What is Autopilot, its principle and details?

An autopilot (or pilot) is a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system which can maintain a vessel on a
predetermined (set) course without the need for human intervention. Using a direct or indirect
connection with a vessel’s steering mechanism, the autopilot relieves the crew from the task of manually
steering the ship.

Autopilot have evolved from simple course holding systems to adaptive computer systems that offer
reduced fuel costs and increased transit times. These new systems learn the characteristics of the
vessel’s handling and minimize rudder movement reducing drag on the vessel. Increased speed and
lower fuel consumption makes autopilot more user friendly.

Autopilots do not replace a human operator, but assist them in controlling the ship, allowing them to
focus on broader aspects of operation, such as monitoring the trajectory, weather and systems.

This instrument is not to replace the helmsman.

It is not to be used in restricted waters or during manoeuvring.

Not to be used for large alterations of more than 15-20

Autopilot will operate efficiently over a certain speed (approx. > 5 knots), below which it will start to
wander.

Autopilot is normally used when ship has to steer same course for long period of time.

autopilot

What is working principle of autopilot system?

An output from a gyro or magnetic repeating compass is coupled to a differential amplifier along with a
signal derived from a manual course-setting control. If no difference exists between the two signals, no
output will be produced by the amplifier and no movement of the rudder occurs. When a difference is
detected between the two sources of data, an output error signal, proportional in magnitude to the size
of the difference, is applied to the heading error amplifier. Output of this amplifier is coupled to the
rudder actuator circuit, which causes the rudder to move in the direction determined by the sign of the
output voltage. The error signal between compass and selected course inputs produces an output
voltage from the differential amplifier that is proportional to the off-course error. This type of control,
therefore, is termed ‘proportional’ control. As it has been shown, the use of proportional control only,
causes the vessel to oscillate either side of its intended course due to inertia producing overshooting.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

The effect on steering when only proportional control is applied causes the rudder to move by an
amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer and the ship will oscillate on either
side of the required course-line.

DERIVATIVE CONTROL

The rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of change of ship’s deviation from the
course. The ship will make good a course which is parallel to the required course and will continue to do
so until the autopilot is again caused to operate by external force acting on the ship.

INTEGRAL CONTROL

There are certain errors due to design parameters of the vessel which have to be corrected. Data signals
are produced by continuously sensing heading error over a period of time and applying an appropriate
degree of permanent helm is used for this purpose. The permanent helm acts as mid-ship.

PID CONTROL

The output of the three controls are combined and the net resultant drives the rudder. This type of
autopilot is also called as PID Auto Pilot.

A Proportional–Integral–Derivative Controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback mechanism

(controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A PID controller continuously calculates an
error value as the difference between a desired set point and a measured process variable. The
controller attempts to minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the
position of a control valve, a damper, or the power supply.

P accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is large and positive, the control
output will also be large and positive.

I accounts for past values of the error. For example, if the current output is not sufficiently strong, error
will accumulate over time, and the controller will respond by applying a stronger action.

D accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of change
With a Proportional, Integral and Derivative steering control system, the oscillation is minimized by
modifying the error signal produced as the difference between the selected heading and the compass
heading. Figure shows that a three-input summing-amplifier is used, called a dynamics amplifier, to
produce a resultant output signal equal to the sum of one or more of the input signals.

The demanded rudder error signal is inspected by both the differentiator and the integrator. The
differentiator determines the rate of change of heading as the vessel returns to the selected course. This
sensed rate of change, as a voltage, is compared with a fixed electrical time constant and, if necessary, a
counter rudder signal is produced. The magnitude of this signal slows the rate of change of course and
thus damps the off-course oscillation.

Obviously the time constant of the differentiation circuit is critical if oscillations are to be fully damped.
Time constant parameters depend upon the design characteristics of the vessel and are normally
calculated and set when the vessel undergoes initial trials. In addition, a ‘counter rudder’ control is fitted
in order that the magnitude of the counter rudder signal may be varied to suit prevailing conditions

What are settings of Autopilot system?

Permanent helm:

To be used only if a constant influence, like cross wind or beam sea is experienced. If there is a very
strong beam wind from starboard side then a permanent 5 degrees starboard helm may be set.

Rudder:

This setting determines the rudder to be given for each degree of course drifted. Eg. 2 degrees for every
1 degree off course.

Counter rudder:

Determines the amount of counter rudder to be given once v/l has started swinging towards correct
course to stop swing. Both rudder & counter rudder to be set after considering condition of v/l (ballast,
loaded, etc.). Eg. Laden condition full ahead, not advisable to go over 10 degrees rudder.

Weather:
The effect of weather & sea conditions effectively counteracted by use of this control. This setting
increases the dead band width. Comes in handy if vessel is yawing excessively.

What are different Steering modes of Auto Pilot?

Auto / manual: allows user to select between manual steering & autopilot. Officer to steer correct
course, rudder to be on midships,course to steer set (gyro pointer on lubber line), off course alarm set
before changing over to autopilot.

Follow up: if rudder is to be put on starboard 10, helm is put on starboard 10. When helm is on midship
rudder will return to midships.

Non-follow up: if rudder to be put on starboard 10 helm is turned to starboard, a few degrees before
starboard 10 the helm is put on midships, rudder then settles on starboard 10. If rudder goes beyond
starboard 10, slight port helm to be given. Rudder will remain on starboard 10 even when helm is
returned to midship. To bring it back to midships port helm to be given.

What is Off course alarm?

It is fitted on the autopilot usually set for 5 or 10 degrees. If difference between actual course & course
set by officer for autopilot is more than value set for alarm, it will sound.

This alarm will not sound in case of gyro failure.

Only indication in this case is a gyro failure alarm. Gyro compass & repeaters to compared frequently
along with magnetic compass.

What are disadvantages of Autopilot?

The auto pilot gives rudder according to the gyro heading.

If the gyro fails the autopilot will still keep the gyro course & wander with the gyro.

Gyro alarm to be taken seriously or the v/l will collide if there are sudden alterations.
Understanding Steering Gear in Ships

We are all familiar with the use of a rudder, which helps in turning a ship as and when required. Rudders
are the principal system for the entire motion and control of the ships. But we mustn’t forget that the
entire rudder action is dependent on another pivotal system called the Steering Gear.

Steering Gear integrated with the rudder system defines the complete ‘turning mechanism’ mandatory
for each and every ship irrespective of size, type and operation.

Steering gears have been an indispensable part of the ship’s machinery since the advent of the very early
ships, which were operated by hand.

Figure 1: Hand operated steering wheel at helm for olden ships

The efficiency of performance of steering gear depends on some main aspects. These basic requirements
to be invariably met by all steering gears are guided by rules set by classification societies. They can be
briefly outlined as:

As per standard requirements, the steering gear should be capable of steering the ship from 35 degrees
port to 35 degrees starboard and vice-versa with the vessel plying forwards at a steady head-on speed
for maximum continuous rated shaft rpm. and summer load waterline within a time frame of maximum
28 seconds

With one of the power units inoperative, the rudder shall be capable of turning 15 degrees port to 15
degrees starboard (and vice-versa) within a time frame of 1 minute with the vessel moving at half its
rated maximum speed or 7 knots (whichever is greater) at summer load line

The major power units and the control systems are to be duplicated so that if one of them fails, the
other can easily substitute for them as standby

Emergency Power Supply: The steering gear system is to be provided with additional power unit
(hydraulic pump etc.) connected to the emergency power supply from Emergency Generator, which shall
be capable of turning the rudder from 15 degrees from one side to other side within 60 seconds with the
vessel moving at a maximum service speed or 7 knots, whichever is greater

As ships continued to grow in size and became faster, modern systems easing human effort were
incorporated. Basically, there are two types of commonly used steering gear systems present:

Hydraulic

Electro-hydraulic typeThough the system has undergone some major evolution, the basic physics of
operation remains the same.

Figure 2: Modern day advanced steering control at helm

The main control of the steering operations is given from the helm of any ship, similar to an automobile
where the entire control of the vehicle’s “steer-ability” rests on the steering wheel of the driver. The
‘control force’ for turning is triggered off from the wheel at the helm, which reaches the steering gear
system. The steering gear system generates a torsional force at a certain scale which is then, in turn, is
transmitted to the rudder stock that turns the rudder. The intermediate steering systems of a modern
day ship can be multifarious with each small component having its own unique function. We omit to
discuss each and every such component in detail.

A better illustration for the exact work sequence of in a simple rudder system is given in the following
figure.

Figure 3: Primitive Steering Gear System layout

Figure 4: Representative image of Steering Gear arrangement in a ship

The rudder system consists of the following:

Rudder actuators

Power units

Other auxiliary equipment needed to apply turn the rudder by applying torque

Hydraulic pumps and valves

In hydraulic and electro-hydraulic systems, hydraulic pressure is developed by hydraulic pumps which are
mainly driven by electric motors (electro-hydraulic systems) or sometimes through purely mechanical
means (hydraulic systems). However, mainly advanced electro-hydraulic systems are predominant in
ships nowadays. These hydraulic pumps play a crucial role in generating the required pressure to create
motions in the steering gear which can trigger the necessary rotary moments in the rudder system.
These pumps are basically of two major types:

Radial piston type (Hele-Shaw)

Axial Piston type (Swash plate)

Actuators mediate the coordination between the generated hydraulic pressure from pumps (driven
electrically, of course) and the rudder stock by converting it into a mechanical force creating a turning
moment for the rudder. Actuators are now mainly electrically driven by power units. These actuators, in
turn, can be of two types:

Piston or cylindrical arrangement

Vane type rotor

The types of actuator systems depict the types of steering gears present on ships, which are also
segregated as Ram type and Rotary Vane type arrangements accordingly. Let’s discuss them in brief.

RAM TYPE STEERING GEAR

Ram type steering gear is one of the commonly used steering gear construction and is quite expensive in
construction. The basic principle is same as that of a hydraulically-driven motor engine or lift.

There are four hydraulic cylinders attached to the two arms of the actuator disc, on both sides. These
cylinders are directly coupled to electrically driven hydraulic pumps which generate hydraulic pressure
through pipes. This hydraulic pressure field present in the pumps imparts motion to the hydraulic
cylinders, which in turn corresponds with the actuator to act upon the rudder stock. As we know, rudder
stock is an indispensable part of the entire steering gear arrangement of ships and dictates the exact
behaviour of the rudder response.

The sense of turning the rudder is guided by the action of the hydraulic pump. The physics behind its
function can be explained better with the help of the following figure.

Figure 5: Ram type steering Gear

Here the cylinders denoted A and C are connected to the discharge side of the pump. This generates a
positive pressure in the piston cylinders. On the contrary, the other two cylinders B and D are connected
to the suction side of the pump. This creates a negative pressure in the cylinders. The resultant forces
create a clockwise moment in the rudder. To put it simply, positive and negative pressures from pumps
generate lateral forces on the rams which create a couple for turning the rudder stock.

Similarly, to put it in a anticlockwise turning sense, the reverse is carried out, viz. the discharge ends of
the pumps are connected to the cylinders B and D, while the suction side of the pumps are to A and C.
This reverse pressure flow from hydraulic pumps is achieved with the help of control valves operated
from the wheelhouse.

The ram type steering gear arrangement produces a considerably high value of torque for a given applied
power. The hydraulic oil pressure varies from 100 bars to 175 bars depending on the size of the rudder
and torque required.

ROTARY VANE TYPE STEERING GEAR

In rotary vane steering gear, there is a fixed housing in which two vanes rotate. The housing along with
the vanes form four chambers. The physics behind its operation is similar to the ram type with a small
difference.

Figure 6: Rotary Vane type Steering Gear

When chambers A and C are pressurised, there is an anticlockwise rotation of the vanes. A and C are
connected to the discharge side of the pump while chambers B and D are connected to the suction side
of the pump.

Similarly, when clockwise rotation is required, B and D are connected to the discharge side of the pump
while A and C are connected to the suction side of the pump. As above, this is also operated by
specialised control valves.

Thus, differential pressurization of the chambers cause rotational moments in the vane.

Rotary vane type arrangement is used when the pressure requirement is 60 to 100 bar for producing
required torque. This is the main advantage of rotary vane type steering gear, requiring lesser hydraulic
pressure and thus power for producing the same amount of torque as ram type.

There are 3 fixed and 3 moving vanes, which can make rudder angles up to 70 degrees, i.e 35 degrees on
each side.

This arrangement has several other advantages like lower installation cost, less weight and smaller space
required.

The fixed and rotating vanes are of spheroidal graphite cast iron. Keys are often provided in the rotary
vanes for proper strength and orientation.

Manual Steering System

The Sperry Marine NAVIGUIDE 4000 Manual Ship Steering System is the first steering system which uses
ship steering control network technology to control a ship. The NAVIGUIDE 4000 Manual Steering System
has multiple configurations to meet specific customer requirements. The ship steering system is fully
type approved by Germanischer Lloyd.

An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of an aircraft without constant 'hands-on' control
by a human operator being required. Autopilots do not replace human operators, but instead they assist
them in controlling the aircraft. This allows them to focus on broader aspects of operations such as
monitoring the trajectory, weather and systems.
The autopilot is often used in conjunction with the autothrottle, when present, which is the analogous
system controlling the power delivered by the engines.

The autopilot system on airplanes is sometimes colloquially referred to as "George".