T E C H N I C A L A R T I C L E

A Renaissance of Color: Particle

Separation and Preparation of Azurite
for Use in Oil Painting A B S T R A C T

T he discovery of a technique
for the particle separation and
Michael Price preparation of the blue mineral
pigment azurite for use in an oil
painting medium aids the compari-
son of colors used in the Renais-
sance with modern synthetic pig-

T he use of color in painting is almost as un-

questionable as the activity of painting is inexplicable. How-
ever, what is questionable is whether the large range of mod-
ern synthetic colors provides the artist or restorer of today
with anything superior to the natural pigments and minerals
used by the Old Masters. Advances in conservation, and, in
particular, in methods of examination, have brought many
new insights into the painting methods of the past, but have
had very little effect on artists’ or restorers’ techniques. With
a much smaller range of pigments, consisting essentially of
natural pigments and minerals and a few synthetic pigments,
the artists of the Italian and Northern European Renaissance
were able to achieve color nuances and a luminosity that can
hardly be matched today. During the long transition from the
use of natural pigments to modern-day synthetic pigments,
evidently many undocumented studio secrets of the Renais-
sance were lost.
Natural pigments are of mineral, vegetable or animal ori-
gin. Mineral pigments include many colors of considerable
stability, such as the ochres and umbers, as well as such ex-
quisite hues as azurite, malachite, lapis lazuli (natural ultra-
marine), cinnabar, orpiment and realgar. A few pigments ex-
tracted from vegetable or animal sources, such as indigo, root
madder and carmine, reveal varying degrees of permanency
under certain conditions. Many of these pigments were used
in the early eras of painting, with their use continuing
through the Renaissance, until their importance was slowly
eclipsed from the eighteenth century onward by the advent
of considerably cheaper synthetic pigments.
In May 1997, after 7 years of research in libraries and stu-
dio experimentation, I discovered a method of separating the
different particle sizes of the mineral pigment azurite into
different hues of blue, from a deep rich blue to a pale sky
blue, for use in an oil medium. This method of levigation
(mineral particle separation) produces hues of chromatic in-
tensity that are more brilliant than those based on translated
and published medieval and Renaissance recipes.
At the beginning of 1998, Georg Kremer of Kremer Pig-
ments in Germany announced, in a company newsletter, this
discovery and the introduction of a new range of azurite blue
pigments, now called “azurite MP.” The pigment is available
in seven grades (according to average particle size) from a
deep “royal” blue to a pale sky blue. For personal studio use,
up to 14 grades of azurite blue pigments are available.
Michael Price (artist), 160 West End Ave. #20 U, New York, NY 10023, U.S.A. E-mail:
<rheeprice@cs.com>.
The most famous Renaissance
handbook of any practical use for
the artist on the subject of prepar-
ments. Chroma or chromatic
intensity is presented as the key
to understanding the language of
color theory. This is supported by
the first images ever of azurite cut
by a focused ion beam (FIB) in or-
ing pigments is Cennino Cennini’s der to compare unprepared and
The Craftsman’s Handbook [1]. De- prepared particles of the mineral
and thus demonstrate the impor-
tails that are now apparently miss- tance of the preparation process.
ing in Cennini’s instructions may The implications of a natural pig-
have been common knowledge of ment renaissance for artists and
the time. The recent three volume restorers are assessed.
series Artists’ Pigments, A Handbook
of Their History and Characteristics
[2], published by the National
Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., is very informative and pro-
vides an indispensable scientific background into the proper-
ties of natural and synthetic pigments and their identification,
but is of little use to the artist or restorer interested in prepar-
ing and working with mineral pigments. Other books about the
methods and materials of the Masters (one includes transla-
tions of recipes from well-known manuscripts [3]), expose the
chasm between theory and practice.
THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR
Many color theorists have attempted to provide the artist with
a system of rational analysis to codify the causes and effects of
color. In any discussion of the theory and practice of color,
the vocabulary should be defined. Generally, the terms now
accepted as the basic “three dimensions” for describing color
in white light are hue, saturation and tone [4]. Hue refers to
the attribute of a color that allows it to be classified as red,
blue, yellow, green, etc. The hue of a particle in transmitted
or reflected light is dependent on the absorption characteris-
tics of its chemical substances. For instance, if the particle ab-
sorbs yellow light, the transmitted and reflected light will be
mainly at the blue end of the spectrum. Saturation refers to
the percentage of pure hue present in any mixture. Tone re-
fers to the amount of black or white in any hue. This nomen-
clature was developed and clarified during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries at the same time as the transition
from natural to synthetic pigments occurred [5]. What is no
longer considered by artists and art historians is the chroma,
or chromatic intensity, of the pigments. Without an understand-
ing of this optical property of pigments, which in turn affects
our understanding of luminosity [6], there can be no in-
depth comprehension of the language of color.
The main difference between synthetic and natural pig-
ments is the chroma of the particle or particles. The chroma,

© 2000 ISAST LEONARDO, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 281–288, 2000 281
or chromatic intensity, of a color, which
is the dominant wavelength as observed
in transmitted or reflected light, is de-
pendent on the particle’s size as well as
the absorption characteristics of its
chemical constituents. The size of a par-
ticle is expressed in micrometers. One
micrometer (µm) is 1/1000 of a milli-
meter. To make a comparison, many syn-
thetic pigments that are extremely fine
powders, such as cobalt blue, have a par-
ticle size well below 1 µm, whereas a
large particle of deep blue azurite will
range between 60 to 120 µm. Thus two
colors can exhibit similar hues, but very
different chromatic intensities.
With regard to chemical composition,
a particle of azurite contains inclusions.
These so-called impurities are either
smaller crystals of another mineral or
other chemical substances embedded at
a molecular level. Synthesized cobalt
blue, on the other hand, will have a pu-
282 Price, A Renaissance of Color
rity seldom present in nature. Azurite,
according to its origin and the method
used to clean it, will reflect not only blue
light, but also other parts of the spec-
trum—red, yellow or green—due to the
chemical substances constituting the in-
clusions. In comparison, cobalt blue will
reflect the blue wavelength that is par-
ticular to the properties of the chemical
substances in the manufactured pig-
ment. (In addition, the hue may be
modified by the substances the producer
has added in order to intensify or modify
any particular hue.) Expressed simply,
the part of the spectrum reflected by
azurite will be wider, and therefore chro-
matically more intense, and that re-
flected by cobalt blue will be narrower,
so that the synthetic pigment will be per-
ceived as more garish or loud (Fig. 1).
In addition to the difference of chro-
matic intensity, the luminosity of the
paint surface is a result of the refraction
Fig. 1. The small
spots in the particle
of azurite (left) rep-
resent inclusions.
The thicker black ar-
rows represent the
blue part of the spec-
trum and the thinner
lines represent pos-
sible traces of other
reflected colors.
(© Michael Price)
Fig. 2. A particle of
azurite showing re-
flected light, re-
fracted light and
transmitted light.
(© Michael Price)
and reflection of light. The refraction of
light occurs when light passes through
mediums of different density and is bent
or refracted as a result (Fig. 2). The de-
gree of refraction depends on the crys-
tallographic properties and optical char-
acteristics of the particle. The refraction
of light through a layer of paint also de-
pends on the painting medium in which
the pigment particles are embedded.
The bigger and more irregular the azur-
ite particles, the more light can reach
the white ground of the painting and be
reflected from it, thus considerably in-
creasing the luminosity of the painted
area (compare Figs 3 and 4).
THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF AZURITE
The stone azurite is dark blue and is
sometimes found pure, sometimes in
sandstone or associated with malachite.
It is composed of basic carbonate of cop-
per, 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2, and is sensitive
to acids. This sensitivity means azurite
must be prepared correctly for use in an
oil medium or the copper will react with
the acid in the oil, resulting in a green-
ish discoloration of the medium. How-
ever, when azurite is used correctly, it is
an extremely stable pigment and is per-
manent in light. Its use as a pigment
goes back to classical antiquity.
The hues of blue that can be ex-
tracted from the stone are extraordi-
nary, from a deep blue, close to ultrama-
rine, to a pale sky blue. The hue is
determined by the particle size, and the
purity of the hue in any selected grade
depends on the evenness of particle size.
When particle sizes are mixed, the color
appears to be a rather disappointing
grey-greenish blue (Fig. 5). Azurite is sky
blue below 30 µm, becoming paler as
the particle size decreases. It is dark blue
with a slightly greenish hue from 40 to
60 µm, similar to the hues of modern
cobalt blue. Due to the typical homoge-
neity of synthetic pigments, cobalt blue
lacks the chromatic intensity of azurite
(compare Figs 5 and 6). Above 80 µm,
the color of azurite is a deep rich blue,
but it becomes increasingly difficult to
work with. The maximum particle size
for painting purposes is about 80 to 120
µm, which is the texture of fine sand.
HISTORICAL PREPARATION
METHODS
The preparation of azurite starts with
untreated azurite that has been ground
and washed. Medieval methods of sepa-
 rating azurite from sand and other im-
purities were relatively simple and inge-
nious. These included grinding azurite
with soap, boiling it so that the sand
would sink and the blue particles would
float [7]. Various methods of levigation
in solutions such as gum arabic and
even honey and water were used [8],
many of which I tried out, but with poor
results. The separated grades of azurite
were not protected from the acid in an
oil medium. The paler blue grades did
not exhibit the pure hues that can be
observed in many paintings by Flemish
Masters. Some interesting methods of
Fig. 3. The typical layering of azurite in a cross-section through a paint layer on canvas. Due extracting azurite from impurities ap-
to the size and irregularity of the particles of azurite, the light reaches the white ground
and is reflected, thus giving the color its luminosity. (© Michael Price) pear in texts where azurite has been mis-
taken for natural ultramarine [9].
Scientific examination of medieval
and Renaissance paintings has often
found traces of protein when azurite has
been well preserved in an oil medium
[10]. Following my observation of what
appeared to be a most promising par-
ticle separation in May 1997, I carried
out additional, separate experiments
with (1) a solution of egg yolk and dis-
tilled water and (2) casein [11] with dis-
tilled water to cause the initial mineral
Fig. 4. The small particles of cobalt blue constitute a very homogenous layer of color, particle separation.
which reduces the possibility of light reflection from the white ground. (© Michael Price)

METHODS OF PREPARATION
At first, my experiment with the egg yolk
produced better results, especially with
large particles of azurite. There was a re-
action with the diluted egg yolk from
the beginning of mixing that does not
occur with egg white or glue size. At the
end of the process, there was a residue
of impurities, which when dry is best de-
scribed as an ugly brown-blue-grey
“cake.” When I later mulled the pre-
pared dry azurite pigment in linseed
stand oil, there was no discoloration of
the oil medium, which always starts im-
mediately.
To levigate azurite in a diluted egg-
yolk solution, one needs at least six 1-li-
ter stainless steel bowls, one good, fresh
egg yolk, about 2 liters of distilled water
and half a liter of ethyl alcohol per 100
grams of untreated azurite powder.
Combine 1 part pure egg yolk to 3 parts
water. Mix the azurite powder and some
Fig. 5. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of large unprepared azurite particles of the diluted egg yolk solution to a
covered in azurite “dust.” These tiny particles hinder the refraction and reflection of light, paste, add the rest of the solution, stir
causing a loss of chromatic intensity. The color becomes a dull grey-greenish blue. The thoroughly and pour it off almost imme-
scale of 50 µm is shown at the top left of the image. (© Rolf Treichler)
diately into a second bowl. The first
grade of the largest particles of deep
blue azurite will have settled at the bot-
tom of the bowl. Then pour some more
distilled water onto the deep blue azur-
ite, stir a little and immediately pour the

Price, A Renaissance of Color 283

 liquid into the other bowl. This removes
some of the smaller particles that have
Fig. 6. A SEM image remained so that the chroma of the first
shows the homoge- grade becomes purer. This may be re-
neity of cobalt blue peated a few times. Then spread the first
with a comparative grade of azurite out on a clean glass
scale of 50 µm. The
plate to dry.
hue is similar to
azurite with a par- Following the same procedure, stir
ticle size of 40 µm. the solution in the second bowl and af-
Many authorities re- ter a few seconds pour the liquid into a
gard cobalt blue as third bowl. As one proceeds, the solu-
lightfast, but in lin- tion becomes more diluted and it is nec-
seed oil it can turn essary to let a few bowls stand longer (at
to a milky blue
within 5 years of least 5 minutes) since the finer particles
strong daylight ex- settle out of the proteinaceous solution
posure. (© Rolf more slowly.
Treichler) A point is reached where the differ-
ence between each blue is minimal. To
free the finest particles from the solu-
tion, it is necessary to further dilute the
solution with ethyl alcohol, which
breaks down the greasiness of the yolk
[12]. Contrary to most of the literature,
which says that the finest particles are of

Fig. 7. Focused ion beam image of azurite after grinding and washing. The field of vision (FOV) is 275 µm. The particle size varies between
1 and 70 µm. The color is a grey-greenish blue. Further preparation is necessary before it can be used in an oil medium. (© Henri Lezec)

284 Price, A Renaissance of Color

Fig. 8. Focused ion beam image of prepared azurite after my method of preparation showing the evenness of particle size. The field of vi-
sion (FOV) is 275 µm. The average size of the particles is about 60 to 70 µm producing a deep blue. There are a few smaller particles, but
these do not negatively affect the chromatic intensity of the sample. (© Henri Lezec)

little color value, one will experience

some of the most delicate hues of pale
blue available on the artist’s palette. Fi- Fig. 9. Focused ion
nally, leave the different grades of pre- beam image of pre-
pared azurite to dry out on a glass plate pared small particle
for 3 days at normal room temperature. azurite (below 10
Figures 7–9 compare unprepared azur- µm). The field of
ite and prepared azurite after my egg- vision (FOV) is 275
µm. The particles
yolk method of levigation.
have coagulated af-
More recently (autumn 1999), I ex- ter the preparation
perimented successfully with casein and in egg yolk. The re-
distilled water for the preparation of sult is an exquisite
azurite. All resultant 14 grades had re- pale sky blue. (©
markable chromatic intensity. The pro- Henri Lezec)
cedure I followed and the resulting con-
sistency of the solution was exactly the
same as the method with egg yolk. I pro-
duced each grade by simply diluting the
solution from bowl to bowl. After each
grade dries out, one should grind it
again and mix it a second time with a di-
lute casein solution and separate it into
further grades. Casein can be suffi-

Price, A Renaissance of Color 285


Fig. 10. A FIB image of an unprepared par-
ticle of azurite cut by an ion beam. The sur-
face of the cross-section appears as a light
shade in the image. The surface on which
the particle has been cut is shown at the
bottom of the image. (© Henri Lezec)
Fig. 11. A FIB image of a particle of azurite
prepared with egg yolk, cut by an ion beam.
The surface of the cross-section is dark,
and the pockmarked upper surface covered
by the protein layer is clearly visible.
(© Henri Lezec)
286 Price, A Renaissance of Color
ciently diluted to release the finest par-
ticles of azurite without the use of ethyl
alcohol. Also, casein appears to bind the
impurities, including cuprite, that settle
out of the solution and dry as a brown-
grey scale when the bowl is left slightly
tilted on a radiator or in the sun. When
the powders have dried, they can be
matched according to color gradation.
The focused ion beam (FIB) images in
Figs 10 and 11 compare small particles
(approximately 20 µm) of unprepared
azurite (Fig. 10) and azurite prepared
with egg yolk (Fig. 11) cut by an ion
beam. The aim of this experiment was
(1) to establish the difference between
the two particles and (2) to determine
whether the prepared azurite particle
was covered completely by a layer of egg
yolk. Figure 10 shows the surface cut by
the ion beam to be light, and Fig. 11
shows it to be dark. The surface area cut
by the ion beam in Fig. 11 is most likely
dark because the particle is probably
electrically insulated by the layer of egg
yolk. The structure of the top surfaces of
the particles is also very different. In Fig.
10, small, loose particles of azurite “dust”
can be recognized. In Fig. 11, the
smaller particles are encased in the fine,
pockmarked layer of egg yolk [13].
WORKING WITH PREPARED
AZURITE
The layering of azurite is important to
arrive at the desired final color. Always
proceed from smaller to larger particles.
If a dark blue is required, start with a
paler blue, at least three or four grades
paler than the one required, and then
build up, each layer becoming succes-
sively darker. In this way, the full lumi-
nosity of the color is guaranteed. Usually
three layers are needed and each layer
needs to dry thoroughly before applying
the next. If this method is not followed,
the light refraction will be “strangled,”
and the color will immediately appear
dead. Another way to arrive at a power-
ful pale blue is to paint the first layer us-
ing egg or casein tempera, which will
cover very well, and when dry apply a
layer of the final required grade of azur-
ite in linseed stand oil.
REPORTED PROBLEMS
OF AZURITE
Traditionally, azurite should never come
into contact or be mixed with orpiment,
a golden yellow, or realgar, a golden or-
ange. Both colors are arsenic sulfides
and will cause a chemical reaction with
azurite, resulting in a color change
within a few weeks, at first to a brown,
which may remain the same for years, or
will eventually turn black. However,
from my tests between 1998 and 2000
with prepared azurite and a similarly
prepared realgar (but in casein or rab-
bit-skin glue size), there has been no
chemical reaction or color change in an
oil medium.
There are numerous reports of prob-
lems with azurite changing color, but of-
ten these reports are not based on first-
hand experience. The reports often lack
specific information about the exact na-
ture of the binding mediums or the con-
ditions that have led to the changes.
Even worse, many passages dealing with
these ostensible problems have been
copied word for word by subsequent au-
thors (sometimes 50 or more years
later), leading to some confusion about
the properties of azurite. One problem
has occurred with large particle azurite
in the final painting layer where varnish
has penetrated the sur face and sur-
rounded the particles, instead of form-
ing a protective layer over the color. As
the varnish has darkened over centuries,
the light refraction and reflection of the
azurite has been “strangled” so that the
color appears almost black. For the re-
storer, the problem still remains how to
wash out the varnish that has penetrated
the surface of the azurite [14].
There are also reports of some discol-
oration of the oil medium in which azur-
ite is embedded, but this may have more
to do with the incorrect preparation of
the mineral. There are reports of azurite
turning green due to the alteration to
malachite. The most-quoted case dates
from 1949 in the Cimabue frescoes in
the ceiling of the Franciscan Church at
Assisi [15]. However, the damage may
have been caused by dampness.
TESTS AND RESULTS WITH
OTHER NATURAL PIGMENTS
The consequences of re-evaluating our
perception of color are far reaching not
only for artists, but also for restorers.
Understandably, a practical method for
preparing and using azurite in an oil
medium has been lost for well over a
century and the decline of its use dates
back to the latter part of the seven-
teenth century. The availability of cheap
Prussian blue rapidly led to the disuse of
azurite in the eighteenth century [16].
The nineteenth century was witness to a
“revolution” of the artist’s palette essen-
tially related to landscape painting [17]
centered on the use of synthetic blues, CONCLUSION
yellows and greens, and which laid the
If works of Raphael, Rogier van der
foundation for developments in the
Weyden and Dieric Bouts were exhib-
twentieth century. However, just judging
ited next to color-field painters of the
from the small selection of mineral pig-
twentieth century for a direct compari-
ments presented in Color Plate B No. 1,
son of color quality, the difference in
one can see that brilliant hues and de-
the chromatic intensity of the pigments
lightful color harmonies are possible
and the luminosity of the paint surface
even between complementary colors.
would be devastating. Often works by
Following the principles for the
artists of the twentieth century appear to
preparation of azurite, I have separated
be luminous in exhibition catalog repro-
other mineral pigments to greatly in-
ductions, whereas in reality the paint-
crease the range of available hues [18].
ings are sometimes in a dreadful condi-
For instance, the refractive index of
tion, displaying a very disappointing and
malachite with a particle size of about 80
dead surface after less than 50 years. Of
µm when prepared in an egg yolk solu-
course, this is not entirely due to the
tion changes dramatically to produce a
pigments, but an artist working with syn-
very warm green not normally associ-
thetic pigments will be faced by a con-
ated with malachite. This only happens,
siderable limitation, namely, the lack of
however, when the proteinaceous solu-
chromatic intensity that makes it much
tion is of a certain viscosity. My tests over
more difficult to create powerful color
the past 2 years have shown this change
harmonies. Although our common ex-
to be irreversible both in the dry pig-
posure to paintings of all ages is through
ment form and in an oil medium. When
catalog reproductions, and one must re-
the same process is repeated in a casein
member that synthetic printing inks can
solution, the change is minimal.
never reproduce the chroma of natural
Cinnabar and realgar, when similarly
pigments, perhaps our modern-day per-
separated through the process of leviga-
ception of color has changed. The inter-
tion but using a diluted casein solution
dependence of hue, saturation and tone
for realgar and rabbit-skin glue size for
with the chromatic intensity of natural
cinnabar, produced the most interesting
pigments, and above all the mineral pig-
results. My present tests with prepared
ments, clearly puts them into a different
realgar when mulled in an oil medium
category or color system. Any artist who
have produced a much better drying
is curious enough to take the time to re-
speed, and the deeper golden orange
discover a lost world of color and expe-
hue when mixed in stand oil and a little
rience the chromatic intensity of natural
purified beeswax appears to be chemi-
pigments will realize that the art of
cally stable after 1 year under direct sun-
painting is far from being dead.
light. It is known that realgar changes to
pararealgar after long exposure to light
Acknowledgments
[19]. I have found, however, that even in
a powder form, realgar when prepared The author would like to thank Andreas Burmester,
Doerner Institute, Munich; Georg Kremer, Kremer
in casein has remained stable in a glass Pigments, Aichstetten (Allgäu); Henri Lezec,
jar standing in direct sunlight over a pe- Micrion Corporation, Peabody, MA, U.S.A; Carlos
riod of 18 months. Mazuré, Siemens AG, Munich; David Saunders, Na-
tional Gallery, London; and Rolf Treichler, Siemens
With natural indigo, root madder and AG, Munich.
carmine naccarat, the most promising
results seem to come from first prepar-
ing these pigments in a very weak solu-
References and Notes
tion of rabbit-skin glue size. Carmine
1. C. Cennini, The Craftsman’s Handbook, “Il Libro
dell’Arte,” Daniel V. Thompson, Jr., trans. (New
naccarat is normally fugitive; however, York: Dover, 1968).
when prepared in this way, mixed with 2. R.L. Feller, A. Roy and E. West Fitzhugh, eds.,
root madder and mulled in linseed oil Artists’ Pigments, A Handbook of Their Histor y and
with an addition of 5% purified beeswax, Characteristics, Vols. 1–3 (New York and Oxford: Na-
tional Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and Oxford
it retained its intensity long after an un- Univ. Press, 1986, 1993 and 1997).
prepared sample had turned brown.
3. M. Merrifield, Original Treatises, Dating from the
Preparation in the appropriate proteina- XIIth to the XVIIIth Centuries (London: 1849). Even
ceous solution, either diluted egg yolk, taking into account mistakes in translations, I have
found many recipes yield so little pigment that I sus-
casein or weak rabbit-skin glue size is the pect that the really good recipes remained a secret.
key to stabilizing natural and mineral
4. M. Kemp, The Science of Art (New Haven, CT, and
pigments for use in oil. Although oil me- London: Yale Univ. Press, 1990) p. 261.
diums have not been discussed in detail
5. Kemp [4] pp. 313–314.
here [20], the basic rule of always keep-
ing things as simple as possible applies. 6. Kemp [4] p. 261. “The tone of a color (some-
Price, A Renaissance of Color 287
times called its luminosity)” would be an example
of the confusion of terminology.
7. D.V. Thompson, The Materials and Techniques of
Medieval Painting (London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1956) pp. 131–133.
8. A. Wallert, “Wie man im Mittelalter Blau-
pigmente herstellte,” Restauro 1 (1991) pp. 13–16.
9. A. Kurella and I. Strauß, “Lapislazuli &
natürliches Ultramarine,” Restauro 1 (1983) p. 41.
10. Conversation with David Saunders, National
Gallery, London. However, I found no further evi-
dence in any restoration reports on how to actually
prepare azurite.
11. Casein is a calcium salt that is present in milk as
its principal albuminous constituent. During my first
months in New York, most art suppliers informed
me that casein was “obsolete.” Kremer Pigments in
New York imports it directly from Germany. Artists
in the United States who are not familiar with this
excellent binding medium should be aware that it
needs to be quite watery, as watery as egg tempera,
otherwise it will function like a glue.
12. I am indebted to the suggestion by Georg
Kremer for the finishing touch of using ethyl alco-
hol to free the finest particles from the proteina-
ceous solution.
13. E-mail correspondence from Henri Lezec, 1999:
“The beam which is scanned over the object for im-
288 Price, A Renaissance of Color
aging purposes and to perform the cross sections is
a Gallium (Ga) focused ion beam, energy: 50 keV,
beam diameter: 5nm - 5 nanometers or 0.005 mi-
crons. The actual image results from the detection
of secondary electrons induced by the scanning ion
beam. The process of cutting the particle with the
beam is ‘FIB cross sectioning’ or in greater detail,
cross-sectioning by milling with a focused ion beam.
The process of ‘photographing’ the particle might
be described as ‘FIB imaging’ or ‘an image of the
cross-sectioned particle formed by scanning it with
the same FIB set to lower beam current.’”
14. Thompson [7] pp. 133–134.
15. S. Augusti, “Alterazioni della composizione
chimica dei colori nei dipinti murali,” Freer Abstracts
798 (Naples, 1949).
16. J. Kirby, “Fading and Color Change of Prussian
Blue: Occurrences and Early Reports,” National Gal-
lery Technical Bulletin, No. 14 (London, 1993) p. 63.
17. A. Burmester and Claudia Denk, “Blue, Yellow
and Green on the Barbizon Palette,” Zeitschrift für
Kunsttechnologie und Konser vierung, Jahrgang 13
(1999) pp. 79–85.
18. I have not discussed the 2,000-year-old Japanese
Nihonga tradition of using mineral pigments in
hide glue on hemp paper. My methods of pigment
preparation are essentially for oil painting.
19. M.C. Corbeil and K. Helwig, Studies in Conserva-
tion 40, No. 2, 133–138 (1995); A.C. Roberts, H.G.
Ansell and M. Bonnardi, Canadian Mineralogy 18
(1980) pp. 525–527; and L.D. Douglas, C. Shing
and G. Wang, American Mineralogy 77 (1992) pp.
1266–1274.
20. In 1999, I commenced trials with “linseed oil
thick” produced by Donald Fels of Alchemist Paints
and Varnishes, Virginia, U.S.A. The oils, essential
oils and varnishes are also available through
Kremer Pigments in New York and Munich. The
“linseed oil thick” is very pale and more fluid than
the normal stand oil, producing the most exquisite
results with all the mineral pigments. Other prod-
ucts, such as the essential oils, make it unnecessary
to use any siccatives.
Michael Price, a British artist living in New
York, has presented works in solo and group
exhibitions in Cologne, Munich, Frankfurt,
Sens (France), London, New York and Hous-
ton and has lectured on natural pigments at
the New York Art Academy and the Munich
Kunst Akademie. Examples of his relief paint-
ings and drawings and an artist’s statement
are available at:<http://www.artist-info.com/
artist/price-michael/> and <http://www.
postgallery.com>.
Manuscript received 27 July 1999.