CRANKSHAFT

The crankshaft, sometimes casually called the crank, is the part of an engine which changes the up and
down motion of the pistons into rotation. To convert the motion, the crankshaft has one or more offset
shafts. The pistons are connected to the crankshaft by these shafts. When the piston moves up and
down, it pushes the offset shaft. This in turn rotates the crankshaft.

The pistons cause a pulsing affect in the rotation. A crankshaft usually connects to a flywheel. The
flywheel smooths out the rotation. Sometimes there is a torsion or vibration damper on the other end
of the crankshaft. This helps reduce vibrations of the crankshaft.

Large engines usually have several cylinders. This helps to reduce pulsations from individual firing
strokes. For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights. The counterweight is used to offset
the piston and improve balance. While counterweights add a lot of weight to the crankshaft, it provides
a smoother running engine. This allows higher RPMs to be reached and more power produced.

CRANKCASE
A crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft in a reciprocating internal combustion engine. The
enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder(s), which in a engine is
usually integrated into one or several cylinder blocks. Crankcases have often been discrete parts, but
more often they are integral with the cylinder bank(s), forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area
around the crankshaft is still usually called the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine structural
components (e.g., cylinders, cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, and integrated combinations thereof) are
typically made of cast iron or cast via sand casting. Today the foundry processes are usually highly
automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands of parts.

A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with a gasketed bolted
joint. Some crankcase designs fully surround the crank's main bearing journals, whereas many others
form only one half, with a bearing cap forming the other. Some crankcase areas require no structural
strength from the oil pan itself (in which case the oil pan is typically stamped from sheet steel), whereas
other crankcase designs do (in which case the oil pan is a casting in its own right). Both the crankcase
and any rigid cast oil pan often have reinforcing ribs cast into them, as well as bosses which are drilled
and tapped to receive mounting screws/bolts for various other engine parts.

Besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves other
functions, depending on engine type. These include keeping the motor oil contained, usually
hermetically or nearly hermetically (and in the hermetic variety, allowing the oil to be pressurized);
providing the rigid structure with which to join the engine to the transmission; and in some cases, even
constituting part of the frame of the vehicle (such as in many farm tractors).
CONNECTING ROD
A connecting rod is a shaft which connects a piston to a crank or crankshaft in a reciprocating engine.
Together with the crank, it forms a simple mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating
motion.

A connecting rod may also convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion, its original. Earlier
mechanisms, such as the chain, could only impart pulling motion. Being rigid, a connecting rod may
transmit either push or pull, allowing the rod to rotate the crank through both halves of a revolution. In
a few two-stroke engines the connecting rod .

Today, the connecting rod is best known through its use in internal combustion piston engines, such as
automobile engines. These are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting rod used
in steam engines and steam locomotives.

PISTON
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic
cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder
and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in
the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed
and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the
fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in
the cylinder

CYLINDER
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston.
Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast
from aluminum or cast iron before receiving precision machine work. A sleeveless engine may also be
referred.

A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area (the
square of half the bore by pi) by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder (the stroke). The
engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number
of cylinder.

In contrast, an exhaust manifold collects the exhaust gases from multiple cylinders into a smaller
number of pipes – often down to one pipe.

The primary function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the combustion mixture (or just air in
a direct injection engine) to each intake port in the cylinder head(s). Even distribution is important to a
Aoptimize the efficiency and performance of the engine. It may also serve as a mount for the carburetor,
throttle body, fuel injectors and other components of the engine.

Due to the downward movement of the pistons and the restriction caused by the throttle valve, in a
reciprocating spark ignition piston engine, a partial vacuum (lower than atmospheric pressure) exists in
the intake manifold. This manifold vacuum can be substantial, and can be used as a source of
automobile ancillary power to drive auxiliary systems: power assisted brakes, emission control devices,
cruise control, ignition advance, windshield wipers, power windows, ventilation system valves, etc.

This vacuum can also be used to draw any piston blow-by gases from the engine's crankcase. This is
known as a positive crankcase ventilation system, in which the gases are burned with the fuel/air
mixture.

The intake manifold has historically been manufactured from aluminium or cast iron, but use of
composite plastic materials is gaining popularity (e.g. most Chrysler 4-cylinders, Ford Zetec 2.0, Duratec
2.0 and 2.3, and GM's Ecotec series).

Normal wear and tear on the outlet structure resulted in cracking to the structure and diminishing
efficiency. In 2007, partners and advisers developed a strategy and plan for updating the outlet system
called the Multi-year Outlet and Channel Improvement Project. At that time, a Memorandum of
Agreement was signed between the City of Prior Lake, the City of Shakopee, the Shakopee
Mdewakanton Sioux Community, and the Prior Lake-Spring Lake Watershed District. This group of
cooperators oversees the operation of the PLOC, while the District administers Channel operations.
Acknowledging that the PLOC is used as a stormwater conveyance system and is not just a natural
conveyance, the JPA/MOA cooperators’ focus is to manage the easements of the channel and the
channel itself to maintain hydrologic capacity, reduce maintenance needs, provide long-term stability
and improve water quality. Secondary benefits include increased aesthetics, providing improved habitat
and providing consistency with city and county plans for parks and greenways.

he carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure, and the
higher its dynamic pressure. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid
fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being pushed into the
engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the
airstream.

When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features are needed to
prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form of fuel injection known as
a pressure carburetor.

Most production carbureted engines, as opposed to fuel-injected, have a single carburetor and a
matching intake manifold that divides and transports the air fuel mixture to the intake valves, though
some engines (like motorcycle engines) use multiple carburetors on split heads. Multiple carburetor
engines were also common enhancements for modifying engines in the USA from the 1950s to mid-
1960s, as well as during the following decade of high-performance muscle cars, fueling different
chambers of the engine's intake manifold.

Older engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits
through the top. This had the advantage of never flooding the engine, as any liquid fuel droplets would
fall out of the carburetor instead of into the intake manifold; it also lent itself to use of an oil bath air
cleaner, where a pool of oil below a mesh element below the carburetor is sucked up into the mesh and
the air is drawn through the oil-covered mesh; this was an effective system in a time when paper air
filters did not exist.

Beginning in the late 1930s, downdraft carburetors were the most popular type for automotive use in
the United States. In Europe, the sidedraft carburetors replaced downdraft as free space in the engine
bay decreased and the use of the SU-type carburetor (and similar units from other manufacturers)
increased. Some small propeller-driven aircraft engines still use the updraft carburetor design.

Outboard motor carburetors are typically sidedraft, because they must be stacked one on top of the
other in order to feed the cylinders in a vertically oriented cylinder block.

1979 Evinrude Type I marine sidedraft carburetor

The main disadvantage of basing a carburetor's operation on Bernoulli's Principle is that, being a fluid
dynamic device, the pressure reduction in a Venturi tends to be proportional to the square of the intake
air speed. The fuel jets are much smaller and limited mainly by viscosity, so that the fuel flow tends to
be proportional to the pressure difference. So jets sized for full power tend to starve the engine at lower
speed and part throttle. Most commonly this has been corrected by using multiple jets. In SU and other
movable jet carburetors, it was corrected by varying the jet size. For cold starting, a different principle
was used in multi-jet carburetors. A flow resisting valve called a choke, similar to the throttle valve, was
placed upstream of the main jet to reduce the intake pressure and suck additional fuel out of the jets.

In fuel injected engines, the throttle body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of
air flowing into the engine, in response to driver accelerator pedal input in the main. The throttle body is
usually located between the air filter box and the intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near,
the mass airflow sensor. Often, an engine coolant line also runs through it in order for the engine to
draw intake air at a certain temperature (the engine's current coolant temperature, which the ECU
senses through the relevant sensor) and therefore with a known density.

The largest piece inside the throttle body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that regulates
the airflow.

On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, which is
mechanically connected to the throttle linkages, which, in turn, rotate the throttle plate. In cars with
electronic throttle control (also known as "drive-by-wire"), an electric actuator controls the throttle
linkages and the accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which outputs a
signal proportional to the current pedal position and sends it to the ECU. The ECU then determines the
throttle opening based on the accelerator pedal's position and inputs from other engine sensors such as
the engine coolant temperature sensor

A water-cooled engine block and cylinder head have interconnected coolant channels running through
them. At the top of the cylinder head all the channels converge to a single outlet.

A pump, driven by a pulley and belt from the crankshaft, drives hot coolant out of the engine to the
radiator, which is a form of heat exchanger.

Unwanted heat is passed from the radiator into the air stream, and the cooled liquid then returns to an
inlet at the bottom of the block and flows back into the channels again.

Usually the pump sends coolant up through the engine and down through the radiator, taking
advantage of the fact that hot water expands, becomes lighter and rises above cool water when heated.
Its natural tendency is to flow upwards, and the pump assists circulation.

The radiator is linked to the engine by rubber hoses, and has a top and bottom tank connected by a core
a bank of many fine tubes.

The tubes pass through holes in a stack of thin sheet-metal fins, so that the core has a very large surface
area and can lose heat rapidly to the cooler air passing through it.

On older cars the tubes run vertically, but modern, low-fronted cars have crossflow radiators with tubes
that run from side to side.

In an engine at its ordinary working temperature, the coolant is only just below normal boiling point.

The risk of boiling is avoided by increasing the pressure in the system, which raises the boiling point.

The extra pressure is limited by the radiator cap, which has a pressure valve in it. Excessive pressure
opens the valve, and coolant flows out through an overflow pipe.

In a cooling system of this type there is a continual slight loss of coolant if the engine runs very hot. The
system needs topping up from time to time.

Later cars have a sealed system in which any overflow goes into an expansion tank, from which it is
sucked back into the engine when the remaining liquid cools.

How the fan helps

The radiator needs a constant flow of air through its core to cool it adequately. When the car is moving,
this happens anyway; but when it is stationary a fan is used to help the airflow.

The fan may be driven by the engine, but unless the engine is working hard, it is not always needed
while the car is moving, so the energy used in driving it wastes fuel.

To overcome this, some cars have a viscous coupling a fluid clutch worked by a temperature sensitive
valve that uncouples the fan until the coolant temperature reaches a set point.

Other cars have an electric fan, also switched on and off by a temperature sensor.
To let the engine warm up quickly, the radiator is closed off by a thermostat, usually sited above the
pump. The thermostat has a valve worked by a chamber filled with wax.

When the engine warms up, the wax melts, expands and pushes the valve open, allowing coolant to
flow through the radiator.

When the engine stops and cools, the valve closes again.

Water expands when it freezes, and if the water in an engine freezes it can burst the block or radiator.
So antifreeze usually ethylene glycol is added to the water to lower its freezing point to a safe level.

Antifreeze should not be drained each summer; it can normally be left in for two or three years.

float chamber is a device for automatically regulating the supply of a liquid to a system. It is most
typically found in the carburettor of an internal combustion engine, where it automatically meters the
fuel supply to the engine. However, this arrangement is found in many automatic liquid systems, for
example the cistern of a toilet could be said to be a type of float chamber.

A float chamber works by allowing liquid within the chamber to lift a float which is linked to a valve
which regulates the liquid intake. When the level is low, the float drops and opens the valve, allowing in
liquid until the float rises sufficiently to close off the valve again. This is identical in principle to the
ballcock valve.

alve float is an adverse condition which can occur at high engine speeds when the poppet valves in an
internal combustion engine valvetrain do not properly follow the closure phase of the cam lobe profile.
This reduces engine efficiency and performance and potentially increases engine emissions. There is also
a significant risk of severe engine damage due to valve spring damage and/or pistons contacting the
valves.[

A spark plug is an electrical device that fits into the cylinder head of some internal combustion engines
and ignites compressed aerosol gasoline by means of an electric spark. Spark plugs have an insulated
center electrode which is connected by a heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil or magneto circuit on
the outside, forming, with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the cylinder.
Internal combustion engines can be divided into spark-ignition engines, which require spark plugs to
begin combustion, and compression-ignition engines (diesel engines), which compress the air and then
inject diesel fuel into the heated compressed air mixture where it autoignites. Compression-ignition
engines may use glow plugs to improve cold start characteristics.