithm).
Putting x = a throughout, we get , P(a) = R(a) as desired. This small fact enables us to
have the remainder without actually dividing. So dividing an expression p0 xn + p1 xn-1 + p2 xn-2 + p3
xn-3 +……….+pn by x – a , the remainder shall be got by replacing x with a; i.e., p0 an + p1 an-1 + p2
P(a) is 0 and vice versa. The latter statement is called factor theorem; If the expression P(x)
is divisible by x – a, then replacing x with a in the expression makes it equal to 0 , i.e., P(a) =0.in
other words, x – a is a factor of f(x).for this reason a root is also called a zero of the polynomial.
[We would use the term ‘ root of a polynomial f x ’ in the same sense as root of an equation
f x 0 . If f p k 0, we do not say p is a root of the polynomial nor the equation, but we say k is
the value of the polynomial for x = p. A polynomial can assume any value in the range of f x for
corresponding value of x. Remember that the polynomial f x is nothing but a function of x, i.e.,
y f x . The equation f x 0 only gives the values of x for which the polynomial function is 0, i.e.,
Let us get the quotient also by actually dividing.( n 1, for sake of common sense) and we observe,
p0xn - p0 xn-1 a
- +
- + .
xn-2(p2+ap1+a2p0) + p3 xn-3
- + .
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
q0 = p0 ;
q1 = p1 + ap0 =a q0 + p1 ;
q2 = p2+ap1+a2p0 = a q1 + p2 ;
The last one is no quotient as no x to be multiplied with it and it is thus the remainder denoted by R.
Alternatively,
q1 xn-1 + q2 xn-2 + q3 xn-3 +……….+qn-1 be the quotient and let R be the remainder.
q0 = p0 ;
q1 - a q0 = p1, or q1 = a q0 + p1,
q2 - a q1 = p2, or q2 = a q1 + p2,
q3 - a q2 = p3, or q3 = a q2 + p3,
……………………………………
……………………………………
R – aqn-1 = pn,
One has to put x = 3 or x2 = 3 in the equation throughout ,as it seems, putting oneself
in a cumbersome job of calculating (3)5 etc. Instead, let us divide f(x) by x2 – 3 and verify that f(x) =
q(x).(x2 – 3) + 4 for some polynomial q(x) , which we have to calculate by actual division . We need
not actually calculate it, but are compelled to do so, only to know the remainder, 4. Once we know the
remainder to be 4, we can put x = 3 in this equation to get f(3) = q(3).0 + 4 = 4. How simple!
Example2. Find the value of k in x3 +3x2 -12x + k so that x – 3 is one of its factors.
obtained when x3 +3x2 -12x + k is divided by x – 3. this may be otherwise verified by long division too.
the remainder shall be an expression of 1st degree in x, say Ax + B. If a and b are roots of the
f ( b ) f (a ) bf (a ) af (b)
equation x2 – px + q =0, show that A and B .
ba ba
)(x – b) + Ax + B.
Putting x = a and x = b in turn we get, f(a) = Aa + B and f(b) = Ab + B. Solving these two equations for
(x – a)(x – b)(x – c), the remainder shall be an expression of 2nd degree in x, say Ax2 + Bx + C. Find
it.
Example5 :
1 1
Let f x a0 x n a1 x n1 ..............an1 x an , n n 0 satisfy a condition f x f f x f .
x x
If f 4 65 , find f 6
1 1 a
Ans.: f x f f x f a0 x n a1 x n 1 ..... an 1 x an 0n n11 ..... n 1 an
a a
x x x x x
a0 a a
a0 x n a1 x n 1 ..... an 1 x an n
n11 ..... n 1 an
x x x
f x f a
f x a0 x n a1 x n1 ..............an1 x an , n n 0 g x
We have , if , then xa , where
g x g x b1 x n1 ..............an1 , n 1 n 1 0
is a polynomial of degree n – 1 ( ).
Now, f 4 4n 1 .This is obviously not true for the minus sign as n n 0 , so,
f 4 4n 1 65 n 3 . Hence, f x x 3 1 f 6 63 1 217
We give below examples of evaluation of functions which are not necessarily polynomials.
Example6
n
If f x f y f x y evaluate f r , for r being a positive integer 1 r n .
1
n n n
n n 1
Thus f r rf 1 f 1 r
1 1 1 2
f 1
The above process of finding successive terms of quotient and reminder when the expression is
as follows : p0 p1 p2 p3 ……………………….. pn – 1 pn
The algorithm goes like this : put the first term of the quotient q 0 = first term of the divisor p0 .
Then put the second term of the quotient q1 = second term of the divisor p1 + aq0 . Proceed in this
manner until the last term arrived , which gives the remainder and = R = aqn-1 + pn .
The algorithm may be slightly changed if the divisor is x + a instead of x – a. Then put – a throughout
Example6 : Divide 3x4 11x3 23x 2 21x 10 by x 3 and find the quotient and remainder.
3 11 23 21 – 10
–9 –6 –51 90
2 17 –30 80
Exercise3
Exercise4
Exercise5
2 1 is a zero of f x x 14 x 1
6 3
show that
The algorithm can be extended suitably for rational Algebraic functions of the form
P(x) / Q(x) where degree of Q(x) is less than that of P(X). See a chapter afterwards.
dividing the former by later, the latter by the remainder and so on as GCD is extracted and show that
it is x + 2 so that x = – 2 is a common root. divide the expressions by x + 2 and find the other roots.
Let the polynomial be f x p0 x p1x ............. pn1x pn which has a root say α, then
n n1
x – α is a
x , x etc. ; the last p0 taken for equating coefficients of x n in both sides. This is linear
factor theorem . both the theorems, the fundamental theorem of Algebra and linear factor theorem
This means that whatever polynomial you may write with randomly chosen real coefficients, must be,
nothing but product of real linear factors or irreducible quadratic factors. In the latter case, each
irreducible quadratic factor is a product of two complex factors, the sum of the roots and products of
the roots of which are real numbers. This means that the two complex roots must be conjugates of
each other !
The fact that a polynomial has at least a linear factor is equivalent to saying that it could be divided by
that factor to give a polynomial of one degree less as quotient and leave no remainder. In effect, any
polynomial can be reduced to another polynomial of one degree less, by dividing it by a suitable linear
By the preceding exercise, f x has n roots, say α, β, ........... , so it is product of n linear factors
and the constant p0 , i.e., f x p0 x x x ............. x . If the function has another root
, say, then f 0 . But f p0 ............. ; the left side is 0 but not the
right side as none of the factors is 0. This is a contradiction . So f x has exactly n roots, real or
imaginary.
The conjecture f p0 ............. would still be true when f 0 in one
f x p0 x x x ............. x 0 .
§8:The above statement is equivalent to saying that every polynomial of n-th degree
f x p0 xn p1xn1 ............. pn1x pn can be decomposed into linear factors in only one way, i.e.,
theorem.
x2 a2 x2 b2 x2 c2
Exercise10: Take f x 1 . Show that a, b, and c are three
c a a b a b b c b c c a
Exercise11: Take f x
x a x b c 2 x b x c a 2 x c x a b2
x2 . Show that
c a c b a b a c b c b a
throughout and the limit lim p x and lim p x if a0 0 .Then we could find real numbers
x x
and 0
obviously continuous, there is a root between , i.e., a negative root
p 0 a2n1 p 0 a2n1 p
if is positive. Also when is negative, since , there is a root between
0 and p 0 a2n1 0
, i.e. a positive root. If , we have nothing to prove.
and 0 a0 0
negative, there is a root between . Thus there are two real roots when
§4.10:Take any polynomial p2n x a0 x2n a1x2n1 ........... a2n 0 of even degree.
Now, a0 and p2n , p2n have the same sign always. If p2n has opposite sign of
a0 for some ,then p2n and p2n have opposite signs; and also p2n and p2n have
opposite signs. So there is a root between and and also between and .
Hint. Let all coefficients have + signs. The function is increasing as x increases and increases as
x decreases also. So the only possibility of having a real root is either f 0 0 , or negative. But it
cannot be so, as f 0 is also positive as per question. Similarly prove the statement for all
coefficients negative.
Exercise12: Show that a continuous function never equal to 0 in any interval , never changes
sign in that interval. ( this is not only for polynomials for all functions).
Exercise13: If the coefficients of an algebraic polynomial are all coefficients positive it has no
positive root.
Hint. If a polynomial f x has a positive root α, it must have a factor x – α . Let
f x x x . The function f x must have one more change in sign than x . If x has no
change in sign at all, then f x must have one change is sign. But that is a contradiction of the
symbols as below.
________________
_________________
Note that the changes in sign in x (top line) is 3, + to -, - to + and + to -. In the final product, (
bottom line) the changes in sign is at least one more than 3 including the ambiguous place which
arises when we add a term with + sign with another with – sign or vice versa. There cannot be less
changes in sign than those present in the original equation. The increase in changes of sign shall be
minimised if all the shall be taken as + ( or -). Also observe here that in the final result, ambiguity
in sign i.e., arises where there is continuation of sign in the original polynomial and the signs before
and after an sign are unlike and a change in sign occurs at the end. This observation shall help in
understanding that we can safely assume either + or – sign throughout in place of a sign.
The number of positive roots in a polynomial of n-th degree f x 0 cannot exceed the
positive root of f x , multiplying x by x a adds one more change in sign into x a x . Hence
f x would have at least as many changes in sign in it as the number of positive roots in it. So the
number of positive roots cannot exceed the number of changes in sign in f x . This is the famous
absolute term.
b) Every polynomial of even degree with absolute term negative has at least two real roots.
d) If a polynomial of odd power with all coefficients of same sign, it has no positive root. Etc.
e) It easily follows that a polynomial with no changes in sign in its terms written in descending
order of the powers of x has no positive roots. Thus a polynomial consisting of positive terms
f) If the coefficients of even powers of x are all of the same sign and the coefficients of odd
powers of x are all of the opposite sign to that of even powers, the polynomial has no negative
root.
g) If the polynomial has only even powers of x with coefficients of all terms having same sign , it
h) If the polynomial has only odd powers of x all with same sign, it has a root at x = 0 and has no
(prove it as an exercise).
The above problems are easily solved using properties of continuous functions and they are
Thought
There is still an eluding aspect of Descartes’ Rule of Signs. The number of positive roots of the
polynomial f x is equal to the changes in sign in the polynomial or less than it by an even number
Hint. Employing Descartes’ rule of signs, show that it cannot have more than one positive root,
and more than one negative root. Thus it must have at least two imaginary roots.
§4.15:If a b is a root of polynomial equation f x 0 , then a b is one
root too.
must be less than that of the divisor. If Q be the quotient, we have the identity from remainder
of x a
2
b , Rx S 0 R a b S . Since a surd R b cannot be equal to a rational number
.Thus x a b is a factor of f x as
f x Q x a b Q x a b x a b , or a b is a root of
2
f x .
§4.16:Just in the same manner, show that if a ib is a root of polynomial
Hint Use the fact that an imaginary number cannot be equal to a real number, if so
both must be 0.
Divide f(x) by {(x-a)2 +b2}, let the quotient be Q(x) and remainder be Rx +t, naturally of one
degree less than the divisor. Or, f(x) = Q(x) {(x-a)2 +b2} + Rx + t = 0
Putting x = a + ib makes f(x) = 0 as a + ib is its root and also {(x-a)2 +b2} = 0 as {(x-a)2 +b2} =
(If not, Ra + t = iRb, which is impossible as an imaginary number cannot be equal to a real
number).R = 0 and t = 0 make (1)as f(x) = Q(x) {(x-a)2 +b2} Or,f(x) = Q(x)( x – a - b)( x -a +b)
which shows ( x -a +b) is a factor of f(x) and a – ib is its root. Hence the proof.
( The latter result for complex numbers is true even if a 0, a1, a2 ……… an etc. are not
rationals)
The above results show that if surds or complex numbers are roots of a polynomial, they occur
in pairs.
A pitfall :execise15
Show that
3 is a root of x 2 2 3 x 2 3 0 whereas 3 is not. Why?
The equation is not with rational coefficients. In fact it is as plain as this – if conjugate quadratic surds
are not are not in the factorisation of f x , it cannot be a polynomial whose coefficients are rational
Hint. A polynomial is defined to be having rational coefficients and sum or product of two
different transcendental numbers cannot be rational number. ( Suppose a polynomial of which all
Ans. x 4 5 x 2 22 x 10
To investigate about a rational root p/q of a polynomial a 0x n +a1xn-1……….an = 0 with a0, a1,….an
being integers and p and q have no common factors except 1. Consider some rational number
p/q is a root of the polynomial. Then the theorem states that p is a factor of an and q is a factor of
a0.
hence a factor of right side. But it does not divide qn; so it must divide an. For, if there are no common
factors between p and q, there are no common factors between p an qn. Similarly it can be shown
Example6 :
Determine whether the equation 2 x3 x 2 9 x 4 0 has any rational root. if so, completely solve the
equation.
p
Factors of the first term are ±1, ±2. Factors of the last term are ±1, ±2 and ±4. If is a rational root
q
then q divides 2 and p divides – 4. So the possible candidates for rational roots are
1 1
1, , 2, and 4 . Now we could exclude 1, – 1, and as they can be tested by direct
2 2
1
substitution. But is confirmed to be a root as may be tested by direct substitution in the equation
2
1
or by synthetic division by x . Synthetic division is definitely easier process than direct
2
substitution. Now we should not test for other roots by synthetic division , as we can divide the
1
equation by x , i.e. we have already got the quotient in the process of synthetic division to be
2
x 2 x 4 0 , which we call reduced equation. The last equation is merely a quadratic equation and
If a0 = 1 in the polynomial above, then qn must divide 1 as it divides a0 when the eqn. has a rational
root. This implies q must divide 1; but 1 has no other factors other than 1. So
Example7 : If a natural number has a rational n-th root, the root must be a natural number.
remember.
Let xn = N, where n and N are natural numbers and x = p/q, a rational number. Then the
polynomial equation xn – N = 0 satisfies all conditions of the special case of the rational root theorem
integers for possible roots, we could narrow down the search range within some upper bound and
lower bound and in fact there is a theorem to this effect given below(Location theorem). Further, you
would soon know that the ratio of the coefficients of the last term to the first is product of the roots;
from which we may pick up only integer divisors of this ratio which fall within the upper and lower
bounds.
Exercise17:
If f x a0 x n a1 x n1 a2 x n2 ....... an2 x 2 an1 x1 an and the coefficients are all integers, and if
both f 1 a0 a1 a2 ....... an2 an1 an and f 2 a0 2n a1 2n1 .... an1 21 an are odd numbers,
Hint: Assuming the contrary, let f N 0 for some integer N. Then , by division algorithm, or factor
polynomial of integer coefficients. Now f 1 g 11 N and f 2 g 2 2 N . since both
f 1 , f 2 and one of 1 N , 2 N must be even ( as both cannot be odd), which implies that one of
Hint : Let f x a0 x n a1 x n1 a2 x n2 ....... an2 x 2 an1 x1 an , coefficients being integers.
a b g a, b b c g b, c c a g c, a b c c a a b .
ac a b bc
a b b c c a . Thus, b ,c ,a . Three different numbers cannot be arithmetic
2 2 2
mean of one another unless they are equal, i.e. common difference is 0.
So, a=b=c.(Alternatively,). a b 0 a b a b b c c a a b
b c c a b a
2 2
Example8 :
a , b, c, d , k are integers, and if f e k 2 for some integer e, and k is an integer, then show that
a bc d .
f a f b 0 . So g x is divisible by x a , x b, x c, x d ,
so g x x a x b x c x d h x . Now g e is an integer as g e f e k 2 .
would be product of all of them. so the factors e a , e b , e c , e d are not different from each
other. Thus each one of them is 0. this forces e a b c d , if there is one such e .
This does not say that there is only one root between a and b. Nor it says that the function has no
root if it does not change sign e.g., vertex of a parabola( quadratic equation) touching the x – axis is
This is nothing but intermediate value theorem for continuous functions. Its utility lies in separating the
intervals in which roots of the equation are located so that they can be hunted out later on by
successive approximation, by subdividing the intervals to smaller subintervals and locating the root to
one of the subintervals and repeating the process for better approximation.. The theorem also applies
to transcendental functions.
Example9
Show that the function x3 2 x 4 has a root in [1, 2] and find it correctly upto 2 places of decimal.
Denote the function as f x and note that f 1 1, f 2 8 . Subdivide the interval [1, 2] into 10
subintervals [1.1, 1.2], [1.2, 1.3] etc. And note that again there is a sign change as we find
f 1.1 and f 1.2 . The functional values may be easily calculated using synthetic division as
explained in examples above. So the root lies between 1.1 and 1.2. Again divide the interval [1.1,
1.2] into 10 smaller subintervals and note that again there is a change in sign between
This is just to illustrate that roots can be approximated in this manner crudely. But there are special
tools like Piccard’s iteration method, Newton-Raphson’s method to approach the roots in systematic
manner given after differentiation chapter. Also there is a method to narrow down the search to an
Exercise19:
Show that x 4 5 x3 3x 2 35 x 70 0 has a root between 2 and 3 and another between – 3 and – 2 .
Exercise20:
Find out that x 4 12 x 2 12 x 3 0 has a root between – 4 and – 3 another between 2 and 3 .
Exercise22:
Find out that x5 5 x 4 20 x 2 19 x 2 0 has a root between – 5 and – 4 another between 2 and 3
.§4.21: Evaluation of root of a polynomial
We can use the synthetic division to test whether a particular number ‘a’ is root of the
polynomial. The remainder found in the synthetic division of the polynomial by x – a would be 0 if ‘a’
is a root.
a) The missing powers if any, in the polynomial pertain to 0 coefficients and place must be
b) If the remainder is 0, then ‘a’ is a root of the polynomial by factor theorem. A suspected
c) While testing whether a particular integer is a root of the polynomial or not, we can write
not completely divide the polynomial and the process may be stopped there.
a speed up process due to Horner similar to the process of synthetic division. The polynomial
is written as f x a0 x a1 x a2 x a3 x a4 ....... . A number of intermediate steps
calculate the intermediate quotients bn , bn1 , bn2 ,.................b2 , b1, b0 f x0 , whose last one
an an 1 an 2 ............. .............. a0
0 x0bn x0bn 1 ............. .............. x0b1
___ ____ ______ _______ _______ _____ ,
bn bn 1 bn 2 .............. .............. b0 f x0
Example10:
Misc. Exercise
q0 y n q1 y n 1 ..................... qn 1 y qn .
q0 x h q1 x h
n 1 n2
..................... qn1 .
Similarly, qn 1 is the remainder when the last expression , the quotient is divided by x h , and
Example11:
Find f x 3 from f x 2x x 2x 5x 1
4 3 2
17 97 q2
6
23 q1
Exercise26: Find
e) f x h f x h if f x px qx rx d
8 5
If 1, 2, 3, etc. are roots of a rational integral algebraic function ,
coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides we get the result. Plainly speaking, the sums
of products of the roots, taken one, two, three,…… at a time equals to the ratio of the 2 nd,
3rd,4th etc. coefficients respectively to the 1st coefficient with alternate signs – and +.
The result that roots that are quadratic surds or complex numbers involving imaginary
Suppose + or +i is a root of the polynomial. Then a surd or imaginary number must
a1 a
appear both in the sum of the roots and in the product of the roots n . But these two
a0 a0
ratios are rational real numbers as the is the way we have defined the polynomials.( for
coefficients and for real or imaginary roots we consider polynomials with real
polynomial, its conjugate must be also a root so as to make the sum and product of the roots
It seems that we can conveniently solve any rational integral algebraic equation with the help
of this result. But no. To solve the equation, we have the n simultaneous equations involving
1, 2, 3……n-2, n-1, n and to solve them we have to eliminate all but one of them, say 1 .
This will result in a n-th degree in 1 so we are back to square one again with no gain. But the
insight gained helps finding the roots in special conditions, say if one root is give, or if roots are
Exercise27 : Find all the roots of the polynomials if two of the roots are equal in each case.
a) f x x 3 3x 2 4 . b) g x x 3 3x 2
Exercise28 :
Find all the roots of the polynomial equation x 4 2 x3 4 x 2 6 x 21 0 if two of the roots are equal
Ans. 3,1 i 6
Exercise29 :
Find the condition so that in the equation x3 ax 2 bx c 0 two of the roots are equal
Exercis30 :
Find all the roots of the polynomial f x x 7 x 36 if difference between two of its rootsis 3.
3 2
Exercise31:
Find all the roots of the polynomial f x x 7 x 36 if one root is double the other.
3 2
Ans. 3, 6 and – 2 . Hint. Take the roots , 2 , and use relations between roots and
coefficients.
Exercise32 :
Find all the roots of the polynomials if the roots are in A.P. in each case.
a) f x x 9 x 23x 15 g x x3 6x2 3x 10
3 2
b)
1 1 3
Ans. a) 1, 3, 5. b) – 1 , 2, 5. c) , , d)-4, -1, 2, 5.
4 2 4
Hint. Take the roots , , 2 and use relations between roots and coefficients.
Exercise33:
Ans. a 3 4ab 8c 0
Exercise34:
Find all the roots of the polynomials if the roots are in G.P. in
a) f x 3x 26x 52x 24
3 2
Ans. 2/3 , 2, 6. Hint. Take the roots , , and and use relation between roots
and coefficients.
8 2 1
b) f x 54x 39x 26x 16
3 2
ans. , ,
9 3 2
1 i 15
d) f x x x 2x 8 2,
3 2
ans.
2
Exercise35 :
progression ? ans. a 3c b 3
Exercise36 :
Exercise37 :
3
Solve 2 x3 x 2 22 x 24 0 , given that roots are in the ratio Ans. 3:4. , 2, 4
2
Exercise38:
Find all the roots of the polynomial if sum of two of its root is 0.
a) x 4x 16x 9x 36 Ans.
3 3
, , 4
3 2
2 2
16
Hint. Take the roots as , and , , use other relations between
4
b) f x x 2x 4x 5x 21 1 i 6, 3 hint.
4 3 2
Ans. Factorise the cubic equation
obtained from relations between roots and coefficients by assuming two roots equal.
c) g x 8x 2x 27 x 6x 9
1 3
3, , Hint. Test for rational roots.
4 3 2
Ans.
2 4
Exercise39 :
x ay a 2 z a3 , x by b 2 z b3 , x cy c 2 z c3
ab bc ca y , abc x
Exercise40 :
a2 b2 h2
Examine the equation ......... k for imaginary roots.
x A xB xH
Hint. Let p iq is an imaginary root so that p iq is also a root. Putting these values in the equation
a2 b2 h2
q ......... 0 which is not possible as the term in the bracket is
p A q p B q p H q 2
2 2 2 2 2
Example 12:
If f x x 5 ax 4 bx 3 cx 2 dx e has all real coefficients, and if all the roots are real numbers, then
show that 2a 2 5b . In other words, if 2a 2 5b , all the roots cannot be real numbers.
a 2 2 2 2 a 2 2b .
2
So that
2 2
5 a 2b a 2a 5b .
2 2 2
But
5 5
to find an upper bound and lower bound of roots, which is always there since the number of roots is
finite. Though there are special methods for finding the bounds, such as a theorem given below,
employing mere common sense we can often know the bounds by regrouping the terms . Follow the
example.
Example13:
Regroup the terms as x x 5 x 3x 13 38x 24 0 . The expression is positive for
3 2
x = 5, so
with a little common sense it can be understood that there cannot be a positive root greater than 5,
So we could carry out the same analysis with f x for lower bound of negative roots of f x .
We have f x x 2x 13x 38x 24 0 . Regrouping the terms, we get,
4 3 2
See the example below to find out how knowing upper and lower bounds help in finding integer roots.
Example14:
Since product of the roots is – 24 , and the upper bound and lower bounds are 5 and – 5 respectively,
the possible values – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1,1, 2, 3 and 4 may be tried for being roots; as 0 is evidently not a
The expression may be written as 24 38 x 13x 2 2 x3 x 4 and may be divided by 4 – x as follows.
4 24 38 13 2 1
6 8
32 5
In the third line of quotient and remainder, as soon as – 5 is got, which is not divisible by 4, the
4 24 38 13 2 1
8 10 1 1 ,
30 3 3 0
We could further shorten the process by dividing the function by 3 – x and examining the quotient
8 10x x 2 x3 for integer roots along the same lines as given below.
2 8 10 1 1
4 3 1 ,
6 2 0
Given that sum of two roots of x 4 px3 qx 2 rx s 0 is equal to the sum of the other two.
Prove that p3 8r 4 pq .
Exercise42 :
If the roots of px3 3qx 2 3rx s 0 are in AP, prove that p 2 s 2q 2 3 pqr .
Exercise43 :
Find the upper bounds and lower bounds of roots of the following Hint. (regroup suitably)
a) x5 3x 4 x3 8 x 2 51x 18 0 ans. 3, – 5 .
b) x 4 2 x3 3x 2 5 x 1 0 ans. 2, 0
c) x 4 x3 2 x 2 4 x 24 0 ans. 4, – 2 .
d) x 4 2 x3 3x 2 2 x 3 0 ans. 3, – 2 .
Exercise44 :
Find the rational / integer roots of
a) x 4 2 x3 7 x 2 8 x 12 0 ans. 1, 2, – 2 , – 3 .
b) x3 9 x 2 22 x 24 0 ans. 6.
e) x 4 9 x3 12 x 2 80 x 192 0 ans. – 4, – 4, – 4, 3.
f) 6 x 4 7 x3 8 x 2 7 x 2 0 ans. ½, 2/3 .
§4.26:Transformations of equations
A polynomial equation may be transformed to another whose roots are related to its roots in a
particular fashion, e.g. differ from them by a constant, negative of them etc. Follow the examples and
b) This is example of reflection of a graph y f x about the y – axis. What about reflection of a
d) If f x f x the function is symmetric about the y – axis , also called an even function.
For example, polynomials , all of whose terms are of even degree. Another example is
y cos x cos x .
function. For example, polynomials , all of whose terms are of odd degree. Another example is
y sin x sin x .
Try a polynomial of even or odd degree of mixture of odd and even powers.
g) Show that any function f x can be expressed as a sum of even and odd functions.
f x f x f x f x
Verify that f x comprises of two terms , the 1st one is even and
2 2
h) Forming a polynomial whose roots differ from the roots of a given polynomial by a
constant.
Plainly speaking, if the y – axis is shifted to the right by h units, we must substitute every x by
x + h so that the relation between x and y is preserved. This settles the matter.
be determined; and all the coefficients of (1) may be got in this way.
Example15 :
Find the equation whose roots are diminished by 3 each from the roots of the equation
f x x 4 x3 2 x 2 x 1 0
1 1 2 1 1
3 12 42 129
4 14 43 130 an
3 21 105
7 35 148 an 1
3 30
10 65 an 3
3
13 an 4
f x 3 13x3 65x2 148x 130 0
Employing synthetic division at each step, the coefficients of f x 3 0 are easily got.
Exercise45 :
a) If f x 4x 32x 83x 76x 21 , find the equation whose roots each exceed by 2 of the
4 3 2
Exercise46 :
9 2 13 15
the roots of this polynomial. Ans. g x x3 x x .
2 2 4
Exercise48 :
If f x x 5x 6x 3 , find the equation whose roots each are exceed by 1 of the roots
3 2
Exercise49 :
Find the equation whose roots are increased by 3 each from the roots of the equation
f x x 4 x3 2 x 2 x 1 0 .
f 0 R . ..........................(1)
Replacing x throughout by x h , f x h x h Q x h R x h . ( this does not
Putting h in place of x, we have, f h h h h Q h h R h h
...............................(2)
Or, f 0.Q R R . Since this is automatically true by virtue of (1),, then (2) is
true ; which implies that h is a root of f x h . The proof is quite general , for all
Exercise50:
x x
polynomial f , i.e., of the equation f 0 .
k k
x x x x x
Replacing x by throughout, f Q R ........................(3)
k k k k k
Now if we choose x k , then (3) also yields f 0 R , which is of course
automatically satisfied in view of (2) as is a root of the polynomial f x . Then (3) means
x
that k is a root of the polynomial f .
k
x
Note that if k 1 , y f is nothing but stretching or magnifying the x – coordinates by
k
n n 1
x x x x x
, f ....n terms p1 ..... pn 0 ,i.e., k , k etc are the roots
k k k k k
x
of f 0
k
n n 1
x x
The required equation may be obtained by p1 ............... pn 0 , or
k k
Exercise51:
.................................(1)
b
Expanding and equating the coefficients of corresponding terms in both sides ,
a
c d
and . .......................................(2)
a a
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
x x x x x x 0
2 1
x3 x x 0 x3 x2 x 1 0
1
If f x x px qx r 0 be a given equation, and if f x f , i.e. if the equation does
3 2
x
1
not change by changing x to
x
The criteria suggests that there exists a certain relationship among the coefficients of such an
equation.
1
I. Show that if is one root of a reciprocal equation, then is also a root.
1
So the roots of a reciprocal equation occur in pairs , etc. if the degree of a
reciprocal equation is odd, it has odd number of roots so that one of them must
II. Show that coefficients of such an equation equidistant from the middle term must
be
1
Be a reciprocal equation. Changing x to we get,
x
pn 1 n 1 p 1
xn x ..................... 1 x 0 ...........................................(2)
pn pn pn
1
Since f x f , comparing the coefficients, we get,
x
pn 1 p 1
p1 , n 2 p2 ,...... pn 2 1 pn 1 .......(3)
pn pn pn
If pn 1 , we get pn1 p1 , pn2 p2 ,.............. equidistant terms from the middle are
If pn 1 , we get pn1 p1 , pn2 p2 ,.............. equidistant terms from the middle are equal
to each other.
Exercise52 remember
III. Take a reciprocal equation of odd degree where coefficients of terms equidistant from
the middle term are equal to each other. Show that the root which is its own inverse is –
1 . So division of this equation by x + 1 reduces it to one of even degree, of degree one
Exercise53 remember
IV. Take a reciprocal equation of odd degree where coefficients of terms equidistant from
the middle term are negative each other. Show that the root which is its own inverse is
Exercise54 remember
V. A reciprocal equation of even degree whose coefficients of terms equidistant from the
Exercise55 remember
VI. As such all reciprocal equations can be reduced to one of even degree whose
coefficients of terms equidistant from the middle term are equal to each other by
1
equation may further be reduced to half of it, by the transformation y x
x
1 1 1 1
Note that x n 1 n 1
x n n x x n 1 n 1 .
x x x x
Writing z x , calculate x 2 2 z 2 2 , x3 3 z z 2 2 z z 3 3z
1 1 1
x x x
z z 3 3z z 2 2 z 4 4 z 2 2 and so on.
1
x4 4
x
Example16:
This is a reciprocal equation whose coefficients of terms equidistant from the middle term are
negative of each other and 1 is a root which is easily verified by summing up all odd
equidistant from the middle term are equal to each other. Dividing this by x2 throughout, we get
1 1
x2 4 x 5 4 2 0 .
x x
1
Transforming with y x , the equation becomes
x
y 2 4 y 3 0 y 1 or y3 x
1
2
1
1 3 , or , x 3 5
2
Exercise56:
Show that the equations are reciprocal equations and solve them.
1
a) 2 x5 15 x 4 37 x3 37 x 2 15 x 2 0 ans. 1, 2, , 2 3
2
b) x 4 10 x3 26 x 2 10 x 1 0 ans. 3 2 2, 2 3
1
c) 2 x 4 5 x3 4 x 2 5 x 2 0 ans. 2, ,i, – i
2
Transform the equation ax3 3bx 2 3cx d 0 with the transformation y x h , where h is a constant
b2 3bc b3
term i.e. ay 3 3 c y d 2 2 0.
a a a
b
(This h ). Then multiply the roots of this equation by ‘a’ to get rid of fractions put z for ay ; the
a
equation is transformed into z 3 3Hz G 0 . Then put y 3 p 3 q and solve the cubic equation in y,
1 1
p G G 2 4 H 3 , q G G 2 4 H 3
2 2
First solve a concrete example x3 6 x 2 3x 10 0 in the procedure simplifying at each stage so that
big expressions are avoided. Find out that there are not nine solutions as it appears, but only three.
Show that the roots of ax3 3bx 2 3cx d 0 are in the form m, m , m 2 , where 1, , 2 are cube roots
of unity.
expression remains the same if we interchange say and .Note that 2 2 2 is a cyclic
expression but the expression changes if two of the roots are interchanged; we exclude such cases
from the present consideration and concentrate only on symmetric functions of roots. Such symmetric
functions of roots could be found out without actually knowing the roots. The example given below
shall clarify.
Example17
p2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2q 2 2 2 p 2 2q
Misc. Exercises
1 1 1 q
59)
r
60) 3
p3 3 pq 3r
2 2 pq
61) 3
r
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p2 q 4 pr 2q2
62)
r pq
63) 2 2
q2 2 pr
b c pq
65) 3
c b r
Exercises66:
In the polynomial equation , x 4 px3 qx 2 rx s 0 , if , , and are the roots ,prove that
a) pr 4s
2
b) 4
p4 4 p2q 2q2 4 pr 4s
Exercise67:
If , and are the roots of the polynomial equation x3 3x 2 2 0 , show that the roots of
Exercise68:
If , and are the roots of the polynomial equation x3 qx r 0 , show that the roots
a) of x3 qx r 0 are , and .
b) of rx3 q 2 x 2 2qrx r 2 0 are , ,
c) of x3 q 2 x2 2qr 2 x r 4 0 are 2 2 , 2 2 , 2 2
Exercise68:
If p, q, and r are roots of x3 ax 2 bx c 0 , find the equation whose roots are p 2 , q 2 and r 2 . Ans.
x 6 2b a 2 x 4 b 2 2ac x 2 b 2 0
p 2 q 2 q 2 r 2 r 2 p 2 pq qr rp 2 pqr p q r .
2
Exercise69 :
If p, q, and r are roots of x 4 x3 2 x 2 x 1 0 , find the equation whose roots are p 2 , q 2 and r 2 .
Ans. x 4 3x3 4 x 2 3 y 1 0
Exercise70: If p, q, and r are roots of x3 3x 2 2 0 , find the equation whose roots are
p3 , q3 and r 3 .
Ans. x3 33x 2 12 y 8 0
Exercise71 :
1 1 1 a 2 2b 1 1 1 b 2 2ac
a) 2 2 2 2 ans. b) 2 2 ans. .
2 2
pq qr r p c2 p 2
q r c2
Exercise72
If x3 qx r 0 , find
a) 4
ans. 2q 2
2
b) ans. 6q
1 q
c) ans.
r
exercise73
If x3 2 x 2 x 1 0 , find 4
ans. 10.
Exercise75 :
Find the polynomial whose roots are k times the inverse of the roots of x3 px q 0
Exercise76 :
If , and are the roots of x3 px q 0 find the equation whose roots are 3 , 3 , 3 .
Ans. x3 3qy 2 p 3 3q 2 x q 3 0
Exercise77:
If , and are the roots of x3 px q 0 find the equation whose roots are
, , .
Ans. x3 2 py 2 p 2 x q3 0 .
Exercise78 :
Show that the roots of the equation x3 p3 x 2 q3 x p3q3 0 are cubes of the roots of the equation
x3 px 2 qx pq 0 .
Exercise79 :
Ans. 5, 1, 2
CHAPTER 5: MORE ABOUT THEORY OF EQUATIONS,
Since some of the derivations about theory of equations required the concept of differentiation, this part of the
Priorly the process of synthetic division was considered for cases where divisor was a linear expression in x
i.e. of the type a – x etc. If the divisor is a quadratic or expression of higher order, the algorithm shall be clear
x 2 3 x 2 x5 5 x 4 9 x3 6 x 2 16 x 13 x 3 2 x 2 x 1
x5 3x 4 2 x3
2 x 4 7 x 3 6 x 2 16 x 13
2 x 4 6 x3 4 x 2
x3 2 x 2 16 x 13
x3 3x 2 2 x
x 2 18 x 13
x 2 3x 2
15 x 11
This example shall tell you how to abridge the process of division only if the coefficient of the leading term is
1.
The quotient is found to be x3 2 x 2 x 1 and the remainder is 15 x 11 .We could have saved labor on
account of :
1) not writing the first term in each step of division since it is meant to be cancelled
3 2
2) writing only coefficients and dispensing with x , x , x etc. the degree of x in each place may be
3) Changing sign of terms of the divisor x 2 3 x 2 except the first term ( which is not considered for
multiplication with quotient at each step) so that we need not change sign and add in each step , we
4) Instead of underlining at each step, we could consider a whole column of a particular power of x ,
5) Not multiplying the first term of the divisor by successive terms of quotient since it is meant to
6) The process is stopped as soon as we reach the last term of the dividend. After the process is
stopped, since the degree of the remainder should be one degree less than that of the divisor, in
the last line, the number of places reserved for the remainder should be from the right, one less
than the number of terms in the divisor, with powers of variables in ascending order from the right.
1 5 9 6 16 13
1 3 2
3 6 4
quotient x3 2 x 2 x 1 and the remainder 15 x 11 When the coefficient of
2 3 2
3 2
1 2 1 1 15 11
the leading term of the divisor is not 1, say 3, the partial quotients should not be multiplied
with the divisor at each step as they are, as it would not cancel the first term at each step ( that is what our aim
is, to cancel out the first term at each step), so the product at each step should be divided by the leading
Note that when the terms of the dividend have exhausted, the process is stopped. The remainder is
2 x3 y 2 3x 2 y 3 8xy 4 , three terms from the last, one term less than those in the divisor, and the quotient is
3x 2 2 xy .
Note that in the last line, the quotient at each step is divided by 2, the leading coefficient in the divisor, but as
soon as the first term of remainder is reached. Actual division may be carried out on pen and paper and the
algorithm verified.
The process may be continued to any desired number of steps also just like division in Arithmetic after the
decimal place. The rules to determine the quotient and the remainder remain the same. See the illustration
below.
3 2 1 0 4
6 5 8 6 6
2
9 0 3
3
6 0 2
0
3 0 1
1
12 0 4
3 2 1 0 4 11 0 4
Note that division by 2 is carried out as long as we want to extend the terms of the quotient and stopped as
Exercise1
Divide x 2 x 4 x 19 x 31x p by x 3 7 x 5 and find p if the latter expression divides the former.
5 4 3 2
ans. a =15
f ' (x) 1 1 1 1
............... …………………(3)
f (x) x a1 x a 2 x a 3 x an
………………………………………………………………………..,
……………………………………………………………………….., etc.
with this substitution in (3) and collecting the coefficients of x –n-1 we observe that
f’(x)/f(x).
1 1
e.g. S1 , S 3 3 , S1 , S4 etc.
4
example1
If f x x 2 x x 1 , find S4
3 2
f ' x 3x 2 4 x 1
We have f ' x 3x 4 x 1 so that
1 1 1
3
2
,
f x x 2x x 1 x x x
2
f ' x
S 4 4 coefficient of x 5 in the expansion of .
f x
In other words,
f ' x 1 1 1 1 2 3 S S S S
f x x x x
x x2 x3 ....... x x12 x32 x 43 x54 .......
by f x x 2 x x 1 as shown below.
3 2
3 4 1
1
6 3 3
2
4 2 2
1
4 2 2
1
10 5 5
3 2 2 5 10 3 5...................
f ' x 3 S1 S 2 S3 S 4
3 2 2 5 10
2 3 4 5 ....... ; 2 3 4 5 .......... then S 10
4 4
Thus
f x x x x x x x x x x x
Exercise2
If f x x x 1 , find S6
3
ans. 5.
Exercise3
If f x x x 7 x x 6 , find S6 and S6
4 3 2
ans. .99, 795.
If a polynomial or any continuous derivable function f(x) (derivable required number of times) has n factors
each equal to x – a , n times , its derivative f’(x) contains n – 1 of the same factor.
Let f(x) = (x – a)n(x) . Differentiating both sides, f’(x) = n(x – a)n – 1 (x) + (x – a)n’(x) = (x – a)n – 1 (x)[ n(x)
Exercise4
Solve the following if the equations have two or more equal roots.
Hint. Find a common factor between f x and f ' x
b) x 4 6 x3 12 x 2 10 x 3 0 ans. 1, 1, 1, 3.
c) x 4 9 x 2 4 x 12 0 ans. 2, 2, – 1, – 3 .
d) x 6 2 x5 4 x 4 12 x3 3x 2 18 x 18 0 ans. 3, 3,1 i.
e) x p q x p p q x p p q x p 3q 0 p, p, p, q
4 3 2 2
ans.
Exercise5
Given that the equations below have multiple roots, solve them.
Hint. Differentiate the given function f x . Find out GCD of f x and f ' x . Their GCD is the product of
multiple roots. Then divide f x by the GCD to get the reduced equation , solve it for the rest of the roots.
1 1 1
a) 8 x 4 4 x3 18 x 2 11x 2 0 ans. , , and 2
2 2 2
1 i 3 1 i 3
b) x5 x3 4 x 2 3x 2 0 ans. 2, ,
2 2
1 1 3
d) 8 x3 20 x 2 14 x 3 0 ans. , ,
2 2 2
e) x 4 9 x 2 4 x 12 0 ans. 2, 2, 1, 3
Exercise6
The function f x px 3qx 3rx s has two equal roots . Find the relation among the coefficients.
3 2
qr ps 4 pr q 2 qs r 2
2
Ans.
pq 6r
Exercise7: If three roots of x px qx rx s 0 has three equal roots, show that it is
4 3 2
.
3 p 2 8q
Exercise9: Show that the equations x px qx s 0 and 15qx 6 p x 25s 4 pr 0 have a common
5 3 2 2 2
Exercise10: Find the relation between p and q if px qx p 0 and x3 2 x 2 2 x 1 0 have a common root.
2
Ans. 2p q 0, p q 0.
We know ei would be a complex number and let it be a + ib or r(cos + i sin ) in terms of
The complex conjugates of equal numbers should be equal. Thus, taking – i in place of i throughout, for
r[cos (-)+ i sin (-)] = r[cos - i sin ] = r(cos + i sin )-1 = r.r/ ei (from (1))= r2 e-i
or, r e-i = (cos - i sin ) which is precisely (2), without taking the argument for conjugates]
dφ dφ
Differentiating both sides, iei = (- sin + icos ) =i(cos + i sin )
dθ dθ
dφ
Or, ei = (cos + i sin ) ………………………..(4)
dθ
dφ dθ
Comparing (3) and (4), 1 , but 1 so and differ by an arbitrary constant. But should be 0
dθ dθ
when is 0. Putting = 0 in (1), cos = 1 or = 2m +, where m is any integer. Thus the arbitrary constant
……………………..(6)
Interestingly i = 1 does not affect the results of Calculus as long as we insert it as a constant and
deix
could be used in problems.(We know ie ix )
dx
d
Now (cos x i sin x ) sin x i cos x i(cos x i sin x ) so cos x + i sin x and eix are similar. It will not be easy
dx
to understand cos x + i sin x = eix and similarly cos x - i sin x = e-ix until we finish the relative chapter of
§5.5: de’ Moivre’s Theorem : (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n)
Taking ei = cos + i sin , we see that ein cos i sin , but ein cos n i sin n
n
So (cos i sin ) cos n i sin n .This is called de’ Moivre’s Theorem, which is also true for
n
rational values of n. For, if n = p/q, where p, q, are integers, q > 0, ein = ei(p/q) = (ei/q)p = (cos /q + i sin
/q)p = cos p/q + i sin p/q (as the p is an integer) = cos n + i sin n. For irrational values, the proof is
beyond the scope of elementary level but the result is permitted for use. It may be seen that the theorem
holds for = 0 also. (To understand that it is true for irrational values , we may remember that an irrational
Step I : To show that the theorem is true for positive integral values of n. The theorem is also proved straight
(cos + i sin )0 = 1 = cos 0. + i sin 0., the theorem being true for n = 0.
Then (cos + i sin )1 = cos + i sin = cos 1. + i sin 1.; the theorem being true for n = 0.
Also (cos + i sin )2 = cos2 - sin2 +2i cos sin = cos 2 + i sin 2 ;
(cos + i sin )m+1 = (cos n + i sin n).(cos + i sin )= cos n cos - sin n sin +i(cos n sin + sin n cos
Which shows that the theorem is true for n = m + 1. Hence the theorem is true for all positive integral values of
m.
Step II : To show that the theorem is true for negative values of n
1 1
(cos isin )n (cos isin )-k
(cos i sin ) k
cos k i sin k
Step III : To show that the theorem is true for rational values of n. If q is a non-zero positive integer, and p be
1 1 cos k i sin k
(cosp isinp )1/q cos k i sin k
(cos i sin ) cos k i sin k cos 2 k sin 2 k
k
i
i i
2
i e 2 e 2 e 2 0.207879576... this is a transcendental number and of course, a real number.
i
1=0:
Multiplying the expression by x – 1 we get xn+1 – 1 = 0, xn+1 = 1 = eim, where m is any integer. So that we
get, x = eim/(n+1), which gives us a root for any integral value of m. if m = 0, then x = 1 or x – 1 is a factor of
xn+1 – 1; this accounts for the extraneous factor x – 1 which we have multiplied to our polynomial. For
other integral values of m , we get the roots of our polynomial. When we go on increasing m by one at a
time, we get the different roots. But after some steps, when m = m2/n+1 differs from
m = m1/n+1 by a multiple of 2 π we get the same root again which we got earlier for m = m1/n+1.So
from the origin in the complex plain . For each successive root, the difference of the argument angles is
(m+1)/(n+1) – m/n+1 = /n+1.so the roots are symmetrically placed around the origin each at a
difference of equal angle from the successive one. Thus they are placed on a circle of unit radius dividing
the circle into n+1 sectors just in a manner of images formed between two mirrors inclined to each other at
an angle /n+1.
The case when n is odd, we have even number of terms in the polynomial
we observe that , n, n - 2 , n – 4 .. etc. are all odd and as such, x + 1 is a common factor in each of the
earlier proved easily that a polynomial of odd degree has a real root opposite in sign to that of the absolute
term.
Now if the points on the circle of radius 1 , which represent the (n+1)-th roots of 1 may be joined
successively so that a polygon is obtained. This polygon must be regular, i.e., all its sides must be equal as
may be seen by joining each of any three consecutive points representing the roots of 1 on the circle to its
center and observing that the two triangles thus obtained are congruent. Alternatively if , , are the complex
numbers representing any three consecutive (n+1)-th roots of unity, it may be seen that | - | = | - | = | - |
Example1 : If is a root of the eqn. xn – s = 0, prove that its all roots are obtained by multiplying with
Example2 : If is arithmetic n-th root of the s, i.e., n s prove that its all roots are obtained by
Hint. Expand the expression and use relation between roots and coefficients.
In course of development of theory of numbers we noted that , in the set of natural numbers N,any two
numbers could be added and the result is a natural number again. But, in the inverse process, a bigger
number could not be subtracted from a smaller one in the set of natural numbers. in other words, the
set of natural numbers was not ‘closed’ in respect of subtraction. Practical necessity for subtraction of a
bigger number from a smaller one, or a number from an equal number made us looking for a bigger set
The theme can be worded differently in another way. If the eqn. x + 7 = 5 or x - c = 0 has no
solution in N, no matter. We have a bigger set I in which the eqn has a solution. Is the set I really bigger
than N ; when there is a one to one correspondence between them, from N onto I and from I onto N ?
That is another matter that they are equivalent sets. But we have found the solution of our eqn any way.
In other words, we found the integral value of x for every natural number value of f(x) where f(x) = x - c,
i.e., the existence of inverse function in the set of integers, if not found in the set of natural numbers.
This also dispenses with requirement of still a bigger set for looking for solution of f(x) = x - c , where
each of f(x), x, and c made up of any integers. The set of integers suffices for such a requirement.
F(x) = (x – a1)( x – a2)( x – a3) = x3 – (a1+ a2+ a3)x2 +(a1a2+ a1a2+ a1a2)x – a1a2a3 ,where all the symbols
are integers, we see that its solutions are in the set of integers as the function is constructed multiplying
factors like x – a1 etc. so that it is 0 only when one of the factors is 0. Instead if we take f(x) = x2 + bx +
c where the symbols are all integers, it is not always true that the inverse function x , or the zeroes of
the function in particular are all in the set of integers. We say that the inverse function does not exist as
it is not single valued; for each value of f(x) we get two values of x, may or may not be in the set of
integers. In this manner the number system was extended to the set of complex numbers C when we
agreed that the set of numbers should be closed under division (except by 0) .
In other words, looking for a solution of nx – m = 0 in the set of integers when n is non-zero and
is not a factor of m , we arrived at the set of rational numbers Q. Again the practical necessity urged us
to accept Q, the set of all fractions m/n where n is positive integer, non-zero as division by 0 is
impossible and positive for sake of brevity of expression. Maybe, this was when a tailor could make
three shirts for newborns out of a piece of cloth two meters long . The set is again seen to be equivalent
to N (countable).
Squaring, cubing or raising to powers could be construed to be a different process from multiplication
and in course of the reverse process, i.e. while taking roots we faced a problem. Again we asserted a
solution of xn – q = 0 where q is a positive and n is a natural number. Thus we arrived at the set of
irrational numbers n q or a surd. In particular if n = 2, the irrationals like 2 q or like p + 2 q were called
quadratic surds which have a ‘conjugate’ p - 2 q so that sum and products of the two numbers p + 2 q
and p - 2 q are rational numbers. Thus we could agree to solve all quadratic equations like x2 - q = 0
where q is a rational number , only on the condition that q > 0. In other words, Irrational numbers
included all such numbers which are not rationals but can be
n
expressed as a root of a rational integral algebraic function called a rational polynomial p( x ) a
n 0
nx
n
where n
is a positive integer and a1, a2,…an are all rationals. Neither its inverse function exists nor
its roots are in the set of rational numbers .But for each value of f(x) there are n values of x , maybe in the set
of rational numbers or in other bigger sets, real or complex numbers. But if they are irrational numbers
or complex numbers they must appear in conjugate pairs as the polynomial is a rational expression
Apart from the surds, the irrational numbers included ‘transcendental numbers’ which are roots of
converging infinite power series like a
n 0
nx
n
= 0, which were represented by non-repeating non-
And the like, and they do represent definite numbers (converging series of decimals).
A good example is ‘squaring of a circle’. See the figure. With a view to convert a circle of radius r to a square of
equal area consider the smallest square circumscribing the circle of each side 2r and the greatest square
inscribed in the circle of each side r 2 .if f(r) be the area of the circle, proportional to r2 say kr2. A first
approximation of f(r) may be half way between areas of two squares , 4r2 and 2r2 . But it is more than 3r2 as the
four left out pieces cover more than area of the smallest square shown in the figure of area r2. A second
approximation would be half way between 3r2 and 4r2.say 3.5r2. But this is more than area of the circle and
the small pieces left out this time cover more area than r2/2. So a third approximation would be half way
between 3r2.and 3.5r2. continuing in the manner infinite times we arrive at the area of the circle. So k must be
represented by a limit of an infinite sequence 3, 3.5, 3.25, 3.125, 3.15, 3.14, 3.145 ….. which shall be of the
form 3.145…., a non-terminating non-recurring decimal. And this number is named since thousand years.
Instead of successive averages of areas of squares A1 and A2 (say), we could have started with
nA 1 mA 2
choosing a big positive integer m and a small one, n. But still we cannot complete the calculation in
mn
only finite number of steps. The area of a circle is definite for a definite radius. Thus the
process reminds us of an alternative definition of ‘limit’ of a function f(x) at a point x = x0.in Calculus If
lim
xx 0
f x L , for any sequence x1, x2, …..upto converging on x0 , if the sequence f(x1), f(x2), f(x3), …. upto
converges to L and vice versa. If only one such sequence could be found such that a1, a2, …..up to
real numbers unless otherwise stated), we are reminded of a property of continuous functions which states,
that : if a continuous function is differentiable and monotonic, its inverse function exists (in the set of real
numbers)
The set of irrational numbers one is uncountable and really a bigger set than N or I or Q. Still we could
not solve that equation x2 – q = 0 for negative values of q, until we defined a new number 1 or i to solve x2 +
1 = 0.
Assuming the ratio of circumference to the diameter of any circle is , it is a well-known technique to
other in a row in the manner shown. In the limiting case when n , 0 and the arrangement is more and
more like a rectangle with one side equal to r and the other side equal to half the perimeter of the circle i.e., r
Theorem :
So far said about the roots of polynomials. What about functions that are not polynomials ?. and what about
the roots of algebraic equations or polynomials of degree 5 or more , whose roots cannot be found out just by
equation solving as told by Abel, although there is guarantee of a root existing as per fundamental theorem of
Algebra? For a majority class of functions including the polynomials, there is a theorem due to Picard for
In fact all the three methods ( 4 , including the bisection method) are numerical methods. To explain what
numerical methods are, take the example of finding out the square root of a 4-5 digit number by division
it may be represented by
; a b c d ... a a 2a b b 2a 2b c c.... each time multiplying the previous divisor by two before
2
adding another term in the root calculation; so that , if the root is not exactly a, it may be a + b, if not so, then it
To find solution(s) of a function f(x) = 0 , provided a real valued solution exists at all, Picard proceeds thus. Any
f(x) + x = x or g(x) = x ; where g(x) = f(x) + x. Graphically, the problem of finding where the graph of y = f(x)
meet the X-axis is same as finding where the two graphs y = g(x) and y = x intersect. Another way of looking at
g(x) = x is that the function or operator g cannot change x even after operating on it. Thus its solutions which
are the same as the roots of f(x), are called fixed points of g(x). Mark that the concept of fixed point is similar
to our concepts of identity, constant, invariant , conservation etc. A particular point x = x0 chosen at random
may be verified whether it is a fixed point or not. If it is a fixed point, then O.K. we got a root. If it is not a root, it
may be close to a root, if we have a reasonable guess. Yes, a reasonable guess would be a far more helpful
rather than a random choice. And what is a reasonable guess ? The function domain should be divided into
intervals in which the function monotonically increases; or decreases for that matter. And those
subintervals should be picked up for choosing x = x0 in which the function changes value from positive
to negative or vice versa. Naturally a root is expected in that subinterval ; separating the intervals in
g(x0) , x2 = g(x1) , x3 = g(x2) , x4 = g(x3) , x5 = g(x4) , etc. There is an easy way to know whether proceeding
through the sequence x1, x2, x3 ………. we are approaching the solution or going away from it. Naturally if the
successive difference between successive terms diminishes, then we are definitely nearing the fixed point. In
symbols,
g(x n ) - g(x n -1 )
or, if 1
x n x n 1
In such a condition, graphically meaning that the curve g’(x) being a one piece smooth graph lying under the
line y = x ,for all x > x0 for some x0 which passes entirely below the dividing line y = x , must have a solution or
fixed point which can be arrived at , in this manner. Otherwise g(x) would be increasing over the baseline y = x
and shall never cross it. Even for those functions for which
g(x n ) - g(x n -1 )
1 , we make a small manipulation. If g(x) admits of an inverse function we have g(x) = x x
x n x n 1
g(x n ) - g(x n -1 ) g -1 (x n ) - g -1 (x n -1 ) x n 1 x n
-1
= g (x) and if 1 , we have 1 so that g-
x n x n 1 x n x n 1 x n x n 1
1
(x) has a fixed point which can be reached in the same manner. Now it would be shown that g(x) and g -1(x)
have the same fixed points . The inverse function is obtained ( if at all it exists) by putting x in place of y and y
in place of x. So the graphs of the function and its inverse function are mirror images of each other in the
shall intersect y = x at the same point , being its mirror image so that g(x) and g-1(x ) have the same fixed
g(x n ) - g(x n -1 )
points. Now if 1 so that the graph of g(x) lies entirely above the line y = x,
x n x n 1
g -1 (x n ) - g -1 (x n -1 )
then 1 and the graph of g-1(x) being the mirror image of graph of g(x), shall lie below the
x n x n 1
line y = x and its fixed points would be the fixed points of g(x) and may be obtained in the
similar manner. So this powerful thinker, Charles Emile Piccard (1856 – 1941), a French mathematician
not only gave an existence theorem for solutions of most of the commonplace functions, but gave an algorithm
as to how to find it; and that too with simplest ideas. In short, this is how to write a solution of an equation
if a function has a root, it can be dug out. Computer programmes may be set up to successively find the
ourselves, for it may take a life time for simply finding a root! Translated to the language of
g(x n ) - g(x n -1 )
Calculus, the theorem may be restated by changing 1 to the necessary condition g’(x) < 1
x n x n 1
instead, for differentiable functions, obviously. The problem regarding how rapidly the
x
For example, take a function g ( x) 5 x , which would be solved by Piccard’s method if we hazard a
6
1
reasonable guess for x0 6.5 say, as g '( x) 1 . But Piccard’s method won’t solve the same equation
6
chosen in many ways. Piccard also extended his idea to an existence theorem in differential equations. For a
differential equation the corresponding may be called the fundamental theorem of differential equations.
Ans. We have to extract a relation g x x out of the equation in such a manner that g ' x 1 . Do not
confuse that g ' x 1 identically. This is not so, for, g x x is not true identically, but only for the roots of
the equation. Actually y g x and y x are independent functions and the intersection of their graphs are
the roots of g x x 0 , i.e., fixed points of g x x . Now, if g ' x 1 always, the two graphs evidently do
not intersect.
1
In this particular problem, let f x x x 1 0 , or, x x 2 1 1 0 , i.e., x
3
x 1
2
g x . Also the criteria
2 x
g ' x 1 is satisfied for all x. As a reasonable guess, note that f 1 1and
1 x2
2
f 0.5 0.625 1 0.375 , having opposite sign of that of f 1 . So there must be a real root between 0.5
and 1.
1 1
Now starting from x0 1 , we have x1 2 0.5 .
x0 1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1 1
Now x2 0.800 . Note that x3 2 0.610 . In the same way,
x 1 0.5 1 0.25 1
1
2 2
x2 1 0.8 2 1
1 1 1 1
x4 0.729 ., x5 2 0.653 ,
x3 1 0.610 1
2 2
x4 1 0.729 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
x6 0.701 , x7 2 0.6705 , x8 2 0.6898 .
x5 1 0.653 1
2 2
x6 1 0.701 1
2
x7 1 0.6705 2 1
In this way, the process approaches further and further to the root, albeit oscillating about the root.
Then what is the need of doing such a long and tedious process? In fact, The process explains the algorithm
given to computer for calculation of the root , rather than doing it manually; and the theory helps in developing
a) x 2 x Ans. 0.
b) xx Ans. 1.
Hint : observe from the figure. Take x0 1 as the starting point and use the recursion formula
xn1 cos xn . Observe the points, (1, 0.54), (0.54, 0.54), (0.54, 0.86),(0.86, 0.65) etc. encircle the intersection
point and through which the dashed spiral (the iteration path)closes on the point (0.73909, 0.73909) , the
root of
x cos x .
d) sin x x 0.1 Ans. 0.85
x x
e) In the above figure the two st lines y 3 and y x meet at (4,4), a fixed point of x 3 . But
4 4
written differently, the same equation 4x 12 x is not solved by Piccard’s method ; the sequence of
points diverge away. See the figure below. This is obviously because g ' x 1 . This is both ways
whether we take x0 4 or x0 4 .
1
. Now x1 g x0 cos 3 1.5 ,
2 2
x2 g x1
1
2
cos 1.5 3 1.535 , x3 g x2 cos 1.535 3 1.518 ,
1
2
x4 g x3
1
2
cos 1.518 3 1.527 , x5 g x4 cos 1.527 3 1.522 ,
1
2
x6 g x5
1
2
cos 1.522 3 1.524 , x7 g x6 cos 1.524 3 1.523 ,
1
2
x8 g x7
1
2
cos 1.523 3 1.524 and so on.
Instead of taking g ( x) x out of f x 0 and finding where g ( x) y and y x meet, we may take an functions
If an equation has more than one root , Picard’s method may not give all the roots if you
carve out a function g x x from the given function f x 0 . Take an example, x x gives the root x = 1
but not the root x = 1, whereas both functions are the fixed point versions of the same function f x x x .
2
x 1
Exercise19 : Find a root of the equation sin x . Ans.: -5.5174.
x_1
f x 0
There is another method due to Newton or Newton-Raphson method. For the smooth function (not
necessarily a polynomial) take a guess x x0 expecting the real root lies at a distance h from it , we have,
f ' x0
approximation as x0 is only a guess. So we may take x1 x0 h x0
f x0 as a further approximation. In
f ' x1
x2 x1
this way we may reiterate
f x1 as a third approximation and continue the iteration
f ' xn
xn1 xn lim
f xn in this manner until the limit of the sequence n xn evolves out.
This is called ‘tangent method’ because we have used the slope of the tangent at x x0 .; i.e.
f x0 h f x
f ' x0 for small h. Newton’s method is not free of trouble anyway. If the slope of the
h
graph is too much near the root, initial the guess value should be very close to the actual root and the iteration
may proceed toward other roots if any or diverge away from the target root altogether. Further , if the slope of
the curve is too little near the initial guess value, further iterations would be very close to it as the curve
changes too little, rather than being close to the actual root. If f ' x0 0 the
iteration engine shall cease altogether. However, the interval [a, b] in which a root lies must be an informed
ab
guess by the criteria f a f b 0 . A plain procedure may be adopted thereafter, f
2
ab ab
may be found out and tested for f a f 0 . If not, f b f 0 is a must, for f a are f b
2 2
ab
of opposite signs. Then f is a further approximation . the process may be repeated
2
many times for desired degree of accuracy. This process itself (called bisection method ) would suffice if
f a 16
. Since h1 0.3 .so the first approximation of the root is 4+.03 = 4.3. Now f 4.3 2.3 , and
f ' a 57
Note: Descartes’ rule of signs says that the equation x3 x 2 x 100 has only one positive root.(prove)
1
Example5 : Find 2 3 by Newton’s method.
Ans. : Let f x x 2 0 . So, f ' x 3x . Starting an approximate root of the equation x0 1 ,
3 2
f x0 13 2 1 4
x1 x0 1 1 .
f ' x0 3.12
3 3
3
4
2
f x1 4 3 91
Then x2 x1 .
f ' x1 3 4
2
72
3
3
Exercise21: Give a scheme using Newton-Raphson method to find out cube root of a Natural number.
2 xn3 N
Ans.: xn 1 .
3xn 2
Exercise22: Give a scheme using Newton-Raphson method to find out reciprocal of a natural number.
f x0 52 24 f x1 0.01
x1 x0 5 5 0.1 4.9 . then . x2 x1 4.9 4.899 .
f ' x0 2 5 f ' x1 9.8
3x0 5
2
35 2
Misc. Exercise
32)
§5.11: Approximate roots by Secant method
We take a guess point A(x0,f(x0)) and another point B(x1,f(x1)) near the root , which is represented by the point
P in the figure, where the curve cuts the X – axis. Now draw the secant AB.
f x1 f x0
The equation of the secant is y f x0 . This cuts the X – axis at y 0 , i.e.,
x1 x0
out the root; but no; this is at best an approximation; for x0 is an approximation. So we put is
x2 x0
x1 x0 f x0 x x0 f x1 x1 f x0 as a second approximation. This works if
f x1 f x0 f x1 f x0
2
x1 f x2 x2 f x1
place of x2 if still f x2 f x0 0 ; so that x3 and the iteration works. If
f x2 f x1
xn 1 f xn xn f xn 1
still we have f x3 f x0 0 ; then successive approximations may be given by xn 1 .if
f xn f xn 1
f xn1 f xn 0 This is also called regula falsi method of method of false position.
f 0.672 0.0245 . Though it seems we have got a little farther off, as it seems, but the next step
x1 f x2 x2 f x1 0 f 0 2
x3 0.57807 .Evidently the root is positive.
f x2 f x1 f 1 f 0 3.45976
Now f x3 f 0.57807 3 0.57807 cos 0.57807 1 0.10335 ( never be afraid of this minus sign, this
f x3 f x1 0.103351.45976 0 and the root is therefore between x3 and x1 .Taking this as x4 , we have.
f x3 f x1 0.103351.45976 0 and the root is therefore between x4 and x1 .Taking this as x5 , we have
1. Quadratic Equations
2. Ordinary and Partial Differentiation, Taylor’s theorem and
Applications
3. Conic Sections I and II
4. Asymptotes
5. Matrices and Determinants
6. Vectors, straight Lines, Planes and Forces
7. Integration, Central Forces and LCR Circuits
8. Symbolic Logic, Mathematical Logic and Logical Gates
9. Transformations of Coordinates
10.and Lagrange’s Equations
11.Identity, Division and Symmetry