3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2012
Abstract—With recent advances in mobile learning (m-learning), it is becoming possible for learning activities to occur everywhere.
The learner model presented in our earlier work was partitioned into smaller elements in the form of learner profiles, which collectively
represent the entire learning process. This paper presents an Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) for delivering adapted
learning content to mobile learners. The ANFIS model was designed using trial and error based on various experiments. This study
was conducted to illustrate that ANFIS is effective with hybrid learning, for the adaptation of learning content according to learners’
needs. Study results show that ANFIS has been successfully implemented for learning content adaptation within different learning
context scenarios. The performance of the ANFIS model was evaluated using standard error measurements which revealed the
optimal setting necessary for better predictability. The MATLAB simulation results indicate that the performance of the ANFIS
approach is valuable and easy to implement. The study results are based on analysis of different model settings; they confirm that the
m-learning application is functional. However, it should be noted that an increase in the number of inputs being considered by the
model will increase the system response time, and hence the delay for the mobile learner.
1 INTRODUCTION
where ai , bi , and ci are the parameters of the membership gradient descent method, to solve the problem of search
function. space. The hybrid algorithm is composed of a forward pass
In Layerð2Þ , the nodes are fixed nodes. This layer involves and a backward pass.
fuzzy operators; it uses the AND operator to fuzzify the The least squares method (forward pass) is used to
inputs. They are labeled with , indicating that they optimize the consequent parameters. The gradient descent
perform as a simple multiplier. The output of this layer method (backward pass) is used to optimize the premise
can be represented as parameters. The output of the ANFIS is calculated by
employing the consequent parameters found in the forward
O2;i ¼ wi ¼ Ai ðxÞ Bi ðyÞ; i ¼ 1; 2: ð5Þ pass. The output error is used to adapt the premise
These are the so-called firing strengths of the rules. parameters by means of a standard backpropagation
In Layerð3Þ , the nodes are also fixed nodes labeled by N, algorithm. It has been proven that this hybrid algorithm is
to indicate that they play a normalization role to the firing highly efficient in training the ANFIS systems [18].
strengths from the previous layer. The output of this layer
can be represented as 4 ANFIS ARCHITECTURE FOR ADAPTIVE MOBILE
wi LEARNING
O3;i ¼w
i ¼ ; i ¼ 1; 2: ð6Þ
w1 þ w2 ANFIS is an intelligent Neuro-Fuzzy technique used for the
Outputs of this layer are called normalized firing strengths. modeling and control of ill-defined and uncertain systems.
In Layerð4Þ , the nodes are adaptive. The output of each ANFIS is based on the input/output data pairs of the
node in this layer is simply the product of the normalized system under consideration. ANFIS is selected to solve the
firing strength and a first order polynomial (for a first order problem of continuous changes in mobile learning environ-
Sugeno model). The output of this layer is given by ments, facilitating the delivery of adapted learning content.
The proposed ANFIS model can be used for modeling the
O4;i ¼ w
i fi ¼ w
i ðpi x þ qi y þ ri Þ; i ¼ 1; 2; ð7Þ learner context. The steps required to apply ANFIS to
where w is the output of Layerð3Þ , and pi , qi , and ri are the learner modeling are: define input and output values;
consequent parameters. define fuzzy sets for input values; define fuzzy rules; and
In P
Layerð5Þ , there is only one single fixed node labeled create and train the Neural Network.
with . This node performs the summation of all incoming To implement and test the proposed architecture, a
signals. The overall output of the model is given by development tool is required. MATLAB Fuzzy Logic
P Toolbox (FLT) from MathWorks was selected as the
X w i fi development tool. This tool provides an environment to
O5;i ¼ i ¼ Pi
wf : ð8Þ
i i wi
build and evaluate fuzzy systems using a graphical user
interface. It consists of a FIS editor, the rule editor, a
3.2 Hybrid Learning Algorithm membership function editor, the fuzzy inference viewer,
The learning algorithm for ANFIS is a hybrid algorithm that is and the output surface viewer.
a combination of gradient descent and least squares methods. The FIS editor displays general information about a
In the forward pass of the hybrid learning algorithm, node fuzzy inference system. The membership function editor is
outputs go forward until Layerð4Þ and the consequent the tool that displays and edits the membership functions
parameters are determined by the least squares. In the associated with all input and output variables. The rule
backward pass, the error signals propagate backward and the editor allows the user to construct the rule statements
premise parameters are updated using gradient descendent. automatically, by clicking on and selecting one item in each
The hybrid learning approach converges much faster by input variable box, one item in each output box, and one
reducing search space dimensions of the original back connection item. The rule viewer allows users to interpret
propagation method [16]. The overall output can be given by the entire fuzzy inference process at once. The ANFIS editor
GUI menu bar can be used to load a FIS training
w1 w2
f¼ f1 þ f2 ; ð9Þ initialization, save the trained FIS, and open a new Sugeno
w1 þ w2 w1 þ w2 system to interpret the trained FIS model.
f¼w
ðp1 x þ q1 y þ r1 Þ þ w
ðp2 x þ q2 y þ r2 Þ; ð10Þ 4.1 Learning Context Scenarios
Our goal is to construct a system that will help learners to
f ¼ ðw1 xÞp1 þ ðw1 yÞq1 þ ðw1 Þr1 þ ðw2 xÞp2 accomplish learning activities by delivering adapted learn-
ð11Þ ing content based on the learner’s current context. The
þ ðw2 yÞq2 þ ðw2 Þr2 ;
process of learner modeling has three steps: gathering data
where p1 , q1 , r1 , p2 , q2 , and r2 are the linear consequent related to the learner, creating the learner model, and
parameters. The least squares method is used to identify the updating the learner model. To better understand the idea
optimal values of these parameters. When the premise of the enhanced learner model structure, we will take the
parameters are not fixed, the search space becomes larger following typical learning scenarios, and analyze the situa-
and the convergence of the training becomes slower. tion and activities involved:
It should be noted that the ANFIS hybrid algorithm It is 8:00 am Monday morning and Alison is traveling by bus/
combines two methods, the least squares method and the car/train from her flat to attend her lecture at the university which
AL-HMOUZ ET AL.: MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AN ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM (ANFIS) FOR MOBILE LEARNING 231
starts at 8:30 am. Alison checks her PDA (3G network, 24 kbps
bandwidth) to review her lecture notes.
Sara is in a restaurant for 20 minutes and wants to review her
assessments using her smart phone (GSM network, 4 kbps
bandwidth).
It is the weekend and Mark is at home for an hour and wants to
review his reading materials using his Nokia phone (3G network,
60 kbps bandwidth).
Many contextual elements are contained in the scenarios
described above. We can identify different activities, places,
times, events, constraints, locations, and other environ-
mental variables. The overall activities in the above
scenarios could be labeled as “Learning Activity.” These
activities can be separated into different elements:
learning situations (different locations, devices, network content format as the system output (i.e., input/output).
bandwidth, etc.) as possible. ANFIS training uses the anfis Once the ANFIS is trained, we can test the system against
function. Evaluation of the system compared to the desired different sets of data values to check the functionality of the
output is conducted using the evalfis function. proposed system.
The first step is to prepare the training data to work with To better understand the training steps explained in
ANFIS in MATLAB. The data set used as the input to the Fig. 5, the following mobile learning example will
anfis function must be in a matrix form, where the last
demonstrate the ANFIS modeling.
column in the matrix is the output, and the matrix contains Four input parameters were controlled, namely: Learner
as many columns as needed to represent the inputs to the
Location (LL), Network Bandwidth (NB), Battery Life (BL),
system. The rows represent all the existing data situations.
and Device Software Capabilities (SC); and one output
Creation of the membership functions is dependent on
the system designer. The designer may create the para- parameter was controlled: Adapted Learner Content (ALC)
meters of the membership functions if they have knowledge (see Fig. 7).
of the expected shapes, or they can use the command genfis1
from MATLAB to help in the creation of the initial set of
membership functions. This work uses the genfis1 command
to create the membership functions.
Once the initial membership functions are created,
system training begins. The command provided by MA-
TLAB to train an ANFIS system is anfis. We input the
training data we defined, the membership functions we
created using the fismat command, and some training
options in order to produce the most acceptable output.
When the training process is finished (trn-fismat), the
final membership functions and training error from the
training data set are produced (see Fig. 6). The checking
data set can be used in conjunction with the training data
set for enhanced accuracy. It is possible for ANFIS to
function with only one training data set, however input of
checking data increases the possibilities to be understood by
the system, and hence the system’s effectiveness.
After the system training is complete, ANFIS provides a
method to study and evaluate the system performance by
using the evalfis function. The fuzzy system that was
established based on the completed training (trn-fismat) is
used. The process of studying and evaluating system
performance starts by entering input data sets into the
fuzzy system. These data sets do not include output values.
The output of the evalfis function represents the response of
the system or the final output of the ANFIS system. This
response output can be measured by means of correlations
between the desired learner contexts and the learning Fig. 7. ANFIS Structure with four inputs and one output.
AL-HMOUZ ET AL.: MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AN ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM (ANFIS) FOR MOBILE LEARNING 233
The conditions that determine the learning content input/output problem with different membership function
format depend solely on the criteria set by the human numbers and types for each input. The difference of the
expert. Each of the four input conditions is represented RMSE between observed and modeled values was computed
by the following term sets. LL has four membership for each trial with different epoch numbers, and the best
functions represented as Home, Campus, Class, and Out- structure was determined by the lowest value of the RMSE.
door. NB has three membership functions represented as Overfitting is a common problem in ANFIS model
Low, Middle, and High. BL has three membership building, which occurs when the data are overtrained by
functions represented as Low, Half, and Full. SC has five ANFIS. Every data set that is trained using ANFIS has its
membership functions represented as Text, Text+PDF, maximum number of epochs before overfitting occurs; this
Text+Video, Text+PDF+Video, and Text+Audio. causes the predicted output to be over its accuracy. The
The Sugeno-type fuzzy-rule-based model has rules in the optimal number of epochs can only be found by conducting
following forms: numerous experiments.
IF (LL is Outdoor) AND (NB is High) AND (BL is Full) Overfitting is analyzed by plotting the training and
AND (SC is Text+Video) THEN (Learning Content Format checking error values from the ANFIS simulation (see
is Video). Fig. 6). To avoid the overfitting problem, we will test our
IF (LL is Class) AND (NB is Low) AND (BL is Half) AND model by setting training epoch numbers to different
(SC is Text+PDF+Video) THEN (Learning Content Format values. This will allow us to determine the optimal epoch
is PDF). number with the lowest RMSE. The Surface Viewer is used
genfis1 is the function used to generate an initial single- to display the dependency of one of the outputs on any
output FIS matrix from training data. First we need to one or two of the inputs. It generates and plots an output
initiate our example model with default values for member- surface map for the system. The output is presented by a
ship function numbers “4 3 3 5” and types “Gaussian 3D surface model.
curve (gaussmf), Triangular-shaped (trimf), and Generalized In this study, an ANFIS model based on both Neural
bell-shaped (gbellmf).” These defaults provide membership Network and Fuzzy Logic has been developed to adapt
functions on each of the four inputs, 15 altogether. The learning content formats for mobile learning application.
generated fuzzy inference system structure contains 180 The experiments were divided into four ANFIS structures
fuzzy rules. Each rule generated by genfis1 has one output to demonstrate learning activities in different contexts. For
membership function, which is of type “linear” by default. this purpose, computer simulations using MATLAB were
Each of the fuzzy rules of ANFIS is a multi input single carried out and statistical validation indexes were used for
output structure. The adjustment of membership function determining the performance of the best proposed model
parameters is computed by gradient vector, which shows within each context. Once the inputs and output have
how well the ANFIS is modeled by a given different set of been identified, it is necessary to validate the quality of
training data consisting of certain conditions. the model results after training. Model validation will
Several experiments have been conducted to assess validate the accuracy and verify whether the model can be
whether the proposed modeled ANFIS has produced easily interpreted.
acceptable results. ANFIS network training involves map- The performances of the ANFIS models of both training
ping inputs through input membership functions and and checking data were evaluated and the best training/
mapping output through output membership functions. checking data set was selected according to RMSE.
The parameters associated with each membership function Prediction accuracy was calculated by comparing the
will keep changing throughout the learning process. difference of predicted and measured values. In order to
The ANFIS training process starts by determining fuzzy find the ideal ANFIS system, we trained the system with a
sets and the number of sets of each input variable and shape variety of settings for items such as data set sample, epoch
of their membership function. All the training data passes number, membership function type and number, and
through the Neural Network , to adjust the input para- number of inputs to achieve the best performance. The
meters to find the relationships between input/output, and validation tests between the predicted results and the actual
to minimize the errors. RMES is the function used to results for both training and testing phases are presented in
monitor the training errors. RMSE is used and defined as Section 5.
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u N
u 1 X 2
RMSE ¼ t yj y^j : ð12Þ 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
N j¼1
Various experiments were conducted and the sizes of the
Mean Average Error (MAE) is used and defined as training and checking data sets were determined by taking
the classification accuracies into consideration.
1X N The data were divided into two separate sets: the
MAE ¼ jyi y^i j; ð13Þ training data set and the checking data set. The training
N j¼1
data set was used to train the ANFIS, whereas the checking
where N is the total number of prediction, y^j is the data set was used to verify the accuracy and the effective-
predicted time series, and yj is the original series. ness of the trained ANFIS model for the adaptation of
Functions from the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox (FLT) were learning content. In order to find out the optimal model to
included in MATLAB code. This code was used to solve the address the problem of mobile learning, we need to
234 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 5, NO. 3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2012
TABLE 1
The ANFISð1Þ Structure Information (Membership Functions Number “3 3 3”)
investigate a number of factors that play important roles in generated fuzzy inference system structure contains 27
determining this model. fuzzy rules.
The optimal ANFIS model setting will be selected based Table 1 shows that the Triangular-shaped (trimf) member-
a comparison of RMSE values for different epoch numbers ship function performs most effectively with minimum
and the number of membership functions assigned to each RMSE during validation with the epoch numbers 10, 25, and
ANFIS structure. Four main aspects will be taken into 40, and the Gaussian (gaussmf) membership function
consideration in relation to ANFIS system training: over- produced the worst results with epoch numbers 10, 25,
fitting, number of membership functions, type of member- and 40.
ship functions, and training options (training data sample ANFISð2Þ . Four inputs and membership function number
(3 3 3 3). Similar to the ANFISð1Þ , the only difference is the
and epoch number).
inclusion of another input which is Battery Life. Four inputs
ANFISð1Þ . Three inputs and membership function
were considered in the second experiment. LL has three
number (3 3 3). The first system was structured by
membership functions represented as “Home, Class, and
selecting three inputs and feeding them into the network.
Outdoor.” NB has three membership functions represented
The selection of the inputs was based on the impact of
these inputs on the output format for mobile learning. as “Low, Middle, and High.” BL has three membership
Three input parameters were controlled, namely: Learner functions represented as “Low, Half, and Full.” SC has three
Location, Network Bandwidth, and Software Capability. membership functions represented as “Text, Text+PDF, and
LL has three membership functions represented as “Home, Text+PDF+Video”.
Class and Outdoor.” NB has three membership functions LL, NB, BL, and SC are the model inputs, with default
represented as “Low, Middle, and High.” SC has three values for membership function number (3 3 3 3); member-
membership functions represented as “Text, Text+PDF, and ship function types “Gaussian, Triangular-shaped and
Text+PDF+Video.” Generalized bell-shaped” are used. These defaults provide
First we will test our model with default values for membership functions on each of the four inputs, twelve
membership function number (3 3 3); membership function altogether. The generated fuzzy inference system structure
types “Gaussian, Triangular-shaped and Generalized bell- contains 81 fuzzy rules. The summary of the tested
shaped” are used. These defaults provide membership membership function numbers and types with their
functions on each of the three inputs, nine altogether. The respective epoch numbers is tabulated in Table 2.
TABLE 2
The ANFISð2Þ Structure Information (Membership Functions Number “3 3 3 3”)
AL-HMOUZ ET AL.: MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AN ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM (ANFIS) FOR MOBILE LEARNING 235
TABLE 3
The ANFISð3Þ Structure Information (Membership Functions Number “4 3 3 5”)
As shown in Table 2, for the model with four inputs, that represented as “PDF and PDF+Video.” ES has two member-
the Triangular-shaped (trimf) membership function with the ship functions represented as “Sunny and Raining.” Table 4
epoch number 10 and the Generalized bell-shaped (gbellmf) shows, for this model, that the Generalized bell-shaped
membership function with the epoch numbers 25 and 40 are (gbellmf) membership function with the epoch numbers 25,
selected as the best fit model for describing the mobile 30, and 40 is the best fit model, and that the Triangular-
learning scenarios. The Triangular-shaped (trimf) member- shaped (trimf) membership function performs the worst.
ship function with epoch numbers 25 and 40 and the The experimental results shown in the tables above
Gaussian (gaussmf) membership function perform the worst demonstrate that the fuzzy rule base selected by the human
with maximum RMSE during validation. expert produces consistent results for the test data used [10,
ANFISð3Þ . Four inputs and membership function number 15, and 27 (ANFISð1Þ ), 40, 60, and 81 (ANFISð2Þ ), 100, 150, and
(4 3 3 5). Similar to the ANFISð2Þ , four inputs were con- 180 (ANFISð3Þ )) and 15, 25, and 31 (ANFISð4Þ )]. However, not
trolled: LL, NB, BL, and SC. This model was previously all situations are covered by the human expert’s fuzzy rules
explained and shown in Fig. 7. Table 3 shows, for this model, and some missing rules are detected by ANFIS. Tables 1, 2,
that the Triangular-shaped (trimf) membership function 3, and 4 show that all situations for all input attributes are
with the epoch numbers 10, 25, and 40 is the best fit model, covered by the sets of 27, 81, 180, and 32 rules; however
and that the Trapezidal-shaped (trapmf) and Gaussian some of the rules have been found to produce illogical
(gaussmf) membership functions perform the worst. decisions because the training sample size was not large
ANFISð4Þ . Five inputs and membership function number enough to cover all possible cases.
(2 2 2 2 2). Similar to the previous ANFIS structures, the The ANFIS models are evaluated based on their
only difference is that five inputs are included, with the performance in training and checking sets as shown in
addition of the input Environment Status (ES). Five inputs Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4. The ANFIS models have shown
were considered in the fourth experiment. LL has two significant performance variations against the evaluation
membership functions represented as “Home and Outdoor.” criteria in terms of data sample, number of membership
NB has two membership functions represented as “Low and functions, and type of membership functions. It appears
High.” BL has two membership functions represented as that the ANFIS models are accurate and consistent in
“Low and Full.” SC has two membership functions different subsets, where all the values of RMSE and MAE
TABLE 4
The ANFISð4Þ Structure Information (Membership Functions Number “2 2 2 2 2”)
236 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES, VOL. 5, NO. 3, JULY-SEPTEMBER 2012
are smaller. It also shows that the lowest value of RMSE is increase of epoch number for a training data set does not
0.7426 and the highest value of the RMSE is 1.0177 in necessarily improve the system performance significantly
ANFISð1Þ . The values of the RMSE and MAE in ANFISð3Þ are but it helps to overcome the problem of overfitting. The
much lower than in ANFISð1Þ and ANFISð2Þ . ANFISð3Þ , training data should cover all different possibilities to
which consists of four inputs and membership function enhance system performance, as previously discussed. As
(4 3 3 5), has shown the highest efficiency and correlation, the different tests have shown, each ANFIS structure has it
and the minimum RMSE and MAE. It also shows that the own best and worst fit model according to the current
lowest value of RMSE is 0.5858 and the highest value of the ANFIS settings.
RMSE is 0.6241 in ANFISð4Þ . As a result, ANFISð3Þ and A number of tests were carried out with regard to the
ANFISð4Þ were selected as the two best-fit models to deliver number of epochs. The results of these tests indicate that
learning content for mobile learning. the most important factors to achieve good performance
Both the type and number of membership functions are are usually the training data sample and the number/type
important in building the ANFIS architecture. To investi- of membership functions. The number of epochs and the
gate the effects of the number and types of membership training options do not appear to have a significant
functions, a variety of different training data sets and influence on performance.
checking data were used to examine the impact of the type Results in the tables demonstrate that ANFIS model
and number of membership functions. Based on the performance is, in general, accurate and acceptable, where
experiment results in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4, a number of some rules are covered by human expert training data set
membership functions are needed to achieve desired and the missing rules are detected by ANFIS. The results of
performance of the model. the ANFIS models demonstrate that ANFIS can be success-
ANFISð3Þ , which is equivalent to ANFISð2Þ in terms of the fully applied to adapt learning content according to the
number of inputs, varies in the number of membership learner’s current situation or needs.
functions and the training sample. ANFISð3Þ is more In this work, the applicability and capability of the
successful even though the same number of inputs are ANFIS method are investigated through the use of a
number of data sets, membership functions, and types of
used in both structures. This shows that the number of
membership functions. Twelve ANFIS models were con-
membership functions and the training data sample have
structed using combinations of inputs, sample training data,
positive training effects on the production of an acceptable
membership function numbers, and membership function
system output. Although the process used to create the types for the purpose of mobile learning. These ANFIS
network for ANFISð3Þ was slightly more time consuming, it models were trained and tested. The results of the ANFIS
provided better results. models and observation were compared and evaluated.
The required number of membership functions is ANFIS models were compared based on their performance
determined through trials, and based on error values. It in training and checking data sets.
indicates that each ANFIS model is very sensitive to the One of the motivations behind our design of an adaptive
type and number of membership functions. Increasing the mobile learning system was to support the learner through-
number of membership functions per input does not out the learning activity by realising the adaptation
necessarily increase model performance, but usually leads principle (Section 2.1), which consists of: 1) capturing the
to model overfitting. The RMSE values were used to learners’ context (implicit and explicit) and then 2) utilizing
determine the best membership function and epoch the captured learner context to construct a Learner Model
number in order to select the best fit model. From these (Section 2.2). If the captured learner context, which forms
results, the Triangular-shaped membership function with the learner model, truly represents the entire learning
optimized epoch numbers of 10, 25, and 40 was found to activity with its changes over time, the use of ANFIS for a
be the best model with the lowest RMSE value for two reasoning engine will keep up with the change in learner
model structures (“3 3 3” and “4 3 3 5”). The Generalized context and make accurate adaptation decisions.
bell-shaped membership function with epoch numbers 25 A key contribution of this paper is the adaptation
and 40 (in ANFISð2Þ ) and 25, 30, and 40 (in ANFISð4Þ ) was components, with a specific focus on the detailed learner
model components. Adaptive results presented in this
found to be the best fit model for describing the mobile
section confirm that the m-learning application is feasible.
learning scenarios in the model structures (“3 3 3 3”) and
The feasibility of the Reasoning Layer confirms the
(“2 2 2 2 2”).
assumptions made in Sections 2.1 and 2.2 of this paper.
Tables 3 and 4 show different approximations regarding These results were based on analysis of a number of inputs;
different epoch numbers and membership functions the research confirms that the m-learning application is
(“4 3 3 5” and “2 2 2 2 2”). It is shown that the number functional, however an increase in the number of inputs
of training samples has influenced ANFIS behavior by will increase the response time.
adding new possibilities to produce more acceptable One of the key challenges in m-learning is to ensure that
results. It is very important for Fuzzy Logic engine to train an appropriate balance is struck between the conveniences
the system with a set of training data that includes many provided by adaptation and the time taken to provide the
different data sample possibilities. Training options are user with such a personalized experience.
important in building an ANFIS architecture; they include
epoch numbers, the error goal, the initial step size, and
decrease or increase rate of the step size. 6 CONCLUSION
For ANFISð1Þ , ANFISð2Þ , ANFISð3Þ , and ANFISð4Þ , differ- This paper introduced the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference
ent epoch numbers are used. It can be concluded that the System as a reasoning engine to deliver learning content for
AL-HMOUZ ET AL.: MODELING AND SIMULATION OF AN ADAPTIVE NEURO-FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM (ANFIS) FOR MOBILE LEARNING 237
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