By JOHN A. LINDER:~
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
ENERGY TRANSFER
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380 jo~ A. LZNDER
Eventually, through this acceleration, electrons will speed t~p and ac-
quire an energy somewhat greater than 4.86 electron volts. When such
an electron strikes a mercury atom in an inelastic collision, it will dis-
place an electron in the mercury atom and raise it to an energy level
higher by 4.86 electron volts. In such a case, the colliding electron will
travel on with diminished energy. After a very short period of time, the
displaced electron in the mercury atom will return to its original energy
level and give up the 4.86 electron volts of energy it has acquired. How-
ever, the energy is given off in a photon. An electron volt is equivalent
to 1.6 x 10-22 ergs; so, the energy acquired by the displaced electron is
4.86 x 1.6 x 10-12 ergs. The energy of the photon is hf where h = 6.54
x 10-27 ergs per second and f is the frequency of vibration of the photon ;
thus, we secure f for a photon of energy equal to 4.86 electron volts.
From this frequency and the speed of light, it is found that the photon
has a wave length of 2,537A.
From this, three important parts of the discharge between the elec-
trodes may be seen First, there is a high voltage at the cathode. This
may be considered to represent an expenditure of energy used to drive
electrons from the cathode and is known as the cathode drop. Second,
there is a dark space just beyond the cathode in which the energy level
of the electrons is low. In this space very few electrons have acquired
the energy necessary to excite the gas atoms and consequently very little
light output is obtained. Third, there is the positive column in which
the voltage gradient is uniform and the electron energy is sufficient to
excite the mercury atoms. It is from this that the radiated energy is
secured. In all of these details, the 40-watt Mazda fluorescent lamp and
the thirty-inch sterilamp are alike.
Quantitatively, though they differ. In the sterilamp, a cold cathode is
used. Normally its cathode drop is around 80 volts. In the 40-watt
Mazda fluorescent lamp, a hot cathode is used. This has a cathode drop
of approximately 18 volts. The wattage lost at the cathode is of no
value in producing light in one case or ultraviolet light in the other.
Obviously, in comparing these two types of cathodes, unless the per-
centage of the wattage lost at the cathode in the two cases is equal, one
or the other would be more advantageous. It is also obvious with such
a combination that hot cathodes may be more eff• with high-current
lamps, while cold-cathode lamps may present opportunities with lamps
which operate at a low ,current. One other, difference of the two types
of cathodes should probably be mentioned here. Cathodes of the two
types which are being used at the present time have one important dif-
ference. The cold cathodes will stand a great number of starts without
materially affecting the life of the lamp. This is not true in the case of
the hot cathodes where increasing the number of times a lamp is started
throughout its life will materially affect the life of a lamp. It should
also be mentioned that experimental cathodes furnish great promise of
minimizing this difference. As far as the positive column is concerned,
and that is that part of the whole electric system from which the desired
output is obtained, it is not conscious of the type of cathode from which
electrons are obtained.
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THE STARTING OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS 381
STARTING CHARACTERISTICS
So far, we have spoken only of the lamp itself. This is only part of
the electric system used in producing the required output. In both lamps
a transformer is required to provide the voltage needed to start the
lamp. This brings a third combination into the picture.
In a 40-watt Mazda fluorescent lamg, where 350 volts are required
to start the lamp at air temperatures of 60 ~ to 80 ~ F (16 ~ to 27 ~ C)
and a relative air humidity of less than 60~o, this voltage may be very
materially reduced by heating the cathode. This effect is indicated in
Fig. 1, which shows the starting voltage required by the existing 40-
watt Mazda fluorescent lamps when increasing heating currents are
400.
500
~J
<
V-
>.
200
IO0
FxG. I. 40-watt T12 fluorescent lamp. Breakdown voltage vs. cathode heat-
ing current.
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382 john A. LINDER
passed through the cathode before the starting effort is made. This
whole conception is the basis of glow-switch starting.
Perhaps at this point it might be well to recall the operation of a glow
switch. A simple circuit is shown in Fig. 2. A transformer, providing
an open-circuit voltage which is insufficient to start a 40-watt Mazda
fluorescent lamp when its cathode is cold, is connected to one end of
each of the two cathodes. The other end of each of these two cathodes is
connected through the glow switch. When the line switch is closed,
the open-circuit voltage of the transformer is applied through the cath-
odes to the glow switch. This causes the switch to glow and the wattage
consumed in the switch is sufficient to heat the bimetal electrode, thereby
causing it to close. When the glow switch contacts close, the cathodes
are heated by essentially the short-circuit current of the transformer.
After a short period of time, while the cathodes have been heating, the
contacts of the glow switch open. Because of the lowered starting volt-
age required 'by the heated cathodes and the inductive kick caused by
the opening of the switch contacts, the lamp is started.
We have three types of lamps. First, one with a cathode that starts
cold and operates cold. This is typified by the s'terilamp. Second, a
lamp operated with a glow switch such that it starts hot and operates
hot. The ordinary 40-watt lamp illustrates this type. The transformer
in this circuit provides an open-circuit voltage of 200 and the power
loss in the ballast is 8.5 watts. Third, there is the type which starts with
a cathode which becomes hot in operation. The ballast for a 40-watt
lamp of this type has a loss of 14.5 watts and an open circuit voltage
of 450 volts.
Thus, all three of these combinations have advantages and disadvan-
tages. In the first type, long life may be secured witl/ a great many
starts. Instant starting is also provided. Its chief difficulty is with the
length of the tubes required and the hazard of the comparatively high
voltage. The second type, which is the type in general use at the present
time, is the most efficient. However, this method has several disadvan-
tages: lamps take an appreciable time to start and there are two parts
to fail; both the switch and the lamp wear out. In the third type, bal-
last loss is high but instant starting is provided.
Many optimum characteristics of such lamps have been pretty well
established. Among these are the operating temperature, with the con-
sequent mercury pressure, and the most desirable gas and pressure.
There are, however, two details on which there seem to be opportunities
for improvement in efficiency. First, there is the fluorescent coating.
Improvements in its initial efficiency, as well as the maintenance of this
efficiency throughout life, could furnish a better lamp. Second, a reduc-
tion in ballast loss offers opportunity for improvement. It is our pur-
pose to discuss here lamp-starting voltage, an important factor influenc-
ing the wattage loss in the ballast.
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T H E STARTING OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS 383
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384 JOH~ A. LINDER
600
/
/
id
cI
g~
5oo
/
Z 400
3:
o
(13 A~
3c t t
,<
ttJ /
300
CO
A - HIGH CUP.RENT PISCHARGE C A T H O D E S - HOT"
A e - LOW ,, - " - SOLD
200 ]
40 50 O0 70 80 90 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN .O/o
FxG. 3. Breakdown voltage vs. relative humidity.
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T H E STARTING OF FLUORESCENT L A M P S 385
can take place without an increase in the voltage supplied. Under these
conditions, the current flowing through the lamp is of the order of a
milliampere. As this voltage is increased, a gradual increase in the cur-
rent takes place. At VD the current has reached a value sufficiently
high (about 25 milliamp.) to heat the cathodes, causing them to change
over to a hot cathode with its correspondingly lower cathode drop.
Finally, properly ballasted by the circuit, the lamp settles down to nor-
mal operation, indicated by E (Fig. 4). However, at 8 0 ~ relative hu-
midity a.very much higher voltage must be reached before the rapid
increase m current at Vo is experienced. Since Vo is so much higher
than VD, when Vo is reached the current will rapidly increase until E,
the normally operating conditon of the lamp, is reached.
500 -
400 < 5 ~
'A' Ii
300
200-
tO0
:SOLID LINF '~ AT 50[% RELATIVE HUHIDITy
. _ ~ " "B" " 8a'/=
o
.OOl .0! . I
1 [
I 10 100
1i
1000
LAM P CORRENY IN MILLIAMPERES
FIa. 4. Lamp voItage vs. lamp current.
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386 JOHN A. LINDER
Two devices are known which eliminate the greater voltage required
for starting lamps at higher humidities. Both have disadvantages. The
first is a conductive coating such as a carbon strip along the outside of
the bulb wall from one end of the lamp to the other. Such a coating
produces a lamp which needs no increase in the voltage required for
starting between 40% and 98% relative humidity. This device has two
serious disadvantages. Breaks in the continuity of the conductive strip
will increase the voltage required for starting above that necessary for
no strip at all. For example, a lamp which requires 480 volts for start-
ing (using an ungrounded line and no conductive strip) will start at
340 volts with a conductive strip extending along the length of the bulb
and up to 1 in. (2.5 era.) from each base. Scratches across the strip
interrupting its continuity can raise the voltage required for starting
to 600 volts. Furthermore, there is a hazard from shock brought about
through the conductivity of this strip.
A second means to the same end is the use of a water-repellent coat-
ing which maintains a high resistance with changing humidity. Such
a lamp, too, needs no greater starting voltage at high than at low
humidity. However, the coating process is comparatively expensive. In
addition, dust and vapor condensations on the surface of the bulb tend
to nullify the effectiveness of such a coating.
Here are two devices producing much the same results. One has a
very high resistance and the other a very low resistance. This com-
parison suggests testing the resistance of the glass of the bulb as the
humidity is changed. This was done on a number of lamps on which
curves of lamp-starting voltage as a function of relative humidity had
been secured. It was found that, generally, this resistance was in excess
of 100,000 megohms under 50% relative humidity; 10,000 megohms
between 60% and 70% relative humidity and at just under 100%
relative humidity, ran between 50 and 300 megohms. Furthermore, in
many cases lamps which had a comparatively low resistance just under
100% relative humidity, had a lower breakdown voltage at that point
than at some lower humidity. In such lamps, a curve showing break-
clown voltage in terms of relative humidity had a maximum voltage at
some point less than 100% relative humidity. When a curve of break-
down voltage against resistance is plotted for these lamps, it is seen
that the breakdown voltage reaches a maximum between 80 and 140
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T H E STARTING OF FLUORESCENT LAMPS 387
Before C l e a n i n g
Relative humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 98%
Breakdown voltage . . . . . 365
. . . . . . . 375 420 560 620 635
Resistance (1,000 megohms) .... 100 3.5 0.9 0.34 0.24 0.2
After Cleaning
Relative humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 98%
Breakdown voltage . . . . . . . . .... 370 370 370 370 390 415
Resistance (1,000 megohms) .... 100 100 44 10 5.5 3.9
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388 JOEN A. L:ND~R
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