FIRE
- a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of
varying intensity
- an active chemical reaction that takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light
and noticeable heat
- a chemical reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel producing heat and light
- an oxidation taking place with a rate rapid enough to produce heat and light
TECHNOLOGY
- the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences
- the application of such knowledge that is used to produce the material necessity of society
FUEL
- anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen
OXYGEN
- aids in combustion; comes from the atmosphere we breath; the atmosphere contains: 21%
oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% impurities
HEAT
- source of ignition
TRIANGLE OF FIRE
For many years, the fire triangle (oxygen, fuel and heat) was taught as the components of fire.
While this simple example is useful, it is NOT technically correct.
TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE
- a geometric representation of what is required for fire to exist, namely, fuel, an oxidizing agent,
heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
FUEL
- the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process.
Fuel sources
1. Solid
- molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid
- molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas
- molecules are free to move
HEAT
- the energy component of the fire tetrahedron
- when heat comes into contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion reaction
- heat energy is measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be measured in Calories (1
Calorie = 4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU = 1055 J)
TEMPERATURE
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared to a reference point
- measured in degrees Farenheit or degrees Celsius
ºCºF Response
37 98.6 Normal human oral/body temperature
44 111 Human skin begins to feel pain
48 118 Human skin receives a first degree burn injury
55 131 Human skin receives a second degree burn injury
62 140 A phase where burned human tissue becomes numb
72 162 Human skin is instantly destroyed
100 212 Water boils and produces steam
140 284 Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
230 446 Melting temperature of polycarbonate
250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins
300 572 Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics begins
600 1112 Temperatures inside a post-flashover room fire
CHEMICAL ENERGY
- the most common source of heat in combustion reactions
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process
results in the production of heat.
ex. Heat generated from burning match, self heating (spontaneous heating)
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
- can generate temperature high enough to ignite any combustible material near the heated area
Examples:
1. over current or overload
2. arcing
3. sparking
4. static
5. lightning
NUCLEAR ENERGY
- generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion)
Ex.
1. fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity
2. solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction
MECHANICAL ENERGY
- an energy created by friction and compression
1) Heat of friction - the movement of two surfaces against each other, thus producing sparks
2) Heat of compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container or cylinder
FIRE DEVELOPMENT
When the four components of the fire tetrahedron come together, ignition occurs. For a fire to
grow beyond the first material ignited, heat must be transmitted beyond the first material to
additional fuel packages.
Stages of Fire
- Ignition
- Growth
- Flashover
- Fully-developed
- Decay
IGNITION
- describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together and
combustion begins
GROWTH
- shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel. As the plume develops,
it begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into the column.
FLASHOVER
- the transition between the growth and the fully developed fire stages and is not a specific event
such as ignition. During flashover, conditions in the compartment change very rapidly as the fire
changes from one that is dominated by the burning of the materials first ignited to one that
involves all of the exposed combustible surfaces within the compartment.
FULLY-DEVELOPED
- occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are involved in the fire
DECAY
- as the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of heat released begins to
decline.
1. INCIPIENT STAGE
- initial stage of fire
Characteristics
- normal room temperature
- oxygen plentiful
- thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point
- temperature at 1000 F
- Producing C02, CO, SO2, water and other gases
Characteristics
- fire has involved more fuel
- oxygen supply has depleted
- heat accumulates at upper area
- temperature exceeds 1,330 F
- area is fully involved
3. SMOLDERING PHASE
- final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat completely fill the
confined room
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant importance to the firefighter. It is heat that
causes fire to sustain its combustion and, more important, to extend. When heat given off as a
product of combustion is exposed to an unheated substance, certain changes occur that can make
the new substance a contributing factor in extending a fire.
CONDUCTION
- heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids
When a hot object transfers its heat, conduction has taken place. The transfer could be to another
object or to another portion of the same object. As we have discovered and will be constantly
reinforced about, combustion occurs on the molecular level. When an object heats up, the atoms
become agitated and begin to collide with one another. A chain reaction of molecules and atoms,
like wave energy, occurs and causes the agitated molecules to pass the heat energy to areas of non-
heat.
CONVECTION
- heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses
Air that is hotter than its surroundings rises. Air that is cooler than its surroundings sinks. Air is
made up of many molecules floating about freely. Even so, it still has weight. Some molecules are
made up of the same element. For example, oxygen in its natural state will combine with another
oxygen atom to form a stable oxygen molecule. In a given volume, air at a given temperature will
have the same density. When heated, as in conduction theory, the molecules become agitated and
begin to collide with one another. In the process, the molecules are demanding more space to
accommodate the vibrations and they push into one another as they seek that space. When that
happens, the density of a given volume is reduced and it weighs less. Because it weighs less, it
rises until it reaches equilibrium-the level at which the weight is the same as the surrounding
atmosphere.
RADIATION
- heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
The last form of heat transfer occurs by radiation. As we have already seen, heat energy can be
transmitted directly when molecules collide with one another and cause the waves of heat energy
to travel.
FLAME CONTACT
- heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact
PROPERTIES OF FIRE
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical Properties
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a. Specific gravity
- the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal volume of water
b. Vapor density
- the weight of volume of pure gas compared to weight of a volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure
c. Vapor pressure
- the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at the equilibrium
d. Temperature
- the measure of the thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given substance; the
measure of the molecular activity within the substance
e. Boiling Point
- the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure
f. Ignition temperature
- the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or
cause self-contained combustion without addition of heat from outside sources
g. Fire point
- the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning
h. Flash point
- the temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off
enough vapors to cause a flame across the surface
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
a. Endothermic reaction
- are changes whereby energy is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place
b. Exothermic reaction
- reactions or changes that releases or give off energy
c. Oxidation
- a chemical change in which combustible material and an oxidizing material react
d. Combustion or flame
- the manifestation of fire is in its gas-phased combustion; matter that is produced by fire.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE
I. BASED ON CAUSE
a. Natural fire/ providential
b. Accidental fire
c. Intentional Fire/Incendiary
d. Undetermined
A. NATURAL FIRE
- involves fires without direct human intervention
Examples:
- Earthquake
- Typhoon
- Lightning
- Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible materials in poorly ventilated
places
- Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances
- Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a convex lens
B. ACCIDENTAL FIRE
- Carelessly discarded cigarettes
- Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
- Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
- Overheating, spark and electrical defects
- Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
- Children playing matches
- Use of candles
C. INCENDIARY FIRE
- is one deliberately set under circumstances in which the person knows that the fire should not be
set
CLASS A
- ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics, etc.
- this will be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes and embers (glowing coals) after burning
CLASS B
- flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, paint thinner, etc.
CLASS C
- electrical appliances; causes electric shock
CLASS D
- metal fire such as magnesium (white element burning with dazzling light), sodium (a silver white
metallic element), etc.; creates violent reaction
CLASS E
- flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc.; also creates violent reaction
FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
EXTINGUISHING AGENT
1. Class A – water (all agents)
2. Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)
3. Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water, soda acid and foam)
4. Class D – special powder
5. Class E – all agents
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHMENT
1. COOLING – heat absorption.
2. SEPARATION – the removal of the fuel.
3. SMOTHERING – by expelling oxygen
4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain reaction
Types of Ventilation:
a. Vertical ventilation - must be worked from the top to bottom
b. Cross or horizontal ventilation - used if gases have not reached the higher level through the
opening of windows
c. Mechanical force ventilation - a method whereby a device such as smoke ejector is utilized to
remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke
Types of ladder
1. Ground ladders (10 to 55 ft. long)
2. Aerial ladders
Purposes of ladders
a. for rescue
b. to stretch line into a fire building
c. to provide ventilation by giving access to places that are hard to reach
LADDER TERMINOLOGY
1. Bed ladder - the lowest section of an extension ladder
2. Fly ladder - the top section of an extension ladder
3. Butt - the bottom end of a ladder
4. Heel - the part of the ladder that touches the ground
5. Halyard - a rope or cable used to raised the fly ladder
6. Pawl or dog - the mechanism located at the end of the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder
7. Rung - the cross member of the ladder that is used for climbing
8. Top or tip - it is the top part of the ladder
9. Hooks - part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls where the heel does
not rest on a foundation. (roof type ladders)
10. Stops - made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent the fly of an extension ladder from
extending out further from the ladder
11. Guides - light metal strips of an extension ladder that guides the fly ladder while it is being
raised or lowered
ARSON
- the willful and malicious burning of all kinds of buildings and structures including personal
properties
INVESTIGATION
- an art that deals with the identity and location of the offender and provides evidence of his guilt
in criminal proceedings
ELEMENTS OF ARSON
1. Actual burning took place
2. Actual burning is done with malicious intent
3. The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and criminally liable
LAWS ON ARSON
1. Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal Code
- defines arson, its forms and penalties
2. PD 1613 – the law amending the law on arson
- defining the prima facie evidence of arson
3. RA 7659
- An Act to Impose Death Penalty on Certain Heinous Crimes, amending for that purpose the
Revised Penal Code as amended, other special laws, and for other purposes
4. RA 6975 Sec. 54
- provides that the Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigate all causes of fires and if
necessary file the proper complaint with the City/Provincial Prosecutor who has jurisdiction over
the case
Arson is one of the most difficult offenses to investigate because the arsonist can be able to set a
fire and escape undetected. The fire can consume the scene and destroy much physical evidence of
the offense. Harder forms of evidence are often buried in debris and grossly altered in appearance.
The crime committed is attempted arson, because the offender begins the commission of the
crime directly by overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline beside the wooden wall of the
building and lighting a match) but he does not perform all the acts of execution (the setting of the
fire to the rags) due to the timely intervention of another who chases away) the offender.
Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator should seek at the Fire scene are the following:
1. Unusually rapid spread of the fire.
2. Where it originated?
3. Separate fires – when two or more separate fires break-out within a building, the fire is certainly
suspicious.
4. Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids are
indicated by their characteristics and oftentimes, arsonists are trapped because of this tell tale
signs.
5. Objects that appear to be foreign to the scene such as cans, candles, matches, explosives,
electrical appliances such as irons, heating elements, clocks, radios, flammables, trailers, etc.
6. Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics. The fact that the fire feeds on combustible
while propagating itself, indicates that the char will generally be deepest from where the fire
originates. When a fire is extinguished quickly, the charring is only slightly below the surface. Fire
burning for a longer period of time will indicate a char that is deep and pronounced. These facts
are most apparent in the charring of wood as a fire burns. The charring from fire on woods looks
like the hide of a black alligator. Fire extinguished quickly on wood will show a large alligatoring
pattern that has not penetrate the wood to any extent. Fire burning for a long period of time on
wood will show small alligatoring pattern but the char will go deep into the wood. The direction
of fire can also be taken into consideration with charring. The exposed side of combustible will
have a deeper char than the unexposed side.
7. Evidence of forcible entry or lack of same may be important depending on the circumstances at
the time of the fire. If the investigator determines there was no forcible entry and finds that the
building was secured prior to discovery of the fire, he can reasonably suspect there is possibility
that the person who sets the fire entered the building with a key. Doors and windows showing
signs of forced entry may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson by someone without a key
to the premises.
Motives of Arson
Motive
Motive is the moving cause which induces a person to commit a crime.
Is Motive Necessary to be Proven in Criminal Proceedings?
No. motive is not necessary to be proven in criminal proceedings but once motive is shown,
then intent can easily established.
In the crime of arson, the distinction between motive and intent is clearly defined. INTENT is a
material element of arson while motive is not. INTENT is the purpose of design with which the
act is done and involves the will while MOTIVE is what induces the criminal.
Concealment of Crime:
the arsonists may set fire to a building in order to conceal a projected or past crime. He may
wish to divert attention in order to loot the burning premises or steal in other places. The burning
may be for the purpose of destroying evidences.
Punitive Measure:
- An arsonists may use fire as a means of punishing another person for reason of jealousy, hatred
or revenge.
Pyromania
– is the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn anything without motivation. Pyromaniacs
usually do not run away from the scene of the crime, usually alone and feel satisfied watching the
flame
Types of Pyromaniacs:
1. Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and morons may set fire without knowing the
seriousness of the act.
2. The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a building, subsequently pretends to discover it and
turn in the alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A person may burn a building and
endeavor to achieve spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of spectators.
3. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subject themselves to intense artificial stimulants
such as narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward incendiaries.
4. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire and watching
the flame. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates and enhances his sexual
gratification by means of arson.
Public Disturbance
- an offender may resort to arson as a means of a public disturbance because a fire attracts people
and destruction causes confusion that gives rise to attendant problems that divert police attention.
Vandalism
– is a general term denoting intentional burning to destroy properties.
Incendiary Materials
- materials used to start a fire; combustible fuels
1. Arson Chemicals (liquids) – are incendiary materials often used by arsonists as accelerants.
Possess excellent properties. Examples: alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene,
naptha, turpentine.
2. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane, these are common
gases resulting in fires from explosion. These when mix with air possess excellent in ignition
properties and when present in an enclosed area can lead to explosion.
3. Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates, permanganates – are typical
families of oxidizing agents which give off oxygen on decomposition thus aiding in combustion.
Definition of terms
Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.
Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building for
him.
Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off
explosives.
Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and explosive compound produced by
the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose material.
Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance, materials or compound having
cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as base.
Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire.
Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags,
waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials
commonly used in commerce.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).
Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with
certain chemicals.
Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and
extending below the bottom chord of the roof trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into
separate compartments so that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.
Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with other
elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.
Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to
restrict the passage of smoke or fire.
Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature in separate the more volatile from the less
volatile parts and then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly
purified substance.
Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion and
ignited will cause an explosion.
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage of an electric current across
a space between two conductors or terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.
Ember - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned, and is still
oxidizing without the manifestation of flames.
Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purposes.
Fire - The active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light of combustion.
Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it lacks adequate
exits or fire escapes.
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warm the occupants
of the building or fire fighting elements of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to
undertake immediate action to save life and property and to suppress the fire.
Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or partitions.
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of
the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting
operations and the safeguarding of life and property.
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and unobstructed
at all times for the expedient operation of fire fighting units.
Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device - Any device intended for the protection of buildings or
persons to include but not limited to built-in protection system such as sprinklers and other
automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke and combustion products and other
warning system components, personal protective equipment such as fire blankets, helmets, fire
suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves
during fire.
Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows,
vents, means of egress, etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or structure in order to
minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the building is evacuated. These
features are also designed to achieve, among others, safe and rapid evacuation of people through
means of egress sealed from smoke or fire, the confinement of fire or smoke in the room or floor
of origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means of smoke sealed and fire
resistant doors, walls and floors. It shall also mean to include the treatment of buildings
components or contents with flame retardant chemicals.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient
concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.
Forcing -A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.
Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that uses
or produces materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.
Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or through or around a wall in
approximately the same floor level.
Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored and arranged
for fire fighting.
Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound and
connected.
Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combinations of fuels and
oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other.
Industrial Baking And Drying - The industrial process of subjecting materials to heat for the
purpose of removing solvents or moisture from the same, and/or to fuse certain chemical salts to
form a uniform glazing the surface of materials being treated.
Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical
system.
Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used.
Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by virtue of a
lease contract with the owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.
Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily. It causes
fire when in contact with combustible materials especially under conditions of high temperature.
Overloading - The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consume
electrical current beyond the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.
Owner - The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real property.
Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or
support combustion.
Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type or burner where the fuel is subjected to
pressure prior to discharge into the combustion chamber and/or which includes fans or other
provisions for the introduction of air at above normal atmosphere pressure into the same
combustion chamber.
Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure where fifty (50) or more people congregate,
gather, or assemble for any purpose.
Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky,
deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently appropriated for public use.
Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.
Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture in
order to produce a pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial distillation and
electrolysis.
Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and heat and
delay the spread of fire.
Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate impurities from pure
metals.
Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on
each floor, including a system by which water is made available to the outlets as needed.
Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house
or building.
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as
from the base to the top of the building.
Where liquid accelerants are believed to have become trapped in porous materials such as concrete
floor:
a. Lime
b. Diatomaceous earth
c. flour
Collection of liquid evidence absorbed by solid materials including soils and sand:
a. Scooping
b. Sawing
c. Scraping
d. Core drilling
Collecting of Solid samples for accelerant testing
Solid accelerant may be common household materials and compounds or dangerous chemicals.
When collecting solid accelerants:
a. The fire investigator must ensure that the solid accelerant is maintained in physical state in
which is found
b. Some incendiary materials remain Corrosive and Reactive
c. Ensure the corrosive nature of these residue does not attack the packaging container