Chapter-IV Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

4.1 Introduction

Single-phase AC circuits may contain resistors, inductors and capacitors alone or may have combination of these
three. On applying an alternating sinusoidal voltage to the circuit we study the relationship between the current and
voltage.
To fix the direction of the different phasors, initially one of the phasor which is a common quantity is considered
as the reference phasor and may be drawn along positive X-axis.
For example, in a series circuit, the current which passes through the different elements in the circuit may be
considered as the reference phasor.
On the other hand, in a parallel circuit, supply voltage which is common for all parallel paths may be considered as
the reference phasor. Other phasors are drawn at suitable phase angles counted from the reference phasor in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
Counting the phase angle in a clockwise direction corresponds to a lagging direction and in an anticlockwise
direction corresponds to a leading direction. The terms lagging and leading have simple dictionary meanings. A
lagging phasor is one which falls back in action with respect to the reference phasor and its direction is fixed by
counting the phase angle in clockwise direction.
The principle is with reference to the normal clock as shown in Fig. 4.1. Suppose 3 o’clock is chosen as the
reference time, then, as 5 o’clock occurs only after 2 hr from 3 o’clock, 5 o’clock is said to lag 3 o’clock by 2 hr.
The position of 5 o’clock is situated at an angle of 60° moving clockwise from 3 o’clock position.

Fig. 4.1
Similarly as 12 o’clock occurs ahead of 3 o’clock by 3 hr, one can say 12 o’clock leads 3 o’clock by 3 hr. The 12
o’clock position is traced by moving anticlockwise from 3 o’ clock through 90o. Hence, a phasor whose action is
ahead of the reference phasor is said to be a leading phasor and its direction is fixed by counting the phase angle in
anticlockwise direction.

4.2 AC Circuit Containing Pure Resistance Only

Consider a pure Resistor ‘R’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in Fig 4.2.

Fig 4.2
Let the applied voltage be
v  Vm sin t (4.01)
According to ohm’s law,
 v Vm
or i  sin t (from equation (4.01)) (4.02)
R R
or i  I m sin t (4.03)
Vm
where Im  (4.04)
R
= Maximum current when sin wt = 1 or wt = 900.
From equation (4.01) and (4.03) we can easily conclude that voltage and current are in phase in case of pure
resistance. Phasor diagram and waveform of the voltage and current is shown in Fig 4.3.

Fig 4.3(a) Fig 4.3(b)

Hence from the phasor diagram:

Phase angle between i and v is Ø = 0o (4.05)
Power factor of circuit will be Cos Ø = cos 0o = 1 (4.06)
Impedance of the circuit Z =R (4.07)
Instantaneous power is given be
Pi  vi (4.08)
Or Pi  Vm sin t  I m sin t (4.09)
Pi  Vm I m sin t 2
(4.10)
Average power is given by

1  
Pav   Pi d(t) (4.11)

 0 
Note: In case of sinusoidal alternating quantity the average power, similar to the average value of the
Alternating voltage, is considered for half cycle only.

1 2 

Pa  VmIm sin t d(t) (4.12)

 0 
1

V I  2
or  m m
 

0
(1 - cos2t ) dt 

(4.13)
1

V I sin 2t 
2

or   m m t   (4.14)
  2 0 

Vm I m Vm Im
or  = . (4.15)
2 2 2
or Pa  Vrms I rms (4.16)
Or Pa = V I (4.17)
Where V and I are r.m.s values
V2
Also Pa   I 2R (4.18)
R
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Resistance only, the current is in phase with the applied voltage and power
factor of the circuit is unity.
4.3 AC Circuit Containing Pure Inductance Only
Consider a pure Inductor ‘L’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig 4.4

Let the applied voltage be

v  Vm sin t (4.01)
By pure inductive coil we mean a coil that has no ohmic resistance and hence no I2 R loss.
Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a pure inductive coil, a back e.m.f is produced due to the self
inductance of the coil.
This back emf will oppose the rise or fall of current through the coil.
As there is no ohmic voltage drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this self induced e.m.f only. So if the back
e.m.f is ‘e’ than
di
eL v (4.19)
dt
di
or vL (4.20)
dt
di
or L  Vm sin t (4.21)
dt
Vm
or di  sin t dt (4.22)
L
Integrating both sides we get
- Vm
i cos t (4.23)
L

or i  I m sin(t  ) (4.24)
2
(As -cos ωt = sin (ωt – 90o))
V V
Where Im  m  m (4.25)
L X L
And XL is known as Inductive Reactance and
ω = 2πƒ
ƒ = frequency in Hz
From equation (4.01) and (4.24), it is clear that in case of pure inductance, current lags behind the voltage by an
angle 90o. The Phasor diagram and waveform for the current and voltage are shown in Fig 4.5.
 Fig 4.5
Instantaneous power
Pi  vi (4.26)
Average power
Pa = Average of Pi over half cycle

1  
  Pi d(t) (4.27)

 0 
1  

 Vm sin t  Im sin(t  ) d (t) (4.28)

 0 2 
Pa = 0 (4.29)
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Inductance only, the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle π/2
or 90o and power factor of the circuit is lagging.
It is clear from the equation (4.60) that in case of a pure Inductor average Power consumed is zero. Actually in
case of a pure Inductor, what ever the power is stored in the Inductor in the first quarter cycle that is returned back
to the source in the next quarter cycle.
4.4 AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance Only
Consider a pure Capacitor ‘C’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in Fig 4.6.

Fig 4.6

Let the applied voltage be v  Vm sin t (4.01)

In case of a capacitor the charge and current relation is given as
dq d (cv) dv
i  c (as q = cv) (4.30)
dt dt dt
d (Vm sin  t )
ic (From equation (4.01)) (4.31)
dt
 
 Vm C  sin ( t  ) (4.32)
2
Vm 
Or i sin ( t  ) (4.33)
Xc 2

Current will be maximum when sin (ωt + )=1
2
And this maximum value will be
V
Im  m (4.34)
Xc
The instantaneous current equation will be

i  I m sin(t  ) (4.35)
2
The Phasor diagram and waveform for the current and voltage are shown in Fig 4.7.

Fig 4.7(a) Fig 4.7(b)

1 1
Where Xc   (4.36)
C 2fC
Xc is known as Capacitance Reactance.
Instantaneous Power
Pi  vi (4.37)
Average Power
Pa = Average of Pi over half cycle

1  
  Pi d(t) (4.38)

 0 
1  

 Vm sin t  Im sin(t  ) d (t) (4.39)

 0 2 
Pa = 0 (4.40)

Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing pure Capacitor only, the current leads the applied voltage by an angle π/2 or 90 o
and power factor of the circuit is leading.
It is clear from the equation (4.40) that in case of a pure Capacitor, Average Power consumed is zero. Similar to an
Inductor, in case of a pure Capacitor also, what ever the power is stored in the Capacitor in the first quarter cycle
that is returned back to the source in the next quarter cycle.

4.5 AC Circuit containing Resistance and Inductance (R-L Circuit)

Consider a pure Inductor ‘L’ and a pure Resistor ‘R’ connected across an Alternating voltage source, as shown in
Fig 4.8.
Let the applied voltage be v  Vm sin t (4.01)

Fig 4.8
Phasor diagram for
Resistance Inductance

(a) (b)

Combined (R and L) Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle

(c) (d) (e)

Fig 4.9
From the voltage triangle
v  VR2  VL2 (4.41)
2
Or  (iR) 2  (iX L ) 2  i R 2  X L (4.42)
v  iZ (4.43)
Where Z R X
2 2
L (4.44)
= Impedance of the circuit
v
Or i (4.45)
Z
From the combined phasor diagram of R and L, the Power factor of the circuit is
V iR
cos   R  (4.46)
V iZ
R
cos   (4.47)
Z
In an R-L circuit it is clear form the voltage (or impedance) triangle that current lags behind the applied voltage by
an angle ø. Hence from equation (4.45) and (4.47), equation for instantaneous current will be.
i  I m sin(t   ) (4.48)
Instantaneous power Pi = v.i (4.49)
Active power Pa  VI cos  (Watts) (4.50)
Reactive power PR  VI sin  (VAR) (4.51)
Apparent power PAP  VI (VA) (4.52)
Where, V and I are rms values.
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing Resistance and Inductance, the current lags the applied voltage by an angle 
(<90o) and power factor of the circuit is lagging.
It is clear from the equations (4.49) to (4.52) that in case of a RL Circuit, due to the presences of Resistance all the
Power exits in the circuit.

4.6 AC Circuit Containing Resistance and Capacitance (R-C Circuit)

Consider a pure Capacitor ‘C’ and a pure Resistor ‘R’ connected across an alternating voltage source, as shown in
Fig 4.10.

Fig 4.10
Let the applied voltage be
v  Vm sin t (4.01)
Phasor diagram for

Resistance Capacitance

(a) (b)

Combined (R and L) Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle

(c) (d) (e)

Fig 4.11
From the voltage triangle
v = VR2  VC2 (4.53)
 = (iR) 2  (iX C ) 2  i R 2  X C 2 (4.54)
v  iZ (4.55)
Where Z R X
2 2
C (4.56)
= Impedance of the circuit
v
OR i (4.57)
Z
From the combined phasor diagram of R and C, the Power factor of the circuit is
V iR
cos   R  (4.58)
V iZ
R
cos   (4.59)
Z
In an R-C circuit, it is clear form the voltage (or impedance) triangle that current leads the applied voltage by an
angle ø. Hence from equation (4.57) and (4.59), equation for instantaneous current will be
i  I m sin(t   ) (4.60)
Instantaneous power Pi = v.i (4.61)
Active power Pa  VI cos  (Watts) (4.62)
Reactive power PR  VI sin  (VAR) (4.63)
Apparent power PAP  VI (VA) (4.64)
Where, V and I are rms values.
Conclusion
In case of AC circuit containing Resistance and Capacitance, the current leads the applied voltage by an angle 
(<90o) and power factor of the circuit is leading.
It is clear from the equations (4.61) to (4.64) that in case of a RL Circuit, due to the presences of Resistance all the
Power exits in the circuit.

4.7 AC Circuit containing Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance (RLC)

Consider Resistor ‘R’, a pure Capacitor ‘C’ and a pure Inductor ‘L’ connected in series across an alternating
voltage source, as shown in Fig 4.12.

Fig 4.12
Let the applied voltage be
v  Vm sin t (4.01)

Phasor diagram for

Resistance Inductance Capacitance

 (a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.13

And let XL > XC then the overall phasor diagram will be

Combined Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle

(d) (e) (f)

Fig 4.14
From the voltage triangle
v VR2  (VL  VC ) 2 (4.65)
=i R  (X L  XC )
2 2
(4.66)
v  iZ (4.67)
Where Z R2  ( X L  X C )2 (4.68)
= Impedance of the circuit
v
OR i (4.69)
Z
From the combined phasor diagram, the Power factor of the circuit is
V iR
cos   R  (4.70)
V iZ
R
cos   (4.71)
Z
In an R-L-C circuit, it is clear form the voltage (or impedance) triangle that
If XL > XC
Then the circuit is overall inductive and hence current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle ø.
If XL < XC
Then the circuit is overall capacitive and hence current leads the applied voltage by an angle ø.
Hence from equation (4.69) and (4.71), equation for instantaneous current will be.
i  I m sin( wt   ) (4.72)
The positive sign is to be used when current leads i.e. Xc > XL
The negative sign is to be used when current lays i.e. XL > XC

Instantaneous power Pi = v.i (4.73)

Active power Pa  VI cos  (Watts) (4.74)
Reactive power PR  VI sin  (VAR) (4.75)
Apparent power PAP  VI (VA) (4.76)
Where, V and I are rms values.

4.8 Analysis of Parallel AC circuits

When impedances are joined in parallel, there are three methods available to solve such circuits.
(a) Phasor Method
(b) Admittance Method
(c) Vector algebra

4.8.1 Phasor Method

Let us consider a parallel RLC circuit having two branches in parallel as shown in Fig 4.15.

Fig 4.15

The voltage across two parallel branches is same but current through them are different.

For branch A
Z1  R12  X L2 (4.77)
V
I1  (4.78)
Z1
R1
cos 1  (4.79)
Z1
In Branch A Current I1 lags behind the applied voltage, V by 1 (Fig 4.16).
For branch B
Z 2  R22  X c2 (4.80)
V
I2  (4.81)
Z2
R2
cos  2  (4.82)
Z2
In Branch B Current I2 leads the applied voltage V by  2 (Fig 4.16).

Fig 4.16 Fig 4.17

The resultant current, I is the vector sum of the branch current I 1 and I2 and can be found by Resolving I 2 into their
X and Y components (or active or reactive components respectively) and then by combining these components
(Fig 4.17).
Sum of active components of I1 and I2
X  I1 cos 1  I 2 cos  2 (4.83)
Sum of reactive components of I1 and I2
Y  I1 sin 1  I 2 sin  2 (4.84)
Magnitude of the resultant vector
Im = X 2  Y 2 (4.85)
Phase angle of the resultant vector
y
θ = tan-1 (4.86)
x
The resultant of the two branch currents will be
i = Im sin (ωt ± θ) (4.87)

4.8.2 Admittance Method (Y)

Admittance of a circuit is defined as the reciprocal of its impedance.

1
Y  (Siemens or mho) (4.88)
Z
Step 1
Find the impedance of each parallel branch i.e. Z1 and Z2.
Z1  R12  X L2 (4.89)
Z2  R X
2
2
2
c (4.90)
Step 2
Find the Admittance of each parallel branch i.e. Y1 and Y2.
1
Y1  (4.91)
Z1
1
Y2  (4.92)
Z2
Step 3
Find the Total Admittance of each parallel branch i.e. Y1 and Y2.
1 1
Y1  Y2   (4.93)
Z1 Z 2
4.8.3 Complex or Phasor Algebra
As the voltage across both the parallel branches will be same hence the branch current will be
V
I1  (4.94)
Z1
V
And I2  (4.95)
Z2
The impedance of branch A in Rectangular form will be
Z1  R1  jX L (4.96)
The impedance of branch A in Rectangular form will be
Z 2  R2  ( jX C )  R2  jX C (4.97)
V V 1 1 
I  V   (4.98)
Z1 Z 2  Z1 Z 2 

4.9 Power Factor

To understand power factor, we will first start with the definition of some basic terms which we have already
discussed in section 3.8.
KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real Power).
It is the power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful work.
KVAR is Reactive Power.
It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay) needs to produce the magnetizing flux.
KVA is Apparent Power.
It is the "vectorial summation" of KVAR and KW.
Power factor is defined by IEEE and IEC as “the ratio of true power to apparent power”.

Let's look at a simple analogy in order to better understand these terms....

Fig 4.18

To understand the concept, visualize a horse pulling a railroad car down a railroad track (Fig 4.18). Because the
railroad ties are uneven, the horse must pull the car from the side of the track. The horse is pulling the railroad car
at an angle to the direction of the car’s travel. The power required to move the car down the track is the working
(real) power. The effort of the horse is the total (apparent) power. Because of the angle of the horse’s pull, not all
of the horse’s effort is used to move the car down the track. The car will not move sideways; therefore, the
sideways pull of the horse is wasted effort or nonworking (reactive) power.
The angle of the horse’s pull is related to power factor, which is defined as the ratio of real (working) power to
apparent (total) power. If the horse is led closer to the center of the track, the angle of side pull decreases and the
real power approaches the value of the apparent power. Therefore, the ratio of real power to apparent power (the
power factor) approaches 1. As the power factor approaches 1, the reactive (nonworking) power approaches zero
(0).

Re al Power
Power Factor 
Apparent Power (4.99)

The Power Triangle

KW
Fig 4.20
 KW
P.F .   Cos
KVA (4.100)
KVA  KW  KVAR
2 2
(4.101)

For a voltage waveform different waveforms of current and the corresponding power factor values are shown in
Fig 4.21 at different phase shift.

Fig 4.21

4.9.1 Reasons for Power Factor Measurement

Power factor is an important measurement for two main reasons. First, an overall power factor of less than 1 means
that an electricity supplier has to provide more generating capacity than actually is required.
For example, consider an office building drawing 200 A at 400 V.
The supply transformer and backup UPS must be rated at
200 A × 400 V = 80 kVA.
But if the power factor of the loads is only 0.6, then only
80 kVA × 0.6 = 48 kVA
of real power are being consumed. In other words, if the power factor were 1, the supply capacity (transformers,
cables, switchgear, UPS) could be considerably smaller.
Secondly, the current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is a cause of voltage waveform
distortion and overheating in the neutral cables of three-phase systems. Primarily for this reason, international
standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been established to control current waveform distortion by introducing
limits for the amplitude of current harmonics.

4.9.2 Causes of Low Power Factor

Since power factor is defined as the ratio of KW to KVA, we see that low power factor results when KW is small
in relation to KVA. Remembering our first analogy, this would occur when KVAR (Mac's shoulder height) is large.
What causes a large KVAR in a system? The answer is inductive loads. Inductive loads (which are sources of
Reactive Power) include:
 Transformers
 Induction motors
 Induction generators (wind mill generators)
  High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting
These inductive loads constitute a major portion of the power consumed in industrial complexes.
Reactive power (KVAR) required by inductive loads increases the amount of apparent power (KVA) in your
distribution system. This increase in reactive and apparent power results in a larger angle (measured between KW
and KVA). Recall that, as 0 increases, cosine 0 (or power factor) decreases.

4.9.3 Problems of Low Power Factor

Some of the problems occur due to low power factor are:

 Reduces equipment operation by decreasing voltage
 Decrease energy efficiency
 Increases line losses
 Forced for costly upgrades

4.9.4 Power Factor Improvement

We have seen that sources of Reactive Power (inductive loads) decrease power factor, such as:
 Transformers
 Induction motors
 Induction generators (wind mill generators)
 High intensity discharge (HID) lighting
Similarly, consumers of Reactive Power increase power factor, such as:
 Capacitors
 Synchronous generators
 Synchronous motors
Thus, it comes as no surprise that one way to increase power factor is to add capacitors to the system. This, and
other ways of increasing power factor are listed below:
1) Installing capacitors (KVAR Generators)
Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive power (KVAR or foam), thus increasing your power
factor. Here is how it works. Reactive power (KVARS), caused by inductive loads, always acts at a 90 0 angle to
working power (KW).

Capacitance
(KVAR)

Working
Power
(KW)

Fig 4.22

Inductance and capacitance react 1800 to each other. Capacitors store KVARS and release energy opposing the
reactive energy caused by the inductor.
The presence of both a capacitor and inductor in the same circuit results in the continuous alternating transfer of
energy between the two.
Thus, when the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor.
2) Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors.
We already talked about the fact that low power factor is caused by the presence of induction motors. But, more
specifically, low power factor is caused by running induction motors lightly loaded.
3) Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
4) Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors.
Even with energy-efficient motors, power factor is significantly affected by variations in load. A motor must be
operated near its rated load in order to realize the benefits of a high power factor design.