Introduction to

Ionospheric Sounding
Dr. Terence Bullett
University of Colorado Boulder
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences
Terry.Bullett@noaa.gov

Workshop on Science Applications of GNSS in Developing Countries

Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics

Trieste, Italy
April 2012

In Cooperation with:
With assistance from:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Robert Livingston National Geophysical Data Center
Richard Grubb Solar and Terrestrial Physics Division
 Outline

● Earth's Ionosphere
● Propagation in Plasma

● Ionosondes
● Ionograms
● Data Analysis
● Applications
● Research Topics
● Data Sharing

Research Opportunity
Introduction to the Ionosphere
 Ionospheric Processes

Courtesy NASA
 Earth's Ionosphere
● Plasma of ionized atmospheric gases
● NO, O2, O, H, He
● Produced by solar EUV (mostly)
● ~50 to ~1000 km altitude
● Strong temporal variations
● Daily
● Seasonal
● Solar Cycle
● Strong interaction with Earth's magnetic field
● Solar produced magnetic disturbances
● High, Middle and Low Latitudes
 Ionosphere Vertical Electron Density Profile

The F2 region varies

by 3-5X diurnally,
highest just after noon, --------------------------
lowest before dawn. Ionosondes
Measure Up
The F1 region and E To Hmax
region dissipate at night.

The D region is present

only during daytime and
in times of high activity.
Ionosphere Global
Structure

Regional

Local and Small Scale

Insert Date 7
 Ionosphere Radio Propagation

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/ionosphere_max.htm
 Radio Waves in Plasmas
Plane Wave Electric Field E  z =ℜE o e i  t−kz 
ck
Index of Refraction n= =−i 

● Cool plasma
● No Collisions
● No Magnetic Field
f
2
N e2
 2=1− X =1− p
=1− = 2
80.5
f
2
f
2
4  o m

Propagation near the speed of light when f p ≪ f ; ≈1

Propagation slows dramatically when f p  f ; 0

Specular (total) reflection occurs when f p = f ; =0

After Davies, 1965

 Propagation with a Magnetic Field
A magneto-plasma is birefringent
The index of refraction depends on the polarization of the radio wave
A magneto-plasma is anisotroptic
The index of refraction depends on the direction of propagation

Index of refraction: 2 2X 1− X 

 =1−
21− X −Y 2T ±  Y T4 4 1− X 2 Y 2L

With respect to the direction of propagation: Y L=Longitudinal component of Y

Y T =Transverse component of Y
The + and – refer to the Ordinary and
Extraordinary polarized radio waves

Reflection occurs when  e

Y = B
f p= f (Ordinary wave) m
X =1−Y (eXtraordinary waves)
fH
Y=
X =1Y f

O&X are circularly polarized over most the Earth ∣ e

f H =∣ B
2m
Linearly polarized at the magnetic equator
After Davies, 1965
 Appleton Equation
A magneto-plasma is absorptive
The radio wave amplitude decreases as energy is lost due to collisions

The full Appleton equation with collisions f

Z=
f

X
n 2=1−
1−iZ −
Y T2
21− X −iZ 
±
 Y T4
41− X −iZ 
Y 2L

With propagation below 30 MHz in the Earth's Ionosphere,

all of these factors can substantially influence the radio wave

This influence provides both Great Opportunity and Great Difficulty with
Remote Sensing and Radio Science with Ionosondes

After Davies, 1965

 Phase and Group Velocity
c
Phase velocity is defined as: v=

∴ v=c  ∞ as =1  0

Which means the radio wavelength increases in a plasma

d
Group velocity is: u= 
dk k 0
u=c  0 as =1  0

Which means the propagation speed decreases in a plasma

c dk d
Group Refractive Index is:  ' = =c
u d
= f
d f

1
With no magnetic field: '=

∴  ' =1 ∞ as =1  0

Which is essentially a reciprocal velocity factor

After Davies, 1965

 Virtual Height and Density Profiles
● Ionosondes measure the time of flight of a
packet of radio frequency energy
● Virtual Height or Group Path
● Integral of the Group Refractive Index
hR

Virtual height h '  f =∫ '  f  dh

0

[  ]
2 2
f p h−h o
For a parabolic electron density profile: N h= 1−
80.5 ym

ym f f p f
Virtual Height (reflection): h '  f =h o− y m  ln
2 f p f p− f

f ff p
Virtual Height (through the layer) h '  f =ho − y m y m ln
fp f−f p

After Davies, 1965 (no magnetic field)

Parabolic EDP and Virtual Height

h'(0.834foF2) = hmF2

hmF2

foF2

0.834*foF2
Propagation through a Layer

hmE

foE
 Classic Ionogram

Courtesy IPS
 Classic Ionogram Scaling

Courtesy IPS
 Ionosondes
HuaLien Ascension Island (AFRL) Bear Lake (USU)
(NCU)

Addis Ababa
(AAU)

Sondrestrom (AFRL)

Nuie Island (IPS) Stanley, Falklands (RAL) Pakistan (SUPARCO)

 Ionosonde History
● The first radar, invented in 1926
● Used to measure the height of the ionosphere
● Bi-static “chirp” and mono-static “pulse” varieties
● Longest ionosphere climate record
● ~ 100 Vertical Incidence ionosondes worldwide
● New technologies have evolved the ionosonde:
● High power electronics
● Data display and recording
● Antennas
● Computers
● Digital Signal Processing
What is an Ionosonde and what does it do?
● MF-HF Radar (1-20 MHz)
● A acre or ten of antennas
● Measures ionosphere
reflection height at a precise
density (sounding frequency)
● Feature recognition software
needed in an often complex
image
● Inversion process required
to obtain bottom-side
electron density profile
● Valleys and Topside are
modeled or extrapolated
ARTIST
Scaling
 Ionosonde Components
Ionosphere

Tx Antenna Rx Antenna(s)

Frequency Data
Receiver(s)
Synthesis

Transmitter

Timing Control Analysis

 Modern Ionosondes

Ionosondes Presently Manufactured

“Modern is a relative term”

 CADI
Canadian Advanced Digital Ionosonde Arecibo

Svalbard

Courtesy SIL
INGV-AIS Italian Advanced Ionospheric Sounder
 Digisonde DPS-4D

Courtesy Hermanus Magnetic Observatory

VIPIR
Vertical Incidence Pulsed Ionospheric Radar

Transmit Antenna

Instrument Receive Array

 VIPIR Radar Features
 Very high interference immunity: IP3 > 40 dBm
 High Dynamic Range: 115(I) +30(V) dB
 Direct RF sampling 14 bits at 80 MHz
 Fully digital conversion, receiver and exciter
 Waveform Agility: 2 µs to 2 ms pulse/chip width
 USB-2 Data and Command/Control Interfaces
 8 coherent receive channels; Frequency: 0.3 – 25 MHz
 4 kW class AB pulse amplifier: 3rd harmonic < -30 dBc
 Precise GPS timing for bi-static operation
 Radar software Open Source C code; runs under Linux

Designed for extreme performance and flexibility

Wallops Island VIPIR hardware
 Power Conditioner
 4kW RF Amplifier
 KVM
 Exciter
 Reference
 Receiver
 Front End
 Balun
 Control Computer
 Analysis Computer
 UPS
 Wallops Island Field Site

150mx250m
37,500 sq. m 100 m
9 acres
 VIPIR Facilities

Current (8) Planned (11)

Updated April 2012

Modern Ionosonde Data Analysis

Data Analysis Techniques

for use on
Modern Ionosondes

“Making sense of an ocean of raw data”

 Circular Polarization Example
● Two orthogonal antennas
Rx2-X ● Separate receivers
● O and X mode signals
● Magnitude [dB]
+90 ● Phase [deg]
Rx1-X
● -90 for O-mode
-90
Rx1-O ● +90 for X-mode
● Phase shift even receiver
data +90 and – 90 and
Rx2-O sum with odd receiver
data
SJJ18_2010308180508.RIQ

Equatorial O/X Polarizations are orthogonal linear!

Polarization Example
 Precision vs Resolution
● Resolution is the ability to separate 2 objects
● Closely spaced in some dimension (i.e. Range)
● Determined by waveform (bandwidth)
● Precision is the ability to measure a resolved object
● Mostly determined by SNR
 Radar Timing
● T0 is the start of a Pulse Repetition Interval
● Waveform is started some time after T0
● Waveform has finite duration
● Receiver sampling is started some (other) time after T 0
● The PRECISE range of the received waveform is defined
as the peak of the receiver impulse response
● The ACCURATE values of the range gates are
determined by multi-hop Sporadic-E
● Therefore:
● A calibration factor RANGE0 is provided as the “correct”
range of the 0th (non-existent) range gate
● Some range gates can have negative range if they start
before the peak of the transmitted waveform
Waveform Timing
 Precision Range
● Use the high SNR and precise receiver response
● Properly sampled receiver output
● Fit a raised cosine function to the amplitude data
4
● Ao, Ro, W
[
A x = Ao
1
2
1cos
x−Ro
W ]
 Impulse Response Fitting

Ao=58.6 ; Ro=166.7 Precision is about 0.1 range gate (150m)

Ax=53.3 ; Rx=176.9 Depending on SNR and echo separation
 Doppler Shift
● Doppler shift is a change in
radio phase with time due to
the change in phase path
● Details are beyond the
scope of this presentation
● For ionosondes, this means
a change in the ionosphere
plasma
● Motion
● Photochemistry
● Irregularities
● Waves
Research Opportunity
 Doppler Example

● Doppler is the first moment of the phase vs time.

● Higher order moments?
Research Opportunity
 Interferometry
● The phase difference
2 −1 =∣k∣D sin  between spaced
antennas related to the
angle of arrival of a
plane radio wave
● Issues:


k ● 2π ambiguity
Non-plane wave
1 2
●

D ● Mutual Coupling
● Multiple spacings aid to
resolve this problem
● Room for Improvement

Research Opportunity
Ionosonde Applications

“So much to do, so little time...”

 Applications of the Modern Ionosonde
Echo Recognition by PRETEC; Trace Classes by ECL; N(h) by PO LAN

500 - ooo--oo xo xx-xx

xo
xo -
Internal Content per Echo:
--o-oooooooo
Precision Echolocation, Doppler,
--zzzz zzzzzzzzzzzzzz- - o o-o<26---oooo -----oo--o-o-- ---oo --oo-o-ooooo
--oo - --
-oo
--o-o oo -
ooo -o ---- --- oooo-oo
---
z zzzzzzzzzoooooooo ooooooo-o
o-ooooooooooooo ooooo-oooo - x
xx
x
- o xx
-o-o xxxx
400 o- -o -- xx xxxxxx
oo o x

Polarization, Amplitude, high-

-- - --o x
---- oo oo- xxxxxx x
o -o o oo o-o xx xxxxxxx
ooo ---o----
o -o
o--o--ooo xxxxxxxx
x
--o--o
Auto-Processed - xxxx
o o- --
ooo
o
--o---o o
-o--oo
o-o ooo------- o oooo ---o xxx
xxx
o o-o oooooo
-o-- xxxxxxxxx
resolution phase path, and more.
300 oo ooo o-o
o o o o- -o o-----o--- o o

Group and 'True' Ranges / km

o - o o o
- oo
o x
ooo-o -oo oo
-o -o -o oooo ---o --zo
-oo
z o
oooo-oooo xxxxxxxxxx
- ooo o o---o oo o-o-o
ooo--o-o - -z
-oo -----z
xxxxxxx
oooooooooo xxxxxxxxxx

Dynasonde xo
--o o -o--o
-o o xxxxxxxxxxxxx o-oooooooo ooxoxoxxxxxxxxxxxx
- o oooo
o
o-o -o--o--o o-o oo -o-o -oooo zz-z-zzzz
- zo xxxxxxx- xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx oooooo-oo-o oooooooooo--o x-xx
-oooo o-o --o-o-o --oo oo ooo zozo oo --
---
o
-o o ooo --o -oooo ---o zo
oooo oooooooozooo
oooo ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
- - --- o -oo ooooo oooo
oooo-o
oo
-o -ooo o
--o
o
-o
o - oooozooooooooooooooooooo
z zzzzzzzzzzooooo oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
ooooooooooooo
--- oo
o o -- o - - - - -- --- zz

Ionogram o o-
200 ooooo -o-o- o-
oo oo ooo
oooo
ooo o oo-oo
--o oo- -oo -
oo o-o
ooo--o-o oo-oo-o
---o-o oo o
--- ooo o o o o-o
o
o-o
o o-o-oo-o
o o o-oo oo
-o-o -ooo o o o o o ----oo o
150 zzzzz o-o --oo ooo --ooo o
oo-o
o
ooo-
-o
oo oo-
zz o o
---o-o
ooooo-oo-o-oo--ooo
o o o -
-z zzzzzzzz z ooooooo oo o o o ooo oo
oooo-oooooo oo-o-ooooo ooooooo ooo
120 oooo ooooo o
-
ooooooo-
o
o ooo o
oooooooooooo
100 ooooo
o ooo oooo ooo oo oooooooooooo - - -- - -
oo ooo oo oo ooo
ooooooooooooo o ooo
ooo oo oooo o oo - ---- - -- -- --
ooo - -
o o o oo --
80

60

Basic Physics of
1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

N(h) Radio and Plasm a Frequencies / MHz

Phase Radio Waves in

profiles Vector Velocities
Structure Magneto-Plasma
Functions
Small-Scale
To all products Irregularities Special Indices
Sunrise [O]/[N2] RF Heating
D-Region Radio experiments
Atmospheric Gravity Waves S2, S3 Scintillations Absorption
Deterministic Description ∆f/f →∆N/N
Daily Summary
Standard
Electric Fields Parameters
Mid-Scale foF2, foE, M3k
Irregularities

Communication
Thermospheric & Geomagnetic Storms Forecasts
Ionospheric Models: Scintillation
All boxes contribute Models Eddy Mixing;
Turbopause Auroral Precipitation

Wright & Bullett

Adv Sp. Res. 2000
 Plasma Physics with Ionosondes
● Careful examination of changes in transmitted
radio wave properties:
● Amplitude, Range, Frequency, Doppler, Direction, Phase
● Determine the plasma properties
1
● Densities Multibeam
Reflections

Multiple (SpreadF;
● Waves 0.1 Scattering Δf/f Method;
Polarization

IrregularityAmplitudeΔN/N
(Anomalous Distortions;
Attenuation S2 , S3 Indices)
● Turbulence 1E-2
Effect;
RangeSpread;
LacunaEffect)
Tilts, AGWs
● Structure
1E-3 Diffraction (Echolocation;
● Composition (Phase
StructureFunction
Doppler)

Method)
● Physical Processes 1E-4

Natural LF
●
λ
1E-5 Small Intermediate Mid Large
● Artificial 1E-2 0.1 1 1E+1 1E+2 1E+3
IrregularityScales, km
Research Opportunity Courtesy Wright & Zabotin
 HF Heating
• Near-Gaussian beam produces sharp-edged central spot
surrounded by ring in optical images
• Secondary trace observed in ionograms indicates presence of
artificial bottomside layer at ~200 km alt.
• Raytracing shows bottomside density enhancement would form
ring of higher power, as observed

“Ring”

Artificial
Natural ionization
ionization
After Pedersen et al, Optical ring formation and ionization production in high-power
HF heating experiments at HAARP, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, 2009.
 Messo-Scale Structure
1.9 MHz

F-layer structure

Patchy Es
 Geophysics with Ionosondes
● Derive physical quantities from the ionosonde data
● Electron Density Profiles
● Vector Velocities
● Study Ionosphere and Thermosphere physics
● Photochemistry
● Ion & Neutral Composition
● Electric Fields
● Neutral Winds
● Coupling and Energy Transport
● Short and long term variability
● Forecasting
 Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements
Assimilated
GPS-TEC

Model

Ionosonde
EDP
Measurements

Courtesy Leo McNamara

Boulder 1-minute Data

Note activity in the

afternoon near 4MHz
 Forecasting Ionospheric Scintillation
Estimating the post-sunset, equatorial vertical ExB drift
velocity using ionosonde measured change in F-layer height

Ionosonde estimated Vertical ExB Drift

from the 4 MHz True Height Rise S4 vs VExB at Antofagasta West in
S4 vs ExB Drift at Antofagasta West in April, 1998
1 April 1998
1900 LT 0.9

0.8

0.7
325 km
0.6

0.5

S4 Index
0.4

0 4 8 0.3

1930 LT 0.2

0.1

430 km 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
ExB Drift (m/sec) 45
VExB m/s

VExB = 58 m/s Redmon, R. J., D. Anderson, R. Caton, and T. Bullett, A Forecasting Ionospheric Real-
time Scintillation Tool (FIRST), Space Weather, 8, 2010,
 FIRST
Forecasting Ionospheric Real-time Scintillation Tool

Web page with real time data driven forecasts

http://ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/IONO/FIRST.html

“Yes, there is an App for that”

Atmospheric & Space Technology Research Associates

For Apple IOS and Android devices

Communication Engineering with Ionosondes

● Analyze the nature of radio propagation to:

● Design Communication Systems
● Antennas
● Transmitters
● Receivers
● Modulation schemes
● Operate Communications Systems
● Operations procedures
● Frequency management
● Schedule
Real Time Data Plots : Situational Awareness
Ionosphere Variations are Evident

This day showed low Past 5 days shows

values at night but a the short term
This night at
recovery had low
sunrise typical behavior
foF2 but recovered
at sunrise

Previous day had

Classic Outlier
Data Point low foF2 all day
 HF Propagation Prediction
1) Ionosphere model,
determined (in part)
from ionosonde data

4) HF Illumination Map

2) Predict HF propagation from

known transmitter
3) HF raytrace energy
integrated in each pixel
Real Time Ionosonde Data at WDC-A
 Research Topics

Recommended areas of research for graduate

studies using modern ionosondes

“If we knew what we were doing,

it wouldn’t be research”
 Equatorial Spread-F
Jicamarca VIPIR

Research Opportunity Improved Forecasting?

 High Time Resolution Data
● VIPIR can comfortably make 1 ionogram per min
● Digisondes are experimenting similarly
Plot of foF2 for 17
hours from the
Millstone Hill
Digisonde (Blue)
and Hanscom VIPIR
(Red)

How to optimally
use these data?

Data courtesy of U.Mass

Lowell and Boston College

Research Opportunity
 Very Fast Sweeps
● Ionogram sweeps < 10 seconds long
● Continuous repeat of 100's of sweeps possible

Boulder, CO
3 second sweep

What will these

data reveal?

Research Opportunity
 Plasma Turbulence

Smooth E- layer

Structured E- layer

Cause?
Research Opportunity
 VIPIR Observes Meteor Trails

120 km
Vlos ~ 25m/s
Meteor Trail

Research Opportunity Plasma structures?

 E-region studies

Source of these echoes?

Research Opportunity
 Science and Engineering Needs
● Improved dynamic range → 16 bit ADC
● Greater data bandwidth → USB3
● More Digital Filters
● Manual Ionogram Analysis Software
● Echo Detection and Parametrization
● Improved Ionogram Scaling
Research Opportunity
● Amplitude and Phase Calibrations
● Improved data collection → continuous
● Super-resolution direction finding & plasma imaging
● Interference removal
 Data Sharing
● World Data Centers (WDC)
● Since 1950's, now disbanded
● Still functional as national centers
● World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
● Replaces WDC's
● Not yet functional
● International Space Environmental Centers (ISES)
● Focus on real time data, space weather
● www.ises-spaceweather.org/
 Analog Ionogram on Film

Date and Time Receiver Range Markers

Frequency Markers Output
 Manual Scaling Sheets

A month (Jan 1946) of foF2 data from Washington DC

 NOAA Data Holdings
● Ionograms on Film
● 20,000 monthly reels
● Scanned Films Contact:
Ionosonde@noaa.gov
● 300 monthly reels
● Scaled Characteristics
● Hourly since ~1938
● 15 minutes since ~1990
● Digisonde digital ionograms
● ~200 station-years
● VIPIR Ionograms
● VIPIR Raw Data (10TB per station-year)
 Credits
● Boston College and ICTP
● University of Colorado
● NOAA National Geophysical Data Center
● NASA Wallops Island Flight Facility
● US Geological Survey
● US Air Force Research Laboratory
● Scion Associates
● University of Massachusetts Lowell
● National Central University, Taiwan
● All ionosonde data producers who freely share their data!
Questions?

Space
Weather?
 Internet Resources
● World Data Center A, Boulder:
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/IONO/ionohome.html
● Digisondes and ARTIST : http://ulcar.uml.edu/
● Autoscala: http://roma2.rm.ingv.it/en/facilities/software/18/autoscala
● ESIR : http://www.spacenv.com/
● Dynasonde21: Nikolay.Zabotin@colorado.edu
● Low-latitude Ionospheric Sensing System: http://jro.igp.gob.pe/lisn/
● Vertical Incidence Pulsed Ionosphere Radar (VIPIR): Terry.Bullett@noaa.gov
● Canadian Advanced Digital Ionosonde (CADI): http://cadiweb.physics.uwo.ca/
● Ionospheric Prediction Services (IPS): http://www.ips.gov.au/
● Ionosonde Network Advisory Group (INAG)
http://www.ips.gov.au/IPSHosted/INAG/
● SPIDR: http://spidr.ngdc.noaa.gov/spidr/index.jsp