Comparative study between physical

and mechanical properties of new and

used clay bricks

By

Ezaz Ali Khan

Mubashir Shehryar
Adnan

Supervised By
Dr. Muhammad Ashraf

DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of
Science in Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology,
Peshawar

© UET Peshawar, 2018

 Comparative study between
physical and mechanical properties of
new and used clay bricks

EZAZ ALI KHAN (Registration No: 14PWCIV4055)

MUBASHIR SHERYAR (Registration No: 14PWCIV4066)

ADNAN (Registration No: 14PWCIV4131)

Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Prof. Dr. Qaisar Ali

Project Supervisor Chairman

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
PESHAWAR

Session 2014-18
 ABSTRACT

The main objective of this project was to find whether used bricks can be
efficiently used in a new construction. Used bricks can be an economical
material for construction if they can demonstrate properties like new bricks.
Bricks is an important construction material in Pakistan and is a major
constituent of the cost of construction. Furthermore, by using used bricks
environmental pollution can be mitigated.

The trend in Pakistan toward the use of new bricks is common because of the
known properties of new bricks while the usage of used bricks is minimum
due to the uncertainty factor about their properties and behavior.

Comparison of the same class of new and used bricks was done. The used
bricks were constructed by making a brick masonry wall using new bricks.
The wall was left to mature for 28 days (i.e. achieved 90% of its strength).
Then the wall was demolished to obtain the same class of used bricks for their
comparative study.

Different types of physical and mechanical tests were performed both on new
and used bricks under the same conditions and same time to obtain a better
picture of the difference between used and new bricks. The properties were
compared among themselves and checked according to the permissible limits
to conclude about the use of used bricks in new construction.

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, thanks to Almighty Allah for providing us the health,
strength, opportunity, wisdom and time for the completion of our project.

We pay our deepest appreciation to our parents whose love, warmth, support
and prayers helped us complete our project with great dedication.

We would like to express our indebtedness and appreciations to our project

advisor, Dr. Muhammad Ashraf, who provided us with the opportunity to
work with him and benefit from his knowledge and experience. He provided
us support, guidance and advice throughout our research project to which we
are greatly indebted.

Our deep gratitude to our Civil engineering department for providing us the
prevalent environment of research and learning.

II
In the service of our motherland

III
 SYMBOLS

P : Total maximum load in lb or (N)

fm : Compressive strength in psi or (MPa)

Φ : Angle of internal friction

C : Cohesion (psi)

Ai : The cross-sectional area of the specimen parallels the bed joint (in2)

Fpi : Pre-compressive force (lb)

Fi,max : Maximum shear load (lb)

fpi : Pre-compressive stress of individual sample (psi)

fvoi : Shear strength of individual sample (psi)

tp : Least lateral dimension of prism

hp : Height of prism

x : Average distance from the mid span of the specimen to the

plane of failure measured in the direction of the span along the

centreline of the bed surface subjected to tension, in. (mm)

d : Depth, (bed surface to bed surface), of the specimen at the

plane of failure, in. (mm)

b : Net width of the specimen at the plane of failure, in. (mm)

l : Distance between the supports, in. (mm)

S : Modulus of rupture of the specimen at the plane of failure,

lb/in2 (Pa)

A : Average of the gross areas of the upper and lower bearing

surfaces of the specimen, in2 (or cm2)

W : Maximum load, lb, (or N), indicated by the testing machine

Wd : Dry weight of the specimen lb (g)

IV
Ws : Saturated weight of the specimen after submersion in water

lb (g)

X : Gain in weight corrected to basis of 30 in2 (193.55 cm2)

flatwise area

Wg : Actual gain in weight of specimen, g

L : Length of specimen, in (cm)

B : Width of specimen, in (cm)

C : Compressive strength of specimen, lb/in2 (or Pa.104)

T : Tensile stresses lb/in2 (or Pa.104)

Ey : Young’s modulus of elasticity

Fc : Crushing strength of masonry

σto : Tensile strength (psi)

σco : Uniaxial compressive strength (psi)

V
 ACRONYMS

ASCE : American Society of Civil Engineers

ASTM : American Society for Testing and Materials

BS-EN : British Standard European Norm

CM : Confined Masonry

CSM : Cement Sand Mortar

kips : Kilo pounds

KN : Kilo Newton

ksi : Kilo pound per square inch

Lbs : Pounds

m : Meter

mm : Millimeter

MPa : Mega Pascal

MW : Moderate Weather grade

NBC : National Building Code

NW : No Weather grade

psi : Pounds per square inch

SBC : Standard Building Code

SW : Severe Weather grade

UBC : Uniform Building Code

UET : University of Engineering and Technology

UTM : Universal Testing Machine

VI
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... II

SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................. IV

ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................. VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ VII

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. XI

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... XII

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem overview.......................................................................................... 1

1.3 Problem Statement ........................................................................................ 2

1.4 Objectives ...................................................................................................... 2

1.5 Brief methodology ......................................................................................... 2

1.6 Significance ................................................................................................... 4

1.7 Organization of Thesis .................................................................................. 4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 5

2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Types of bricks .............................................................................................. 5

2.3.1 Types of bricks based on quality ................................................................................. 5
2.3.2 Types of bricks based on raw materials ....................................................................... 7
2.3.3 Types of Bricks Based on Weather Resisting Capability ............................................ 8
2.3.4 Types of Bricks Based on Purpose of Their Using ...................................................... 9
2.3.5 Types of bricks based on method of manufacturing .................................................... 9

2.4 Reason for using brick in Construction works ............................................ 10

2.4.1 Aesthetic .................................................................................................................... 10

VII
 2.4.2 Strength...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.3 Porosity ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.4 Fire Protection ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.5 Insulation ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.6 Wear Resistant ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.7 Durability ................................................................................................................... 10

2.5 Different Properties of bricks ...................................................................... 11

2.5.1 Physical Properties of Bricks ..................................................................................... 11
2.5.2 Mechanical Properties of Bricks ................................................................................ 12
2.5.3 Thermal Properties of Bricks ..................................................................................... 13
2.5.4 Durability of Bricks ................................................................................................... 13

2.6 Curing of bricks ........................................................................................... 15

2.6.1 Effects of improper curing ......................................................................................... 15
2.6.2 Methods of curing ...................................................................................................... 16

2.7 Different tests on bricks .............................................................................. 16

2.7.1 Absorption test on bricks ........................................................................................... 16
2.7.2 Efflorescence Test on Bricks ..................................................................................... 17
2.7.3 Structure of Bricks ..................................................................................................... 17
2.7.4 Soundness test of bricks............................................................................................. 17
2.7.5 Colour test of bricks .................................................................................................. 17
2.7.6 Shape and Size test on Bricks .................................................................................... 18
2.7.7 Hardness test on Brick ............................................................................................... 18
2.7.8 Compressive strength of Brick .................................................................................. 18
2.7.9 Flexure test of brick ................................................................................................... 18
2.7.10 Initial rate of absorption............................................................................................. 19
2.7.11 Compressive strength of masonry prisms .................................................................. 19
2.7.12 Triplet shear test ........................................................................................................ 20

2.8 Salvaged brick ............................................................................................. 20

2.9 Water absorption and bond characteristics of the salvaged bricks .............. 21

2.10 Salvaged brick from economics view.......................................................... 22

2.11 Different code views on the salvaged bricks ............................................... 22

2.12 Shear behavior of brick masonry................................................................. 23

2.13 Compressive Behavior of Brick .................................................................. 24

2.14 Tensile behavior of brick ............................................................................. 27

2.15 Effect of bond strength on the behavior of brick masonry .......................... 28

VIII
 2.16 Brick masonry behavior subjected to Earthquake ....................................... 30

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 33

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 33

3.2 Materials: ..................................................................................................... 33

3.2.1 Cement:...................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 Sand: .......................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.3 Bricks:........................................................................................................................ 33

3.3 Making Used Bricks .................................................................................... 34

3.4 Specimen Preparation .................................................................................. 35

3.5 Tests Performed ........................................................................................... 35

3.5.1 Absorption ................................................................................................................. 35
3.5.2 Initial Rate of Absorption .......................................................................................... 36
3.5.3 Compression test on unit brick: ................................................................................. 38
3.5.4 Modulus of Rupture (Flexure Test) ........................................................................... 40
3.5.5 Compressive Strength of masonry prism: .................................................................. 41
3.5.6 Triplet Shear Test ...................................................................................................... 43
3.5.7 Compressive strength of 2-in mortar cube ................................................................. 45

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 47

4.1 Absorption ................................................................................................... 47

4.1.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 47
4.1.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 47

4.2 Initial Rate of Absorption ............................................................................ 48

4.2.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 49

4.3 Compression test on unit brick .................................................................... 49

4.3.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 49
4.3.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 49

4.4 Modulus of Rupture (Flexure Test) ............................................................. 49

4.4.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 49
4.4.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 50

4.5 Compressive Strength of masonry prism .................................................... 51

4.5.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 51
4.5.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 51

IX
 4.6 Triplet Shear Test ........................................................................................ 52
4.6.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 52
4.6.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 54

4.7 Compressive strength of 2-in mortar cube .................................................. 54

4.7.1 Results ....................................................................................................................... 54
4.7.2 Discussion.................................................................................................................. 54

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 55

5.1 Summary ..................................................................................................... 55

5.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 56

5.3 Recommendations ....................................................................................... 56

5.3.1 Our recommendation ................................................................................................. 56
5.3.2 Future recommendation ............................................................................................. 57

6. References ........................................................................................................... 58

X
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Typical first-class brick ........................................................................................... 6

Figure 2-2: Typical second-class brick....................................................................................... 7

Figure 2-3: Typical third-class brick .......................................................................................... 7

Figure 2-4: Stress-strain curve for mortar cubes for different mortar properties...................... 24

Figure 2-5: Different shear failure modes ................................................................................ 24

Figure 2-6: Mechanism of brick failure in compressive load ................................................... 25

Figure 2-7: Typical experimental biaxial tension-compression strength.................................. 26

Figure 2-8: Compression failure mode of brick masonry prism ............................................... 27

Figure 2-9: State of loading on brick walls due to lateral forces .............................................. 30

Figure 2-10: Corner behaviour of masonry building ................................................................ 31

Figure 2-11: Different cracks pattern in brick masonry structure ............................................ 32

Figure 3-1: Masonry wall constructed in cement sand mortar ................................................. 34

Figure 3-2: Demolition of masonry wall .................................................................................. 34

Figure 3-3: Bricks submerged in water .................................................................................... 36

Figure 3-4: Full brick partially submerged in water ................................................................. 38

Figure 3-5: Brick sample tested in UTM for Compression ...................................................... 40

Figure 3-6: Full brick breaking in flexure in UTM .................................................................. 41

Figure 3-7: Compression Prism tested in UTM ....................................................................... 43

Figure 3-8: Shear prism testing in UTM .................................................................................. 44

Figure 3-9: Mortar cube compression test in UTM .................................................................. 46

Figure 4-1: Graph of shear stress vs pre-compression stress for new brick prisms .................. 52

Figure 4-2: Graph of shear stress vs pre-compression stress for used brick prisms ................. 53

XI
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4-1: Absorption values of new and used bricks .............................................................. 47

Table 4-2: IRA values of New bricks ....................................................................................... 48

Table 4-3: IRA values of Used bricks ...................................................................................... 48

Table 4-4: Comparison between IRA values of new and used bricks ...................................... 48

Table 4-5: Compressive strength values of new and used bricks ............................................. 49

Table 4-6: MOR values of new brick samples ......................................................................... 50

Table 4-7: MOR values of used brick samples......................................................................... 50

Table 4-8: Comparison between MOR values of new and used brick ..................................... 50

Table 4-9: Compressive strength of new brick prism samples ................................................. 51

Table 4-10: Compressive strength of used brick prism samples .............................................. 51

Table 4-11: Comparison between compressive strength of new and used brick prism ............ 51

Table 4-12: Results of shear test of new brick prisms .............................................................. 52

Table 4-13: Results of shear test of used brick prisms ............................................................. 53

Table 4-14: Shear strength parameters of new and used brick prisms ..................................... 53

XII
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Brick remains one of the most important building materials for construction
activities in Pakistan and other developing countries. A brick is used to make
walls, pavement, arches and other elements in masonry construction.
Traditionally, the term bricks referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now
used to denote any rectangular units laid in motor. A brick can be composed of
clay bearing soil, sand, and lime or concrete materials.

Brick is very good in compression and can take high loads but weak in tension.
It is easily produced, its weight is less than stone, it can be easily molded, has
ability to resist fire and is durable. Brick masonry along with the stone
masonry and timber roof is used all around the world.

There are thousands of types of bricks that are named for their use, sizes
forming method, texture and materials. The two basics categories of brick are
fired and non-fired bricks.

1.2 Problem overview

In Pakistan trend of using new bricks is much more than that of used bricks.
The main problem is that the behavior of new bricks is known to us because of
the conductance of large experimental works, while the behavior of the used
bricks is not exactly known to us due to lack of the experimental work. So we
can’t predict how much the properties of the used bricks is deviated as
compare to the new bricks representing the same classes of the brick.

1
In Pakistan construction is becoming costly day by day. Most people cannot
afford to construct new houses and civil structures etc. One of the reason is the
material which is very costly.

In Pakistan masonry structure are constructed in which bricks are the main
component of structures. Instead of using new bricks, used bricks can also be
used to reduce the costs of construction. But the main problem behind the
usage of the used bricks in the new construction is the uncertainty of the
technical community due to no proper recommendation available on the
properties of the used bricks.

1.3 Problem Statement

The technical community is reluctant to the usage of used bricks in new brick
masonry construction works because of the no proper data available about the
properties of used bricks. Due to this uncertainty we are continuously wasting
the used bricks obtained from the demolition of the old brick masonry civil
structure thus enhancing the environmental pollution and making the new
construction work uneconomical.

1.4 Objectives
The following are the main objectives of studding the different properties of
bricks

• Finding the physical and mechanical properties of used bricks

• Compare the results of the physical and mechanical properties of used

and new bricks

• To check whether used bricks are suitable for new construction work

• Check how much the properties of used bricks deviated from the new
bricks

1.5 Brief methodology

Our project research work is divided in the following three categories:

2
• Literature Review

• Experimental work

• Thesis writing

For the literature review we studied different research paper and documents
related about the behavior and different physical and mechanical properties of
bricks.

For the experimental works, to compute the physical and mechanical

properties of the used and new clay bricks we followed the standards of
ASTM C67-17, BS EN1052-3:2002 and ASTM C1314-03b and conducted the
following tests.

• Absorption test (ASTM-C67)

• Compression test on unit Masonry (ASTM C-67)

• Compression Prism test (ASTM-C1314)

• Triplet Shear Test (BS EN 1052-3)

• Modulus of rupture test (ASTM C67)

• Initial Rate of Absorption test (ASTM C67)

We conducted the above tests both on the used and new brick specimens by
provided same environmental conditions, prepared specimens having same
water cement ratio and testing both on the same time an order to predict better
physical and mechanical properties of the used and new bricks.

For the experimental work the new bricks are easily available in the market
but to get same class of a used bricks is very difficult for us. For that we
decided to construct a wall from a new brick left to its mature period (more
common 28 days) and after its mature period we demolish that wall to get used
bricks representative of the same class of a new brick.

3
1.6 Significance
• Cost of construction can be reduced if used bricks is used in construction
instead of new bricks.

• Pollution caused by wastage of used bricks can be minimized.

1.7 Organization of Thesis

Chapter 1:

This chapter provides the general introduction of the thesis.

Chapter 2:

This chapter consist the literature review work of the thesis. A brief
introduction of the physical and mechanical properties of the used and new
clay bricks, different type of bricks, behaviour of brick masonry, list of all
performed tests and different research paper references materials.

Chapter 3:

This chapter consist the detail steps involve for conducting the various tests to
obtain the different physical and mechanical properties of the used and new
clay bricks.

Chapter 4:

This chapter consist the all the results obtained from the various tests and
discussion on these results.

Chapter 5:

This chapter consist the summary of this research work as well as the
conclusions derived from this study and recommendations for future study are
provided.

4
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview
This chapter consist a brief introduction of brick and its types, physical and
mechanical properties of used and new clay bricks, behavior of bricks
masonry, overview of the different tastes conducted on the both used and new
clay bricks and properties of the brick masonry.

2.2 Introduction
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit
composed of clay, but it is now used to denote any rectangular units laid in
mortar. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or
concrete materials. Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials,
and sizes which vary with region and time era, and are produced in bulk
quantities.

2.3 Types of bricks

It is essential to know the types of bricks for properly understanding the
masonry work. Bricks can be many types depending on its quality, making
process, its raw material and purpose of their using etc.

2.3.1 Types of bricks based on quality

Depending on quality, bricks are three type

• First class brick

• Second class brick

5
• Third class brick.

2.3.1.1 First class brick

These bricks are made from good quality raw materials. Colour of first
class brick is uniform. These are regular in size and shape and doesn’t
absorb more than 20% water of its own dry weight when immersed in
fresh water for 24 hours. The crushing strength of this type of brick
should be 1500 psi.

Figure 2-1: Typical first-class brick

2.3.1.2 Second class brick

The quality of bricks of this type is little bit less from first class brick.
Such as it can be slightly over burned. The size and shape can slightly
differ from standard. The crushing strength of this brick-type should be
above 1000 psi. These bricks don’t absorb more than 22% water of its
own weight after 24 hours’ immersion in fresh water.

6
 Figure 2-2: Typical second-class brick

2.3.1.3 Third class brick

This type of brick isn’t uniform in size and shape. It can be over burnt or
under burnt. It doesn’t absorb more than 25% water of its own weight
when immersed 24 hours in fresh water. Crushing strength of this type is
more than 500 psi.

Figure 2-3: Typical third-class brick

2.3.2 Types of bricks based on raw materials

Depending on raw materials used for making bricks, it can be following
types

• Burnt clay brick

• Fly ash clay brick

• Concrete brick

• Sand-Lime brick

• Fire clay brick

7
 2.3.2.1 Burnt clay brick
This type of brick is usually made from clay by burning. These are the
common type of bricks for construction work.

2.3.2.2 Fly ash clay brick

When fly ash is mixed with clay for producing brick that is fly ash clay
brick.

2.3.2.3 Concrete brick

The main raw materials for this type of bricks are cement and sand. It is
also called mortar brick.

2.3.2.4 Sand-Lime brick

Lime is used instead of cement with sand for producing this type of
bricks.

2.3.2.5 Fire brick

This type of brick is made from fire clay. These bricks can tolerate high
temperature without distortion and cracking. That’s why it can be used
in fireplaces.

2.3.3 Types of Bricks Based on Weather Resisting Capability

Depending on weather resisting capability bricks are three types

• Severe Weather grade (SW)

• Moderate Weather grade (MW)

• No Weather grade (NW)

2.3.3.1 Severe weather grade (SW)

This type of bricks can withstand against repeated freeze-thaw actions.
These are useful for the countries where severe freeze-thaw actions
happened.

2.3.3.2 Moderate Weather grade (MW)

This type of bricks can be useful for hot-weathering affected countries
where freeze-thaw action doesn’t happen much.

8
 2.3.3.3 No Weather grade (NW)
This type of bricks is general and it doesn’t have any weather resisting
capability. It’s mostly used in interior wall.

2.3.4 Types of Bricks Based on Purpose of Their Using

Purpose of their using bricks can be following types

• Common bricks

• Engineering bricks

2.3.4.1 Common bricks

This type of bricks is used for general purpose with no special
requirements. Walls that are made with this type of bricks should be
plastered.

2.3.4.2 Engineering bricks

Engineering bricks are bricks manufactured at extremely high
temperatures, forming a dense and strong brick, allowing the brick to
limit strength and water absorption.

Engineering bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity damp-proof

characteristics and chemical resisting properties. These bricks are used
in specific projects and they can cost more than regular or traditional
bricks.

2.3.5 Types of bricks based on method of manufacturing

Bricks can broadly be categorized into two types as follows on the basis of
how its manufactured

• Unburnt or sun-dried bricks

• Burnt bricks

2.3.5.1 Unburnt bricks

Unburnt bricks or sun-dried bricks are the types which are dried with the
help of heat received from sun after the process of moulding. These
bricks can only be used in the construction of temporary and cheap
structures. Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy
rains.

9
 2.3.5.2 Burnt Bricks
Burnt bricks are prepared by burning the brick-mould in the kiln inside
the factory. These are the most commonly used bricks for construction
works.

2.4 Reason for using brick in Construction works

There are many advantages when bricks are used as part of the construction.
The following list presents some of the most common advantages when using
bricks instead of other construction materials.

2.4.1 Aesthetic
Bricks offer natural and a variety of colours, including various textures.

2.4.2 Strength
Bricks offer excellent high compressive strength

2.4.3 Porosity
The ability to release and absorb moisture is one of the most important and
useful properties of bricks, regulating temperatures and humidity inside
structures.

2.4.4 Fire Protection

When prepared properly a brick structure can give a fire protection
maximum rating of 6 hours.

2.4.5 Insulation
Bricks can exhibit above normal thermal insulation when compared to
other building materials. Bricks can help regulate and maintain constant
interior temperatures of a structure due to their ability to absorb and slowly
release heat. This way bricks can produce significant energy savings, more
than 30% of energy saving when compared to wood.

2.4.6 Wear Resistant

A brick is so strong, that its composition provides excellent wear resistance.

2.4.7 Durability

10
 Brick is extremely durable and perhaps is the most durable man-made
structural building material so far.

2.5 Different Properties of bricks

Brick has many good properties which make it most popular building material
in the industry. Common brick properties are i.e.

• Physical properties

• Mechanical properties

• Thermal properties

• Durability properties

2.5.1 Physical Properties of Bricks

These properties of bricks include shape, size, colour, and density of a brick.

2.5.1.1 Shape
The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well
defined and sharp edges. The surface of the bricks is regular and even.

Special purpose bricks may, however, be either cut or manufactured in

various other shapes. These are generally modifications of rectangular
shapes.

2.5.1.2 Size
The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and
from place to place in the same country.

The modular bricks recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x

9 x 9 cm which with mortar joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10
cm.

The traditional brick recommended standard dimension is 9 x 4.5 x 3

inches without mortar and with mortar joint gives net dimension of 9.25
x 4.75 x 3.25 inches. These dimensions have been found very
convenient in handling and making quantity estimates.

11
 2.5.1.3 Colour
The most common colour of building bricks falls under the class RED. It
may vary from deep red to light red to buff and purple.

Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow
colour is often indicative of under-burning

2.5.1.4 Density
The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the
type of clay used and the method of brick moulding (soft-mud, Stiff-
mud, hard-pressed etc.).

In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/cubic meter
to 1900 kg/cubic meter. A single brick (19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh
between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. depending upon its density.

2.5.2 Mechanical Properties of Bricks

The main mechanical properties of bricks are given below

2.5.2.1 Compressive Strength of Bricks

It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used
in load-bearing walls.

The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the

clay and degree of burning. It may vary from 500 psi (35 kg/cm2) to
more than 2850 psi (200 kg/cm2).

It is specified under the I.S.S. codes that an ordinary type building brick
must possess a minimum compressive strength of 35 kg/cm2.

2.5.2.2 Flexure Strength

Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a
building. As such, they should possess sufficient strength against
transverse loads.

It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall

not be less than 145 psi (10 kg/cm2).

12
 Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 285 psi (20
kg/cm2).

Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall possess a

shearing strength of 50-70 kg/cm2.

2.5.3 Thermal Properties of Bricks

Besides being hard and strong, ideal bricks should also provide an adequate
insulation against heat, cold and noise.

The heat and sound conductivity of bricks vary greatly with their density
and porosity.

Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They
have, therefore, poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities.

For this reason, bricks should be so designed that they are light and strong
and give adequate insulation.

2.5.4 Durability of Bricks

By durability of bricks, it is understood that the maximum time for which
they remain unaltered and strong when used in construction.

Experience has shown that properly manufactured bricks are among the
most durable of man-made materials of construction. Their life can be
counted in hundreds of years.

The durability of bricks depends on some factors such as: absorption value,
frost resistance, and efflorescence.

2.5.4.1 Absorption Value

This property is related to the porosity of the brick.

True Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of pores to the gross
volume of the sample of the substance.

Apparent porosity, more often called Absorption value or simply

absorption, is the quantity of water absorbed by the (brick) sample. This
is expressed in percentage terms of the dry weight of the sample:

Absorption= (Ws – Wd)/ Wd * 100

13
It is, however, recommended that for first class bricks, they shall not be
greater than 20 percent and for ordinary building bricks, not greater than
25 percent.

The absorption characteristic of bricks effects their quality in many ways:

Firstly: higher porosity means less solid materials; hence, strength is

reduced.

Secondly: higher absorption will lead to other water-related defects such

as frost-action and efflorescence.

Thirdly: higher absorption results in deeper penetration of water which

becomes a source of dampness.

2.5.4.2 Frost Resistance

Water on freezing expands by about 10% in volume and exerts a
pressure on the order of 140 kg/cm2.

When bricks are used in cold climates, their decay due to this
phenomenon of “frost action” may be a common process.

This is especially so because bricks are quite porous materials (apparent

porosity = 20-25%). It is, therefore, essential that bricks in these areas
should be properly protected from rain to minimize absorption.

2.5.4.3 Efflorescence
It is a common disfiguring and deteriorating process of bricks in hot and
humid climates. Brick surface gets covered with white or grey coloured
patches of salts. These salts are present in the original brick clay.

When rain water penetrates the bricks, the salts get easily dissolved.
After the rains, evaporation starts. The salts move out along with the
water and form thin encrustations on the surface of the bricks.

Salts which are commonly precipitated during efflorescence are:

sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium.

It is why great emphasis should be laid while testing the chemical

composition of the clay for brick manufacturing.

14
 2.5.4.4 Initial rate of absorption
The Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) is a property describing the
absorption of a brick, in a limited time, of water primarily through the
bed face of the brick unit. In the laboratory test, the dry unit is set in a
pool of water to a constant 1/8” depth, and the IRA is the weight gain of
the unit in grams in one minute to a corrected bed area of 30 square
inches. The correction to a bed area of 30 square inches is a means of
placing the one-minute absorption on a per unit area basis for exposed
surface, and it reflects a former era when bricks exhibited a gross bed of
about 30 square inches.

Initial rate of absorption or IRA is defined as the number of grams of

water absorbed in one minute over 30 square inches of brick bed area
(ASTM C67). Acceptable values range from 10 to 30 grams. Dry brick,
with an IRA above 30, should be wetted before laying.

2.6 Curing of bricks

Curing is the process of wetting the surface of bricks before or after the
placing of brick to make proper bond between mortar and brick. It controls the
rate of hydration of the mortar bond.

Curing of bricks before the placing is performed to not absorb water from
mortar which make paste like powder and weakens the bond strength between
the bricks and mortar. This is because brick is dry porous material which
absorb water from the mortar and make it weak. Curing after the placing of
brick is also important to control the hydration process of the mortar joint. So,
curing is provided in order maintain the specified temperature of masonry
structure at the early stages and to complete the heat of hydration for gaining
the strength. Curing is also important for the prevention of thermal cracks and
for this purpose temperature maintain of brick masonry structure is necessary.

2.6.1 Effects of improper curing

• Flexure and compressive strength is reduced

• Cracks may be formed due to plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage

• Durability decreases

15
 • Frost and weathering resistances are decreased

2.6.2 Methods of curing

• Covering bricks with wet jute bags.

• Continues sprinkling of water

• Applying curing compounds

2.7 Different tests on bricks

There are many tests can be performed on bricks in order to check the quality
of bricks. Tests may be performed in the field or may be in the laboratory.
Bricks are used in most of the construction of buildings due to different
properties like durability, low cost, Strength etc. or good construction of
building good material will be required. Therefore, many tests are performed
on the bricks to check the quality of bricks before use in the construction.
Tests that are performed on the bricks are:

1. Absorption test

2. Efflorescence test on Bricks

3. Structure of brick

4. Soundness test of brick

5. Color test of Brick

6. Shape and Size test

7. Hardness test on Brick

8. Compressive strength of Brick

9. Flexure test on Brick

10. Initial rate of absorption

11. Compressive strength of brick masonry

12. Triple shear test

2.7.1 Absorption test on bricks

16
This test is performed to find out the moisture content absorbed by brick
under any circumstances. Select the best sample of bricks and dry it in an
oven at a temperature of 105°C.After drying in an oven Determine its
weight by using weight machine. When dry weights are determining then
place it in a water tub full of water for 24 hours to get wet bricks. After 24
Hours remove the bricks from the water tub and measured its wet weight.
After noting down the Wet and dry weight of bricks. Take difference
between Wet and dry weight of bricks to obtain the value of absorption.
The amount of water absorption should not be exceeding 20% of weight of
brick for a good quality of brick.

2.7.2 Efflorescence Test on Bricks

This test is performed to find the amount Soluble salts present in the bricks.
To determine the soluble salts present in the bricks it is partially immersed
in water bath to about 1in 7 days (ASTM C67-17). After 7 days remove the
brick from water bath and placed it in the oven for 24 hours without contact
with water in the drying room. After drying the sample surface of bricks
can be observed easily. If it contains grey or white colour deposits, then it
contains soluble salts and not good for construction.

2.7.3 Structure of Bricks

The structure of bricks can be observed by selecting the bricks randomly
from the group of bricks and break it. Observe the inner part of brick and
check whether it is homogenous or non-homogenous.

2.7.4 Soundness test of bricks

This test is performed to check the performance of brick under sudden
impact of load. It can be done by picking two bricks from a group of bricks
and strike with each other. The sound produced should be of bell ringing
type. If the sound is found clear and bricks does not break, then it will be a
good brick to use in the construction.

2.7.5 Colour test of bricks

Colour test is performed by physically observing the colour of bricks. If the
colour of brick is found bright and uniform throughout its body, then it is a
good brick.

17
2.7.6 Shape and Size test on Bricks
All the bricks use for the construction of infrastructure should be of same
size. It should be purely rectangular with sharp edges. Select 30 bricks from
a group of bricks and align them along its length, breadth and height and
then compare it. If all the bricks are of similar size, then it can be used for
construction. Standard brick size is 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.

2.7.7 Hardness test on Brick

A Bricks using in the construction should have ability to resist scratches
against sharp things. So, it can be determined by using a sharp tool for
scratching a brick. If scratch does not appear on the brick then it is said to
be a hard brick.

2.7.8 Compressive strength of Brick

Take about 5 full brick samples from group of brick and cut it into two
pieces (C67-17) of equal dimension. Cutting should be done through
mechanical device to obtain half brick of equal dimension. For obtaining
half bricks of equal dimension make a mark at the mid of brick. After
obtaining half bricks sample capping should be done. Capping can be done
by using a gypsum or Sulphur filler in a UTM machine. Capping is
provided for uniformly distribution of load over cross section of brick.
Then place the half brick in the UTM machine and Load is applied on half
brick perpendicular to cross section of brick until it crushes. Capacity of
brick should be less than the capacity of UTM machine (C67-17). The
sample using for determining of its crushing should fully dried.
Compressive strength can be determined by a following formula.

C=W/A

2.7.9 Flexure test of brick

This test is performed to determine the flexure strength of brick. In this test
full brick sample is used for the determination of strength. Place the full
brick sample in the UTM machine. Provide support to the brick at the both
end of brick and measured the length between support denoted as “L”.
Then applied the load on the brick perpendicular the cross section of brick
until failure occur. When failure occurred observer the failure plane and

18
following formula should be used to determine flexure strength or modulus
of rupture of brick.

S=3W*(L/2-x)/(bd2)

2.7.10 Initial rate of absorption

Take 5 specimen randomly from a group of bricks. Place these samples in
oven 24 hour to dry it. After drying the samples measure the weight of all
specimen. Then take a water tub or water pan which have levelled bottom
surface. The water tub or water pan may be rectangular or circular. The
water tub should be greater than size of brick. Fill the water tub from water
up to the such depth that the water above supports should of 1/8 in (C67-
17). Place the bricks in the water but before placing the brick provide
supports for brick and level the water tub. Then bricks should keep in water
tub for about 1 min (C67-17). Time measured with the help of stop watch.
After 1 min weight of brick is determined with the help of weighing
machine and IRA is calculated by a formula as:

X = 30 W/(LB) (metric X = 193.55 W/(LB))

2.7.11 Compressive strength of masonry prisms

This test is performed for the determination of compressive strength of
whole prism. Prism consist of 5 specimens. Specimen using for the
construction of prism should representing the whole group of brick. If
flutes are attached to brick unit, then it should be removed from brick by
using saw cutting. First construct the prism consisting of 5 bricks. These
bricks are joined by using mortar. Prisms should be three in numbers. After
making prisms keep them for 28 days to gain sufficient strength. Curing
should be provided for first 3 days that bricks do not absorb water from
mortar which can make bond between two bricks weaker. Bricks should
also be cured before using in the construction of prisms. For constructing
the prism platform should be provided at the bottom of each prism. It may
be of wood type or steel type but surface of platform should uniform.
Platform is provided that they can carry to the Universal testing machine
easily. Then measured average cross section of each prism by measuring
the length and width of upper and bottom brick of prism. After 28 days

19
 carry each prism to loading platform and installed it into the UTM. Apply
the load on each prism until fails. Also note down the way that cracks occur
in prism.

2.7.12 Triplet shear test

This test is performed for finding out the shear strength of brick masonry.
For performing the shear test take about 27 specimens from a group of
bricks for the preparation of nine prisms (BS EN 1052-3:2002). For each
prism 3 specimen is require. First of all, soak all the bricks using for
preparation of prism. When they are fully soaked prepare the mortar for
making a bond between bricks. Prisms are then constructed but the uniform
platform should also be provided which is helpful in carrying to the loading
platform. When prisms are made then cover each prism with bags and cure
it for 28 days to get sufficient strength. After getting sufficient strength
then bring them to loading platform. For performing this test gauge is
requiring for applying pre compression load. Gauge is first calibrated by
applying load manually. When gauge is calibrated prism is set in assembly
and pre compression is applied through gauge. This pre compression is
applied differently for each set of 3 prisms. For one set of 3 prisms no pre-
compression load is applied while for other two set of prisms pre-
compression load of 0.2 N/mm2 ,0.4 N/mm2 is applied respectively. Before
performing the test average cross section area is determined by taking
measurement of length and width of upper and lower brick of prism. Prism
is set into assembly providing support to end bricks and pre compressive
load is applied through gauge. Then vertical load is applied to the middle
brick in UTM machine to the shear brick. When it fails load is measured
and shear strength is determined by using formula.

2.8 Salvaged brick

Selecting building material requires the consideration of four factors: esthetics,
design properties, economics and required level of performance. Salvaged
bricks are occasionally selected for their "rugged appearance" and sometimes
for their low initial cost. Rare is the case when salvaged brick are chosen for
their design properties. In general, walls using salvaged brick are weaker and
less durable than walls constructed of new brick masonry units. Most salvaged

20
brick is obtained from demolished buildings which stood 40 to 50 yrs, or more.
In fact, it may be next to impossible to salvage brick from modern structures
which use brick set in Portland cement mortars. When brick is initially placed
in contact with mortar, they absorb some particles of the cementitious
materials. It is virtually impossible to completely clean these absorbed
particles from the surfaces of the brick units. This may greatly affect the bond
between brick and mortar when reused.

2.9 Water absorption and bond characteristics of the salvaged

bricks
When brick is initially placed in contact with mortar, they absorb some water
and some particles of cementitious materials. The initial rate of absorption
(suction) is an important factor which greatly affects the bond between brick
and mortar. Brick with extremely high or extremely low suctions do not
develop good bond. With salvaged brick, more factors influence bond. Pores
in brick are filled with particles of lime, dirt and other deleterious matter.
Many bedding surfaces of salvaged brick will not be thoroughly clean, but will
instead be covered with mortar. The bond between new mortar and old mortar
is not very strong. If the original mortar bond was weak, the new bond will be
adversely affected. The bond to salvaged brick is considerably less than to
similar new brick and has been demonstrated many times by comparative tests.

Most authorities agree that water penetration through masonry results from
incompletely filled joints and incomplete bond between brick and mortar. That
is, water penetrates through flaws at joints rather than directly through the
brick and mortar. Thus, masonry walls of salvaged brick, with their inferior
mortar bond, are likely to be more susceptible to water penetration and weaker
under lateral loading than similar masonry of walls constructed of new units.
The ultimate compressive strength of the walls will also be lower if salmon
brick is present.

The durability of masonry depends upon the quality of materials and mortar
bond. Generally, salmon brick does not provide the same durability as new
brick when exposed to weathering. With the thinner masonry walls of today,
brick is used primarily as a facing material to provide a weather resistant
barrier of protection. Thus, many salmon brick are eventually placed in

21
exposed faces of walls constructed of salvaged brick. Even where solid brick
walls are used, many salmons are likely to be exposed to weathering, because
it is impossible to accurately sort and grade salvaged brick. With soft, highly
absorptive salmon brick exposed to the weather, and with poor mortar bond
permitting excessive water penetration, it is quite likely that masonry of
salvaged brick will spall, flake, pit, and crack due to freezing and thawing in
the presence of excessive moisture.

2.10 Salvaged brick from economics view

Although in many instances salvaged brick have sold for more money than
new brick, a principal reason for their use is their low prevailing initial cost.
But initial economy often proves to be false economy. For example, labor
costs are usually higher for salvaged brick due to the required sorting and
cleaning of the units. Maintenance costs for salvaged-brick masonry are very
likely to exceed this initial cost considering:

• Cutting out and replacing disintegrated units

• Tuck pointing mortar joints to reduce leaks and repair cracks; and

• Repeated attempts at water proofing.

In many cases, the initial economics of salvaged brick prove false and result
in higher total expenditures.

2.11 Different code views on the salvaged bricks

“Irrespective of the original grading of masonry units, compliance with code
requirements of material which has been exposed to weather for a term of
years cannot be assumed in the absence of test. Much salvaged brick comes
from the demolition of old buildings constructed of solid brick masonry in
which hard-burned bricks were used on the exterior and salmon brick as back-
up, and, since the color differences which guided the original brick masons in
their sorting and selecting of bricks become obscured with exposure and
contact with mortar, there is a definite danger that these salmon bricks may be
used for exterior exposure with consequent rapid and excessive disintegration.
Before permitting their use, the building official should satisfy himself that

22
second-hand materials are suitable for the proposed location and conditions of
use”. [ANSI A41.1, Section 2.1]

"Second-hand units: Brick and other second-hand masonry units which are to
be reused, shall be approved as to quality, condition and compliance with the
requirements for new masonry units. The unit shall be of whole, sound
material, free from cracks and other defects that would interfere with its
proper laying or use, and shall be cleaned free from old mortar before
reuse."[ National Building Code, Section 1401.2]

"1401.2.1 Masonry units may be reused when clean, whole and conforming to
the other requirements except that the allowable working stresses shall be 50%
of those permitted for new masonry units.

1401.2.2 Masonry units to be reused as structural units in areas subject to the

action of the weather or soil shall not be permitted unless representative
samples are tested for compliance with the applicable requirements of
1402."[ Standard Building Code, Section 1401.2]

“Reuse of Masonry Units. Masonry units may be reused when clean, whole
and conforming to the other requirements of this section. All structural
properties of masonry of reclaimed units, especially adhesion bond, shall be
determined by approved test. The allowable working stresses shall not exceed
50 percent of that permitted for new masonry units of the same properties”.
[Uniform Building Code, Section 2406(k)]

2.12 Shear behavior of brick masonry

Failure in brick masonry occur mostly due to shear failure. In shear failure
slips between the bricks occur and slip between bricks mostly occur in seismic
loading. Chances of failure in shear is high as compared to compression. Shear
failure greatly depend on the composition of mortar used for making the bond
between the bricks. By changing the composition of mortar shear strength
greatly effect for e.g.: shear strength reduces about 25% when cement was in
mud mortar. It also depends on the thickness of mortar joint. Greater the
thickness of joint lower will be stiffness of bed joint and lower will be shear
strength. Shear strength of prism also depend on the cement to sand ratio
greater the amount of sand lower will be the shear strength of bond and vice

23
versa. Shear strength behavior of brick prisms in terms of cement to sand ratio
can be shown in the figure. Shear failure occur due to the detachment of
mortar from interface of brick. Shear failure also depend on the type mortar
used for making a bond between the bricks. Lime used in the mortar will
require less shear force to fail as compared to the cement-lime used in the
mortar. [G. Bei, I. Papayianni July, 2004]

Figure 2-4: Stress-strain curve for mortar cubes for different mortar properties

Figure 2-5: Different shear failure modes

2.13 Compressive Behavior of Brick

Compressive strength of brick depends on the material from which it is made.
While in case of prism it depends on the strength of brick as well as the
strength of mortar and also the type of material used in the mortar for example
lime or cement lime. Failure or crack occurs along the axis of compressive
load apply on the brick. The failure occurs due to the tension produce in the
brick due to compressive load due to which brick split into pieces. In brick
masonry when axial load is applied on it lateral expansion in the brick as well
in the mortar happen. In the mortar the lateral expansion is at high rate as
24
compared to the brick but it is restrained between the brick due to which
uniaxial and biaxial tension in the bricks takes place. The tensile strength of
bricks is lower than the compressive strength of brick therefore initiation of
tension failure takes place. The mechanism of failure occurs in the brick stack
bonded prism in uniaxial compression is shown in the figure.

It is also observed the behavior of brick under combined tension and

compression that compressive strength of brick decreases while the tensile
strength of brick increases.

Assumed biaxial compression strength envelope of brick equation is given as

[Khoo and henry,1973]:

C / C0 = 1 – (T / To) n

T = Tensile stresses

C = Compressive stresses

To = Tensile strength

Co = Compressive strength

The failure envelope (Atkinson et al) obtained by performing biaxial tension-

compression test with using “n=.58” in above equation is given below.

Figure 2-6: Mechanism of brick failure in compressive load

25
 Figure 2-7: Typical experimental biaxial tension-compression strength

Young modulus of elasticity is reported as [Hendry et al, 1981]:

Ey = 700Fc

The different factors effecting the compressive strength of brick are:

• Dimension of brick unit

• Strength of mortar

• Joint thickness

• Suction of the units

• Water retention of mortar

• Bonding pattern

The decrease in the compressive strength of brick masonry occur due to

increase in the joint thickness. Joint thickness of 10mm should be used in
order to achieve appropriate compressive strength of brick masonry
[Hendry, Francis et al,1971, shrive,1983].

26
 Figure 2-8: Compression failure mode of brick masonry prism

Using joint thickness of 16-19 mm reduces the compressive strength of

brick masonry about 30%. A factor of 0.75 can be applied on brick prism in
order to obtain the wall strength. Most of the researcher performed no of
tests in order to define the behaviour of brick. Most of them suggested that
the behaviour of brick masonry can be analysed accurately up to some
extent by performing compressive test on brick prism [S.A.A Brick code,
1640-1964].

2.14 Tensile behavior of brick

Brick tensile strength plays an important role on the in plane behavior of brick
masonry, as final failure usually occurs in some form of biaxial tension split
often originating in the brick.

Numerous attempts have been made to determine a convenient relationship

between the brick tensile strength obtained from a simple test and wall
strength. Various tension tests have been investigated, including the modulus
of, rupture test, splitting test (the Double punch or the Brazilian tests), various
forms of shear tests, including indirect tension test. Based on the experimental
results, Tasuji established a relationship for the uniaxial tensile strength of
concrete that may be estimated from the uniaxial compressive strength
by[Tasuji,1978].

σto =6*(σco)1/2

As direct tensile strength tests are difficult to perform on brittle material

several investigators paid attention on indirect test. Many authors have

27
suggested the use of cube and similar prisms as a more practical alternative to
the cylinder for measuring indirect tensile strength. Rosenhaupt studied the
plane strain problem involved when compressive forces are applied along the
opposite face of a concrete cube. Using mathematical and photo elastic
techniques they showed that the tensile stress was fairly uniform along the
middle plane and given by[Rosenhaupt,1957]

Tensile strength = 0.648P/dl

Where,

P = applied load

d = equivalent diameter

l = length

Thomas and O’Leary found indirect tensile strength calculated by using this
formula is similar to that for cylinders (2P/ndl), the difference being almost
1.5%. He concluded that the indirect tensile strength can be measured by
splitting the unit across the width or the length, across the width splitting
producing higher strength. Atkinson tested the tensile strength of three types
of brick with indirect Brazilian split and direct tension method. The Brazilian
split tests were done on 2.5 cm thick disk cut from a 5.4 cm diameter core
taken lengthwise through the brick. The direct tensile strength method seemed
to be a better measure of the tensile strength and generally had shown less
scatter of data than the indirect tensile strength results.

2.15 Effect of bond strength on the behavior of brick masonry

The bond between brick and mortar plays an important role in the ability of
masonry to resist loads. The single and most important property of mortar is
bond strength, and it is critical that this bond be complete, strong, and durable.
The resistance of masonry to tensile or shear loads depends on the bond
between mortar and masonry units. The mechanism of bond between unit and
mortar is not fully understood but is known to be influenced by large number
of factors.

A large number of parameters relating to the masonry unit characteristics,

mortar characteristics, and bond morphology. The composition of mortar,

28
binder/sand ratio, water cement ratio, porosity and pore size distribution of the
brick and the moisture in the brick at the time of construction are some of the
important parameters. It is known that the behavior of masonry bond is
extremely complex and most investigations done so far have been of a
phenomenological nature, applying to specific combinations of materials.
[ Groot, C. 1993]

Lowrence attempted to understand the mechanism of bond development

between mortar and brick. His studies showed that the brick-mortar bond is
due to the network of cement hydration products deposited on the brick
surface and inside the brick pores as well. [ Lawrence, S., and Cao, H.T, 1987]

Rao also found that the higher values for flexural bond strength of masonry
could be obtained by using composite mortars like cement-soil and cement-
lime mortar when compared to pure cement mortar. The initial moisture in the
brick has a role in the penetration of hydration products into the brick pores.
He made a preliminary study of the influence of bond strength on compressive
strength of masonry. The study showed that the masonry compressive strength
is not reduced significantly even when the mortar strength is reduced
significantly if the brick mortar bond strength is not altered. [Rao,1985]

Past research has shown that the moisture content of the units at the time of
laying is of importance in determining the tensile bond strength. A study
carried out by Sinha on brick couplets at various moisture contents at the time
of laying between oven dry and fully saturated has shown extreme variability
of tensile bond strength. Although there is no clear relationship between
moisture content and tensile bond strength, it will be noted that only very low
values for bond strength were found as the bricks reached their saturation
moisture content. It is also found that the moisture content at the time of
laying influences the bond strength. However, the effect depends on the type
of bricks and on the sand grading. [Sinha, 1967]

Compressive strength is the main design parameter of a masonry wall. The

strength of masonry in compression, tension and shear has been the subject of
systematic investigation over a very considerable period. Grenly studied the
effect of various mortars on flexural and compressive strength of masonry and

29
on the tensile bond strength of cross brick couplets. His results showed that, in
general, flexural and tensile bond strengths increase with the strength of
mortar and the strength of brick. [Grenly,1993]

2.16 Brick masonry behavior subjected to Earthquake

When brick masonry wall is subjected to lateral load (Earthquake, Wind)
failure takes place due to loss of shear strength parameter of brick masonry
wall. Brick masonry is a brittle material cracks in the wall masonry wall occur
when subjected to moderate intensity of earthquake and the level of damage
increases when it is subjected to higher intensity of earthquake.

When brick masonry is subjected to lateral load longitudinal walls of building

take that load and transfer it to the slab and then slab will transfer it to the end
walls shear forces will produce in the wall if the capacity of wall become less
than the shear stresses producing in the end walls then diagonal cracks will
occur in the wall. The mechanism of transfer of load is shown in the figure.

Figure 2-9: State of loading on brick walls due to lateral forces

When brick masonry subjected lateral load corner walls are very critical in
a scenario when slab holding the corner walls are not sufficient rigid or
non-reinforced due to which cracks or damage occur in the walls.

30
 Figure 2-10: Corner behaviour of masonry building

Different types of diagonal failure occur in the masonry wall when shear
stresses produce in the wall and diagonal cracks takes place at the angle of
45o but the walls resisting the lateral load are not subjected shear forces
only compressive forces due to the weight of superstructure or upper also
effect the pattern of cracks occur in the masonry wall and due to
compressive load diagonal crack angle reduces than 45o.When the such
high intensity of earthquakes continues for a large interval of time then
vertical cracks will occur along with the diagonal cracks until it loses all of
its capacity and collapse of building occur.

Reduced in the strength of masonry wall occur as the length of wall

increases due to which slenderness increases and the strength is also
decreases when compressive load is acting eccentrically on masonry wall.
Slenderness in wall of walls of building occurs when they thickness of
walls is less as compare to the height and length of wall.

31
Types of damages occur in masonry building occur due to earthquake.

• Cracks between walls and floors.

• Cracks at corners and at walls intersection

• Out of plane collapse of perimetral walls

• cracks in spandrel beams

• Diagonal cracks in structural walls

• Partial disintegration or collapse of walls

• partial or complete collapse of building

Figure 2-11: Different cracks pattern in brick masonry structure

32
 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the detailed procedure and methodology adopted for
performing the comparative study between new and used clay bricks. The
material used are described such as the type, nature and company name etc.
The procedure for making used bricks is discussed. Then the sample making
procedure is discussed for both new and used clay bricks. Also, the procedure
of performing different tests on new and used clay bricks are mentioned in
detail.

3.2 Materials:
The main materials used are as follow:

 Cement

 Sand

 Bricks (New)

3.2.1 Cement:
Ordinary Portland Cement (Type-III) cement was used. The brand name
was Lucky Cement.

3.2.2 Sand:
Sand normally available for masonry construction in Peshawar was used.

3.2.3 Bricks:
Burnt bricks were used of the first class. The brand name was NO.8 brick.

33
3.3 Making Used Bricks
Used bricks were made from the new bricks to obtain the used bricks of the
corresponding properties for better comparison. New bricks are easily
available in the market but to get same class of a used bricks is very difficult.
For this reason, it was decided to construct obtain used bricks from the same
class of new bricks.

The used bricks were made by constructing a wall form the new bricks. The
ratio of cement sand for the preparation of mortar was 1:6 and the w/c ratio
was 1.21. The wall was left to mature for a period of 28 days so that the wall
achieves sufficient strength. After the maturation period the wall was
demolished and the bricks were cleaned to obtain the used bricks.

Figure 3-1: Masonry wall constructed in cement sand mortar

Figure 3-2: Demolition of masonry wall

34
3.4 Specimen Preparation
For each test two type of specimen were prepared, one class from new bricks
and the other class from used bricks. The number of specimen prepared are
mentioned for each test in the next section. The specimens of both class were
prepared at the same time providing the same environmental conditions. Other
factors were also kept constant and were tested on the same time. This was
done to better predict the change in the properties of new and used clay bricks.

3.5 Tests Performed

The following tests were performed for obtaining the different properties of
new and used clay bricks

o Absorption

o Initial Rate of Absorption

o Compressive Strength of Unit Brick

o Modulus of Rupture (Flexure Test)

o Compressive Strength for Masonry Prism

o Triplet Shear Test

o Compressive strength of 2-in mortar cubes (supplementary test)

3.5.1 Absorption
Standard adopted: ASTM C67-17 was adopted for finding the absorption.

Number of Specimen: Five half brick specimen were prepared for both new
and used clay bricks.

Procedure:

• The first step was cutting the bricks into half by a mechanical saw. The
permissible tolerance was ± 1 in. (25.4 mm) of the half brick length.

• The samples were then dried in a ventilated oven at 221 to 239 °F (105
to 110 °C) for at least 24 hours.

• After drying the specimens were cooled for at least 4 hours at room
temperature placed free from drafts, unstacked and separate. The specimens
were not used in warm conditions.

35
• After drying and cooling the specimens were weighed.

• Then the specimens were submerged in clean water at 60 to 86°F (15.5

to 30°C) for 24 hours.

• After 24 hours the specimens were removed from water. The surface
was wiped off with a damp cloth and weighed.

• The specimens were weighed within 5 min after removing from the
bath.

Calculation and Report:

• The dry and wet mass of the specimen was weighed to the nearest 0.1g.

• The absorption was calculated to the nearest 0.1% as follow:

Absorption, % = 100 (Ws-Wd)/Wd

• The average absorption was calculated for both new and used bricks.

• The percent change between the absorption of new and used bricks
was calculated to the nearest 0.1%.

Figure 3-3: Bricks submerged in water

3.5.2 Initial Rate of Absorption

Standard adopted: ASTM C67-17 was adopted for finding the IRA

Number of Specimen: Six full size specimens for each class i.e. new and
used clay bricks were tested. Hence a total of twelve specimens were tested.

36
Apparatus:

• Tray or Container: Watertight container was used whose inside depth

was greater than ½ in. and the area was greater than 300 in2.

• Two non-corrodible supports were used having a length of approx. 6 in.

and triangular cross section.

• A stopwatch indicating to the nearest 1 second.

Procedure:

• First the bricks were dried in a ventilated oven at 221 to 239 °F (105 to
110 °C) for at least 24 hours. Then were cooled for at least 4 hours at
room temperature.

• The weight of the dry specimens was measured.

• The container was placed in a level position, filling with clean water
and then checking the water level.

• The supports were also placed in the container.

• A constant water level of 1/8 ± 0.01 in. was maintained over the
support.

• The length and width of the bricks in the flat wise position was
measured.

• The brick was placed over the supports and allowed to absorb water.
After 1 min ± 1 sec the brick was lifted from the support.

• The surface was cleaned with a damp cloth and the weighted within 2
min of removal of contact with water.

Calculation and Report:

• All weights were measured to the nearest 0.5 g.

• The length and width of the brick was measured to the nearest 0.05 in.
(1.27 mm)

• If the area of flatwise surface of brick does not differ ±0.75 in2. from
30 in2. the weight absorbed was given as the difference between final
and initial weight in grams by brick during 1 min contact with water.

37
• If the area of flatwise surface of brick differed more than ±0.75 in2.
from 30 in2. the equivalent gain in weight from 30 in2 was calculated
to the nearest 0.1 g as follow:

X = 30 Wg/(LB) (metric X = 193.55 Wg/(LB))

• X was reported to the nearest 0.1 g.

• The average initial rate of absorption for both new and used bricks
were given to the nearest 0.1 g/min/30 in2 (193.55 cm2).

• The percent change between the IRA of new and used bricks was
calculated to the nearest 0.1%

Figure 3-4: Full brick partially submerged in water

3.5.3 Compression test on unit brick:

Standard adopted: ASTM C67-17 was adopted for finding the compressive
strength of unit brick.

38
Number of Specimens: Five half bricks were tested for each class i.e. new
and used clay bricks. (full height and width of unit with one half the full
length of the unit ±1 in. Hence a total of 10 specimens were tested.

Procedure:

• The bricks were cut into half using a mechanical saw.

• The frog portion of the bricks which will act as bearing surface was
filled with 1:2 cement sand mortar and were aged for 48 h before
capping.

• Gypsum capping was done. The two-bearing surfaces of each

specimen were capped with plaster of Paris (calcined gypsum) and
aged for 24 h before testing in the UTM.

• The gross area was calculated by measuring the length and width of
each specimen.

• After 24 h the specimens were tested in the UTM by placing each

specimen in the flatwise position and applying compressive load on the
specimen until failure.

Calculation and Report:

• The compressive strength was calculated as follow:

C = W/A

• The compressive strength was reported to the nearest 10 psi (69 kPa)

• The average compressive strength was calculated for both new and
used clay bricks.

• The percent change was calculated to the nearest 0.1%.

39
 Figure 3-5: Brick sample tested in UTM for Compression

3.5.4 Modulus of Rupture (Flexure Test)

Standard adopted: ASTM C67-17 was adopted for finding the modulus of
rupture.

Number of Specimens: Six full size specimen for new bricks and six full
size specimens for used bricks were tested.

Procedure:

• The bricks were marked and the different dimensions of the bricks
were measured such as length, width, and height.

• The bricks were placed in the UTM in flatwise position (the load was
applied in the direction of the depth) on a span approximately 1 in less
than the basic unit length and were loaded in the middle.

• The speed of testing was kept under 2000 lb/min (8896 N/min)

• The load was noted for failure of each sample.

40
Calculation and Report:

• The modulus of rupture of each specimen was calculated and reported

to the nearest 1 psi (0.01 MPa) as follows:

S = 3W *(l/2 - x)/ (bd2)

• The average modulus of rupture for each new and used bricks was
calculated to the nearest 1 psi

• The percent change between the modulus of rupture of new and used
bricks was calculated and reported to the nearest 0.1%.

Figure 3-6: Full brick breaking in flexure in UTM

3.5.5 Compressive Strength of masonry prism:

Standard adopted: ASTM C1314-03b was adopted for measuring the
compressive strength of masonry prism.

Number of specimen: three number of specimens were prepared for each

class i.e. new and used bricks. Hence a total of six specimens were tested.

Procedure:

• First samples of masonry prisms were prepared. 1:6 cement sand

mortar was used with w/c ratio of 1.21. Five full size bricks placed one

41
 on top of other in flatwise position with 3/8 in mortar thickness. (bricks
were cured according to normal practice before using in construction
of prisms)

• The samples were then cured for a period of 28 days before testing.

• After 28 days the moisture bags were removed and Gypsum capping
was done on both the bearing surfaces. The gypsum capping was left to
age for 24 h.

• The length and width were measured for each prism at the edges of top
and bottom face. The length and width was found by averaging the
four measurements.

• The height was measured at the centre of each face. The prism height
was found by averaging the four measurements.

• The prisms were then placed in the UTM and load was applied on it
until failure. The load for each prism at failure was noted.

Calculation and Report:

• The measurement of the length, height and width of the prism were
taken to the nearest 0.05 in (1.3 mm).

• The net area of the prism was calculated by multiplying the length with
the width of the prism.

• The masonry prism strength was calculated by dividing the load (lb),
by the net area (in2)

• The ratio of hp/tp was calculated for each prism. (hp — height of prism
and tp — least lateral dimension of prism)

• For the respective hp/tp ratio the correction factor of each prism was
interpolated from Table 1 of ASTM C1314-03b.

• The Compressive strength of masonry was calculated by multiplying

the correction factor with the masonry prism strength.

• The compressive strength was reported to the nearest 10 psi (69 kPa).
The average compressive strength was calculated for each class i.e.
new and used bricks was calculated.

42
• The percent change between the compressive strength of masonry of
new and used bricks was reported to the nearest 0.1%.

Figure 3-7: Compression Prism tested in UTM

3.5.6 Triplet Shear Test

Standard adopted: BS EN 1052-3:2002 was adopted to find the triplet shear
strength.

Number of specimen: Nine specimen for each class i.e. Nine specimen for
new bricks and nine specimens for used bricks were tested.

Procedure:

• Masonry prisms were prepared. 1:6 cement sand mortar was used with
w/c ratio of 1.21. Three full size bricks placed one on top of other in
flatwise position with 3/8 in mortar thickness. (bricks were cured
according to normal practice before using in construction of prisms)

• The samples were placed on a flat and rigid surface and load was
applied immediately on the specimen after construction by a uniform
mass to give a vertical stress of 400 psi (2.75 N/mm2)

• The samples were cured and aged for 28 days.

43
• The samples were then placed in the UTM. The end bricks were
supported by bearing plates and the middle brick was loaded through a
bearing plate on the opposite side. The thickness of the plates was
greater than ½ in and the length was equal to the width of the brick.
Precaution was taken so as the plate should be clear of the bond.

• Three pre-compression stresses (0 psi, 20 psi, and 40 psi) were applied

on the samples. Three samples for each pre-compression stress were
tested.

• The pre-compression stress was applied through a jack mechanism.

Calculation and Report:

• For each specimen the shear strength and the pre-compression stress
were calculated and reported to the nearest 1 psi as follow:

fvoi = Fi,max/(2Ai)

fpi = Fpi/Ai

• A graph was plotted from the individual shear strength against the
normal compressive stress. A line was plotted from the points. From
which the value of cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (Φ) were
found.

• Two graphs were constructed one for new bricks samples and one for
used brick samples and their value of ‘c’ and ‘Φ’ values were
compared.

Figure 3-8: Shear prism testing in UTM

44
3.5.7 Compressive strength of 2-in mortar cube
Standard adopted: ASTM C109/C109M-16a was adopted for finding the
compressive strength of mortar cubes.

Number of specimen: 7 number of standard cubes were prepared and tested.

Procedure:

• The mortar used in the preparation of compression and shear prisms

was used as test material. The cement sand ratio was 1:6 with w/c ratio
of 1.21.

• Standard 2-in mould were used for casting the cubes. The mould had
rigid walls and a tight fitting.

• Non- absorptive and non-corrosive tamper was used.

• The inner walls of the mould were oiled and the mortar was placed in
each mould in two layers.

• Each layer was tamped 32 times in four rounds. The tamping pressure
was sufficient to ensure uniform filling of the mould.

• After the second layer was tamped, the excess mortar was removed
with the help of trowel. The cube was levelled by passing the flat
surface of the trowel over the mould.

• The mortar was left for 24 h in the mould. After 24 h the cubes were
placed for 24 h in room conditions. Then the cubes were submerged in
clean water until the testing date.

• The cubes were tested on the same date on which the compression
masonry prisms were tested.

• The cubes were placed in the UTM and compressive load was applied
on it.

Calculation and Report:

• The compressive strength was calculated as follow:

fm = P/A

45
• Average compressive strength of all specimens was calculated and
reported to the nearest 10 psi [0.1 MPa].

Figure 3-9: Mortar cube compression test in UTM

46
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Absorption
4.1.1 Results
The following results were obtained from the absorption test.

New Brick Used bricks

S No. Saturated Mass Percent Saturated Percent
Dry mass (g) Dry mass (g)
(g) Absorption Mass (g) Absorption
1 1372 1660 21 1280 1562 22
2 1264 1546 22.3 1268 1560 23
3 1218 1426 17.1 1208 1472 22.3
4 1266 1522 20.2 1330 1616 21.5
5 1252 1508 20.4 1420 1682 18.4
Average Absorption
20.2 21.4
(%)

Percent Change

Table 4-1: Absorption values of new and used bricks

4.1.2 Discussion
The absorption value of used bricks was higher than the new bricks. We
were expecting that the absorption value used will be less than the
absorption value of new bricks but the result obtained were opposite. This
may be due to production of micro-cracks during the demolition process for
obtaining used bricks. Other reason may be their exposure to environmental
effects such as rain, sun and wind which might have produced some voids
in the brick sample. Also sand which usually does not absorb water might
have been cleared from the brick during the usage leaving more proportion
of water absorbing clayey particles.

47
4.2 Initial Rate of Absorption
4.2.1 Results

4.2.1.1 New brick

Absorption
S.No Dry mass(g) Wet mass(g) Area (in^2) (g/min/30sq.inch)
1 2713 2829 34.7437 100.1620438
2 2687 2834 35.464 124.351455
3 2654 2821 34.7937 143.9915847
4 2508 2655 34.42634 128.0995889
5 2664 2818 34.7188 133.0691153
6 2665 2822 33.23555 141.7157231

Table 4-2: IRA values of New bricks

4.2.1.2 Used brick

Absorption
S.No Dry mass(g) Wet mass(g) Area (in^2) (g/min/30sq.inch)
1 2606 2792 33.959 164.3157926
2 2584 2751 34.4542 145.4104289
3 2673 2862 34.63482 163.7080834
4 2421 2569 34.98047 126.9279687
5 2605 2750 34.078 127.6483362
6 2661 2806 34.11479 127.5106779

Table 4-3: IRA values of Used bricks

4.2.1.3 Comparison
New Used
S No. Absorption Absorption
(g/min/30sq.inch) AVERAGE (g/min/30sq.inch) AVERAGE
1 100.2 164.3
2 124.3 145.1
3 144 163.7
128.6 142.5
4 128.1 126.9
5 133.1 127.6
6 141.7 127.5

Percent Change

Table 4-4: Comparison between IRA values of new and used bricks

48
 4.2.2 Discussion
The absorption value of used bricks was higher than the new bricks. Which
is supporting the results of the absorption tests. The reasons may be similar
to that of the absorption. This result further supports the superiority of new
bricks over used clay bricks.

4.3 Compression test on unit brick

4.3.1 Results
The results of the compression test are as follow

New Bricks Used Bricks

S NO.
Strength (psi) Average (psi) Strength (psi) Average (psi)
1 2110 1620
2 2010 1460
3 2080 2170 1680 1640
4 2140 1630
5 2490 1800

Percent Reduction

Table 4-5: Compressive strength values of new and used bricks

4.3.2 Discussion
We were expecting that the difference between the compressive strength of
used and new brick unit to be less. This results shows a significant
reduction in the compressive strength of used brick. This trend may be due
to the wear and tear already introduced in the used bricks. Used bricks were
also exposed to environmental conditions such as heat, wind and rain.
During demolition process the used bricks experienced impact loads well
over their yield limits which might have produced permanent
changes/strains in them.

4.4 Modulus of Rupture (Flexure Test)

4.4.1 Results

49
 4.4.1.1 New brick
S.No W (lb) l (in) b (in) d (in) x (in) S (psi)
1 2997.44 7.677 4.0944 2.7165 0.3805 1029.17
2 1807.28 7.677 4.0944 2.8346 0.3346 577.4635
3 1983.6 7.7165 3.937 2.756 0.2756 712.9448
4 1498.72 7.5787 4.094488 2.559 0.23622 595.8167
5 1675.04 7.83464 4.17322 2.7559 0.11811 602.3398
6 1807.28 7.6378 3.74 2.716535 0.33464 684.471

Table 4-6: MOR values of new brick samples

4.4.1.2 Used brick

S.No W (lb) l (in) b (in) d (in) x (in) S(psi)
1 1146.08 7.6378 4.0157 2.756 0.7217 349.1289
2 1454.64 7.756 4.1338 2.756 0.46588 474.2345
3 1278.32 7.6378 4.13385 2.7165 0.7349 387.7047
4 1939.52 7.5984 4.055 2.756 1.2664 478.4837
5 2336.24 7.283 4.094 2.756 0.118 794.1576
6 3217.84 7.5984 3.7 2.9527 0.2657 1057.427

Table 4-7: MOR values of used brick samples

4.4.1.3 Comparison
NEW USED
S No.
MOR(psi) AVERAGE MOR(psi) AVERAGE
1 1029 349
2 577 474
3 713 388
700 590
4 596 478
5 602 794
6 684 1057
Percent
Change

Table 4-8: Comparison between MOR values of new and used brick

4.4.2 Discussion
The value modulus of rupture of used bricks is less than the value of new
brick that may due to reasons that used brick were already stressed due to
loading during maturation period and impact load during demolition. The

50
 compressive strength of used brick is less as shown in the compressive test
so it is natural that the value of MOR will also be low for used bricks.

4.5 Compressive Strength of masonry prism

4.5.1 Results

4.5.1.1 New brick

S.No Load (lb) Area (in^2) hp/tp Strength (psi) Corection factor Corrected Strength (psi)
1 27990.8 35.858 3.74 780.6012605 1.13 882.0794244
2 23582.8 35.6187 3.788 662.0904188 1.13 748.1621732
3 25566.4 35.679 3.744 716.5671684 1.13 809.7209002

Table 4-9: Compressive strength of new brick prism samples

4.5.1.2 Used brick

S.No Load (lb) Area (in^2) hp/tp Strength (psi) Corection factor Corrected Strength (psi)
1 15648.4 36.02 3.81667 434.4364242 1.135 493.0853415
2 13885.2 35.04 3.874 396.2671233 1.14 451.7445205
3 17191.2 35.0468 3.8 490.5212459 1.134 556.2510928

Table 4-10: Compressive strength of used brick prism samples

4.5.1.3 Comparison
NEW USED
STRENGTH STRENGTH
S NO. (psi) AVERAGE (psI) AVERAGE
1 880 490
2 750 810 450 500
3 810 560

Percent
Reduction (%)

Table 4-11: Comparison between compressive strength of new and used brick prism

4.5.2 Discussion
The value of compressive strength of masonry prism of used bricks is less
than the new bricks and difference is also higher that may due to bricks
stressed already due to loading, impact loading due to demolition. Masonry
prism consists of five bond with each other of bricks and pores of used

51
 bricks is filled by water, mortar due to absorption property due to which
bond between used bricks is not strong causing the strength of used bricks
less than new bricks.

4.6 Triplet Shear Test

4.6.1 Results

4.6.1.1 New Bricks

Corrected
Precompression Precompression Shear Strength Average Average
S.NO Designation stress (psi) Area (in^2) Load (lb) stress(psi) (psi) precompression Shear
1 N-5 0 33.98 1256.28 0 18.48557975
2 N-8 0 32.65 1102 0 16.87595712 0 18.6456178
3 N-9 0 31.6 1300.36 0 20.57531646
4 N-2 20 33.155 1917.48 14.59 28.91690544
5 N-4 20 33.35 1675.64 21.07 25.12203898 16.23666667 26.0810263
6 N-7 20 30.96 1498.72 13.05 24.20413437
7 N-1 40 33.422 2490.52 41.789 37.25869188
8 N-3 40 32.577 2181.96 47.34 33.48927157 41.67633333 32.818464
9 N-6 40 35 1939.52 35.9 27.70742857

Table 4-12: Results of shear test of new brick prisms

Figure 4-1: Graph of shear stress vs pre-compression stress for new brick prisms

52
4.6.1.2 Used Bricks
Corrected Shear Average
Precompression Area Precompression Strength precompressio Average
S.NO Designation stress (psi) (in^2) Load (lb) stress(psi) (psi) n Shear
1 U-4 0 33.19 991.8 0 14.94125
2 U-5 0 35.29 815.48 0 11.55398 0 13.17888
3 U-6 0 34.645 903.64 0 13.04142
4 U-1 20 33.858 1454.64 22.82 21.48148
5 U-2 20 33.98 1322.4 19.3 19.45851 19.91666667 19.15972
6 U-3 20 35.98 1190.16 17.63 16.53919
7 U-7 40 34.196 1439.6 42.1 21.04925
8 U-8 40 32.512 1741.16 39.26 26.77719 39.86666667 25.26592
9 U-9 40 34 1902.05 38.24 27.97132

Table 4-13: Results of shear test of used brick prisms

Figure 4-2: Graph of shear stress vs pre-compression stress for used brick prisms

4.6.1.3 Comparison
Property New Bricks Used Bricks
c (psi) 19.4 13.2
ϕ (DEG) 18.4 16.9

Table 4-14: Shear strength parameters of new and used brick prisms

53
 4.6.2 Discussion
The results show a decrease in the shear strength of used bricks. Shear
strength greatly depend on cohesion and angle of friction and for used
bricks these decreased value show weak shear strength of the bond. Bricks
already used with cement sand mortar in construction have their surface
pore blocked with cement. So to use them again will result in weak bond
strength.

4.7 Compressive strength of 2-in mortar cube

4.7.1 Results
S.No Load(lb) Area(in^2) Strength(psi) Average (psi)
1 3923.1 4 980
2 3746.8 4 940
3 4011.3 4 1000
4 4099.4 4 1020 1000
5 3768.8 4 940
6 4209.6 4 1050
7 4187.6 4 1050

4.7.2 Discussion
Mortar used for the masonry wall, masonry prism was of same type. Water
to cement ratio was 1.2 and cement-sand ratio was of 1:6. For the
comparison study of used and new bricks mortar used was prepared at the
same time at the same environment. Strength of mortar is determined in
order to know about the strength of mortar that we used in the construction
of masonry prisms for determination of their compressive strength.

54
 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION &

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary
The title of the project is “Comparative study between the physical and
mechanical properties of new and used clay bricks”. Used and New clay
bricks of the same class locally available in Peshawar were tested, their
physical and mechanical properties were found and then compared.

The samples of each test for new and used clay bricks were prepared in the
same conditions and at the same time to avoid uncertainty and to better predict
the difference between them.

ASTM and BS-EN standards were followed for finding the physical and
mechanical properties of the bricks. Absorption, Compressive strength of unit
brick, Modulus of rupture (Flexure test) and Initial rate of absorption test were
performed according to ASTM C67. Compression test on Masonry prism was
done according to ASTM C1314, Triplet shear test on masonry prism was
done according to BS-EN 1052 and Compression test on mortar cube was
done according to ASTM C109 / C109M,

Five half brick samples were tested for absorption for each new and used
bricks. For compressive test on unit brick five half brick specimen were
prepared for each new and used bricks. Three prism specimen were prepared
for each used and new bricks for compressive test on masonry prism. For
Triplet shear test on masonry prism three samples were tested for each of the

55
three pre-compressive stress values, a total of nine specimens for each new
and used brick. Modulus of rupture test was found by testing six samples for
each new and used bricks. Initial rate of absorption was found by testing six
full size bricks for both new and used bricks. Seven specimen of mortar cube
were tested to find the compressive strength of the mortar used in making of
compressive and shear masonry prism.

5.2 Conclusion
Following are the conclusion obtained by performing this project:

 The properties of the used brick varied significantly from the new ones
showing the prominent difference between using of a virgin brick and
again reusing it.

 The compressive strength of both the unit brick and masonry prism for
the used brick were significantly less.

 The shear strength of the bond in used brick prism was weaker as
compared to the bond in new bricks showing that the surface of used
brick cannot achieve as much strength as new ones.

 Both the IRA and absorption of used brick was more than the new
bricks which is also a contributing factor to the low shear strength of
the mortar bond when using used bricks.

5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Our recommendation
Following are our recommendations regarding the use of used bricks in
new construction,

 The used bricks should be not used as load bearing element/wall

due to their low compressive strength.

 Used bricks should not be intermixed with new bricks for

construction work. It may cause serious issues due to their varying
properties.

 Used bricks should be not used in exposed elements such as

boundary wall, chimneys, outer load bearing walls etc. They are

56
 prone to weather effects due to high their absorption and rough
surface.

 Masonry constructed from used bricks have weak bond in shear

hence they should not be used in structures subjected to earthquake
and wind loads.

 Used brick should be used in construction of non-load bearing walls

such as partition wall and unexposed elements. If they are to be
used as boundary walls they should be properly plastered/painted.

5.3.2 Future recommendation

 The age factor of brick was not considered in our research due to
the unavailability of both new and used brick of the same class.
Therefore, this research can be also done on bricks which have aged
i.e. old bricks.

 The same research can be done on other classes of brick.

 Other accurate methods can be used for finding the bond strength
such as ASTM C1072 and ASTM E519.

 Further detailed investigation can be done to find the exact reason

for the greater value of absorption.

57
 6. References

American Standard Building Code Requirements for Masonry; ANSI A41.1;

National Bureau of Standards (Miscellaneous Publications 211);
Washington, D.C.; July 15, 1954 (Reaffirmed 1970).

American Standard Building Code Requirements for Masonry, ANSI A41.1,

Section 2.1.1 (appendix commentary): National Building Code,
Section 1401.2

ASTM C 109/ C 109M “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of

hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. cube Specimen)

ASTM C 1314 “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Masonry

Prism”

ASTM C 67 “Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing Brick and
Structural Clay Tile”

Atkinson, R.H., Noland, J.L. and Abrams, B.P., "A Deformation Failure
Theory for Stack-Bonded Brick Masonry Prisms in
Compression", Proc. 7th Int. Brick Mas. Conf., Melbourne,
Vol.1, Feb., 1985, pp. 577-592

BS EN 1052-3:2002 “Methods of test for masonry, Part 3: Determination of

initial shear strength”

Francis, A.J., "The S.A.A. Brickwork Code: the Research Background", Civil
Engg. Trans., Instn. of Engrs., Australia, Vol, CE II, No.2,
1969, Pp. 165-176.

58
G. bei1, I. papayianni “Experimental study of shear bond strength of
traditional masonry” 13th International Brick and Brick
Masonry Conference Amsterdam, July 4-7, 2004

Groot, C, 1993, "Effects of water on mortar-brick bond", PhD thesis, Faculty

of Civil Engineering, Delft Univ. of Technology, the
Netherlands.

Hendry, A.W., Sinha. B.P. and Davies, S.R., "An Introduction to Load
Bearing Brickwork Design", Ellis Harwood Ltd., 1981

Hendry, A.W., "Structural Brick-Work", Macmillan and Co. Ltd., London

Khoo, C.L. and Hendry, A.W., "A Failure Criterion for Brickwork in Axial
Compression", Proc. 3rd Int. Brick Mas. Conf., Essen, 1973, Pp.
141-145.

Lawrence, S., and Cao, H.T, 1987, An Experimental Study of the Interface
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